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Download Glossary Algae: Unicellular or simple multicellular photosynthetic
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Glossary Algae: Unicellular or simple multicellular photosynthetic organisms lacking multicellular sex organs. Amino acid: Monomeric building blocks of proteins, consisting of a carbon atom bound to a carboxyl group, an amino group, a hydrogen atom, and a distinctive side chain. Angiosperms: Angiosperms are a group of vascular plants whose seeds are enclosed by a ripened ovary or fruit. The flowering plants or angiosperms are the most diverse group of land plants. ATP synthase: ATP synthase is a general term for an enzyme that can synthesize adenosine triphosphate (ATP) from adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and inorganic phosphate by using a form of energy, such as the energy from a proton gradient. Bacteriophage: A virus that infects bacterial cell; also called a phage. Binary fission: Asexual reproduction by division of one cell or body into two equal or nearly equal parts. Cell division: Separation of a cell in to two daughter cells. In eukaryotic cells it entails division of the nucleus (mitosis) closely followed by the division of the cytoplasm (cytokinesis). Cell: The cell is the functional basic unit of life. Chlorophyll: The major photosynthetic pigment of plant cells. Chloroplast: Chlorophyll-containing plastid in which photosynthesis occurs. Chromatin: The complex of DNA and proteins of which eukaryotic chromosomes are composed; chromatin is highly uncoiled and diffuse in interphase nuclei, condensing to form the visible chromosomes in prophase. Chromosome: (Gr. chroma, colour + soma, body). The structure by which hereditary information is physically transmitted from one generation to the next; in a bacterium, the chromosome consists of a single nacked circle of DNA; in eukaryotes, each chromosome consists of a single linear DNA molecule and associated proteins. Codon bias: Refers to the fact that not all codons are used equally frequently in the genes of a particular organism. Cytochrome: Any of several iron-containing protein pigments that serve as electron carriers in transport chains of photosynthesis and cellular respiration. Cytoplasm: The substance of a cell between cell membrane and nucleus. Dalton: Unit of molecular weight; one dalton equals onetwelfith the mass of carbon 12. Deletion: In genetics, a deletion (also called gene deletion, deficiency, or deletion mutation) is a mutation in which a part of a chromosome or a sequence of DNA is missing. Deletion is the loss of genetic material. Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA): The genetic material of all organisms; composed of two complementary chains of nucleotides wound in a double helix. Differentiation: Process by which a cell undergoes a change to an overtly specialized cell type. Dimer: A protein or other structure that comprises two subunits. Endoplasmic reticulum: It is a well-developed electronmicroscopic network of interconnected cisternae, tubules and vesicles present throughout the cytoplasm in cells of eukaryotes. Endosymbiont theory: A theory that states that the mitochondria and chloroplasts of eukaryotic cells are derived from symbiotic prokaryotes. Enzyme: A protein that acts as a biological catalyst. Eukaryote: (Gr. eu, good+ karyon, kernel). A cell characterized by membrane- bound organelles, mostly notably the nucleus, and one that possesses chromosomes where DNA is associated with proteins; an organism composed of such cells. Fatty acids: Long hydrocarbon chains usually linked to a carboxyl group (COO-). Gene: (Gr. genos, birth, race). The basic unit of heredity; a sequence of DNA nucleotides on a chromosome that encodes a protein, tRNA, or rRNA molecule, or regulates the transcription of such a sequence. Genetic engineering: Array of techniques that facilitate the manipulation and duplication of pieces of DNA for industrial, medical and research purposes. Genome: The genome is the entirety of an organism's hereditary information. It includes both the genes and the non-coding sequences of the DNA. Genomics: The study of genomes as opposed to individual genes. Haploid: (Gr. haploos, single+ploion, vessel). Having only one set of chromosomes (n), in contrast to diploid (2n). Homozygous: A diploid nucleus that contains two identical alleles for a particular gene. Intron: Portion of mRNA as transcribed from eukaryotic DNA that is removed by enzymes before the mature mRNA is translated in to protein. Inversion: Type of mutation in which a segment of chromosome is inverted. Inverted repeat: Two identical nucleotide sequences repeated in opposite orientations in a DNA molecule. Kilobase: Unit of length equal to 1000 base pairs in deoxyribonucleic acid or 1000 nitrogenous bases in ribonucleic acid. Abbreviated kb; kbp. Lipid: (Gr. lipos, fat). A nonpolar hydrophobic organic molecule that is insoluble in water, but that dissolves readily in nonpolar organic solvents; includes fats, oils, waxes, steroids, phospholipids, and carotenoids. Lysosome: A membrane-bound cytoplasmic organelle containing a rich variety of hydrolytic enzymes capable of breaking down most types of biological molecules. Matrix: A general term describing the interiors of organelles where the medium is assumed to be relatively unstructured. Messenger RNA (mRNA): The RNA transcribed from structural genes; RNA molecules complementary to a portion of one strand of DNA, which are translated by the ribosomes to form protein. Micron: A metric unit of length equal to one millionth of a meter. Mitochondria: A cytoplasmic organelle bounded by two membranes, the inner one of which is infolded (cristae) and contains the components of electron transport and oxidative phosphorylation; the matrix contains the enzymes of the Kreb’s cycle. Mutagen: A chemical or physical agent that can cause a mutation in a DNA molecule. Mutagenesis: Treatment of a group of cells or organisms with a mutagen as a means of inducing mutations. Mutation: An alteration in the nucleotide sequence of a DNA molecule. NADPH dehydrogenase: In enzymology, a NADPH dehydrogenase is an enzyme that catalyzes the chemical reaction: NADPH + H+ + acceptor NADP+ + reduced acceptor. The 3 substrates of this enzyme are NADPH, H+, and acceptor, whereas its two products are NADP+ and reduced acceptor. Nuclear Envelope: Flattened sac or double membrane surrounding the nucleoplasm and genetic material. Nucleotide: A single unit of nucleic acid, composed of a phosphate, a five-carbon sugar (either ribose or deoxyribose), and a purine or a pyrimidine. Nucleus: The chromosome-containing compartment of the eukaryotic cell, bounded by a double membrane system. Open reading frame (ORF): A series of codons starting with an initiation codon and ending with a termination codon. The part of a protein-coding gene that is translated into protein. Organelle: (Gr. organelle, a little tool). Specialized part of a cell, literally a small cytoplasmic organ. Photosynthesis: Process of trapping the energy of sunlight, transforming it in to chemical energy, and storing it in the chemical bonds of carbohydrates. Photosystem I: A protein complex in the thyllakoid membrane that uses energy absorbed from sunlight to synthesize NADPH. Photosystem II: A protein complex in the thyllakoid membrane that uses energy absorbed from sunlight to synthesize ATP. Phylogeny: A classification scheme that indicates the evolutionary relationships between organisms, often presented in chart form as a phylogenetic tree. Pigment: A molecule that absorbs light. Plasmagene: A selr-replicating, cytoplasmically located gene. Plasmid: A small fragment of extrachromosomal DNA, usually circular, that replicates independently of the main chromosome, although it may have been derived from it. Plastid: An organelle in the cells of photosynthetic eukaryotes that is the site of photosynthesis and, in plants and green algae, of starch storage. Polysomes: A string of aggregated ribosomes, connected by messenger RNA. Prokaryote (Gr. pro-before+karyon-kernel): A bacterium; a cell lacking a membrane-bounded nucleus or membrane-bounded organelles. Protein: (Gr. proteios, primary). A chain of amino acids joined by peptide bonds. Purine: The larger of the two general kinds of nucleotide base found in DNA and RNA; a nitrogenous base with a double ring-structure, such as adenine or guanine. Pyrimidine: The smaller of two general kinds of nucleotide base found in DNA and RNA; a nitrogenous base with a single-ring structure, such as cytosine, thymine, or uracil. Recombination: Exchange of genetic material between homologue chromosomes. Ribonucleic acid (RNA): A class of nucleic acids characterized by the presence of the sugar ribose and the pyrimidine uracil; includes mRNA, tRNA and rRNA. ribosomal RNA (rRNA): A class of RNA molecules found together with characteristic proteins, in ribosomes; transcribed from the DNA of the nucleolus. Ribosome: Complex ribonucleoprotein particle that in conjunction with messenger and transfer RNA and several other factors, constitute the site of protein synthesis in prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells and in chloroplast and mitochondria. RNA editing: A process by which nucleotides not coded by a gene are introduced at specific positions in an RNA molecule after transcription. RNA polymerase: An enzyme that catalyzes the assembly of an mRNA molecule, the sequence of which is complementary to a DNA molecule used as template. RuBisCO: Ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase oxygenase, most commonly known by the shorter name RuBisCO, is an enzyme involved in the Calvin cycle that catalyzes the first major step of carbon fixation, a process by which the atoms of atmospheric carbon dioxide are made available to organisms in the form of energy-rich molecules such as glucose. RuBisCO catalyzes either the carboxylation or the oxygenation of ribulose-1,5bisphosphate (also known as RuBP) with carbon dioxide or oxygen. Segregation: The separation of homologous chromosomes, or members of allele pairs, into different gametes during meiosis. Spermatozoa: The male gamete, usually smaller than the female gamete, and usually motile. Stop codon: In the genetic code, a stop codon (or termination codon) is a nucleotide triplet within messenger RNA that signals a termination of translation. Stroma: The compartment of chloroplasts that lies between the envelope and the thyllakoid membrane. Test cross: A genetic cross between a double heterozygote and a double homozygote. Transcription: The enzyme-catalyzed assembly of an RNA molecule complementary to a strand of DNA. transfer RNA: A class of small RNAs with two functional sites; at one site an “activating enzyme” adds a specific amino acid, while the other site carries the nucleotide triplet (anticodon) specific for that amino acid. Translation: The assembly of a protein on the ribosomes, using mRNA to specify the order of amino acids. Translocation: The movement of a ribosome along an mRNA molecule during translation. Translocation: Type of mutation in which a portion of one chromosome is broken off and attached to another. Disomic: The condition in which there are two sets of similar (homologous) chromosomes, such that there are two alleles for each gene locus. Haploid: The condition in which there is only a single chromosome; or set of chromosomes, such that all loci are represented by only a single allele. Phylogenetics: Reconstruction of the evolutionary relationship between sequences using any of a variety of interference methods.