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IXL.COM Language Arts Practice Rules page 3-4 5-6 7-13 14-15 Skill Rules Capitalization Nouns Pronouns Verb Tense: present, past, future 16 17-20 To be and To have Irregular past tense 21 22 23 24 25 there is a LONG LIST of these spelling change words Coordinating conjunctions Subordinating conjunctions Commas Semi-colons, colons Hyphens and dashes 1 2 CAPITALIZATION: 1. Capitalize the names of people and pets. Laura Sparky kitten dog 2. Capitalize a title of respect if it is used with a name or as a name. President Nixon Dr. Chen Mayor Higgins Do not capitalize a title of respect if it is used as a common noun. a president the doctor 3. Capitalize the title of a family member if it is used with a name or as a name. Mommy Uncle Dave 4. Do not capitalize the title of a family member if it is used as a common noun. my mother an uncle brother sister 5. Capitalize initials. J. K. Rowling U.S. DVD FBI 6. Capitalize the names of months, days of the week, and holidays, including words like Day and Eve. January Monday New Year's Eve Halloween 7. Capitalize the names of historical events, periods, and documents. Battle of Bunker Hill Renaissance Constitution 8. Capitalize languages, religions, nationalities, and proper adjectives. Arabic Hinduism Canadian Italian food American French 9. Capitalize the names of places, including: Cities, states, countries, and other political divisions 3 London North Dakota Madison County Mexico 10. Places built by people, such as buildings, bridges, streets, and monuments Linden High School Golden Gate Bridge 11. Geographical features, such as bodies of water, mountains, deserts, forests, and continents Nile River Gobi Desert Antarctica 12. Capitalize a direction word (north, south, east, west) if it is used as the name of a particular region. the Southwest the North 13. Do not capitalize a direction word if it is not used as the name of a region. driving southwest the northern horizon headed south 14. Do not capitalize a word like the or of, unless it is the first word of the sentence. the Declaration of Independence the Soviet Union 4 NOUNS: A noun is a word that names a person, place, thing, or idea. Some nouns name people, like daughter, passenger, and firefighter. Some nouns name places, like forest, zoo, and island. Some nouns name things, like canoe, lion, and hammer. Nouns like month or question name things you can't touch or see. Some nouns name ideas, like courage, wisdom, and happiness. A concrete noun names a person, place, or thing that is a physical object. This means that you can see, hear, smell, taste, or touch it. Friend home Luke flower An abstract noun names an idea, feeling, quality, or concept. It is not a physical object. This means you can think about an abstract noun, but you can't see, hear, smell, taste, or touch it. power fear wisdom Sunday A common noun names a general type of person, place, thing, or idea. It is not the name of a person, place, thing, or idea. A common noun is not capitalized unless it is the first word of a sentence. A proper noun is the specific name of a person, place, thing, or idea. A proper noun is always capitalized. Common Nouns Proper Nouns boy Jacob day Tuesday street Elm Street city Chicago 5 POSSESIVE NOUNS A possessive noun shows who or what owns something or has something. Add an apostrophe and -s ('s) to a singular noun to make it a possessive noun. Matt → Matt's glove the bird → the bird's wings When a plural noun ends in -s, add an apostrophe (') to make it a possessive noun. the boys → the boys' camp the schools → the schools' teams When a plural noun does not end in -s, add an apostrophe and -s ('s) to make it a possessive noun. the children → the children's toys the mice → the mice's tails REGULAR PLURAL NOUNS: Singular means one. Plural means more than one. With most singular words, add -s to make them plural. one tree → two trees If a singular word ends in -s, -ch, -sh, -x, or -z, then add -es to make it plural. one bush → two bushes If a singular word ends in consonant-y, then drop the y and add -ies to make it plural. one baby → two babies If a singular word ends in -f or -fe, then drop the -f or -fe and add -ves to make it plural. one wolf → two wolves IRREGULAR PLURAL NOUNS: Some plurals are irregular. They don’t follow rules, so you must remember each one. ox oxen child children mouse mice woman women man men goose geese foot feet person people Some plural forms are the same as their singular forms. deer → deer 6 sheep → sheep fish → fish PERSONAL PRONOUNS: A pronoun is a word that takes the place of a noun or nouns. Singular pronouns take the place of singular nouns (one person, place, or thing). Lea liked the book. She liked it. (She takes the place of Lea, and it takes the place of the book.) These are singular pronouns: I, you, he, she, it, me, him, her Plural pronouns take the place of plural nouns (more than one person, place, or thing). The kids liked the books. They liked them. (They takes the place of the kids. Them takes the place of the books.) These are plural pronouns: we, you, they, us, them You can use a subject pronoun as the subject of a sentence or clause. It tells who is doing something, and it is usually at the beginning of the sentence. The subject pronouns are I,you, he, she, it, we, and they. I hug Rick. You can use an object pronoun after an action verb. You can also use an object pronoun after a preposition (like at, for, of, on, to, or with). The object pronouns are me, you, him,her, it, us, and them. Rick hugs me. Rick smiles at me. The object pronoun me is used after a preposition, at. When a pronoun is connected to a noun with the word and (like Rick and I or Rick and me), it can be hard to tell which pronoun is correct. To tell which one is correct, look at the sentence without the other noun. Rick and I like the teacher. I like the teacher. The subject pronoun I is used as the subject of the sentence. The teacher likes Rick and me. The teacher likes me. The object pronoun me is used after the action verb, likes. 7 POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS: Some possessive pronouns come before a noun. They are my, your, his, her, its, our, their. That is Tasha’s car. That is her car. Some possessive pronouns appear without a noun. They are mine, yours, his, hers, its, ours, theirs. That is Tasha’s car. That is hers. RELATIVE PRONOUNS: A relative pronoun introduces a dependent (or relative) clause that describes a noun or pronoun. The five main relative pronouns are: who, whom, whose, which, and that. The woman who lives next door grows tomatoes in her garden. Peter, whom you met yesterday, has four younger brothers. Emily, whose hair is quite long, likes wearing braids. I just read Janet’s new book, which came out last month. This is the dress that I wore to my uncle’s wedding. A relative pronoun introduces a dependent (or relative) clause that describes a noun or pronoun. The relative pronouns who and whom give information about people. To figure out whether to use who or whom, restate the dependent clause with a personal pronoun. If the clause uses a subject pronoun (he, she, or they), use who. The woman who lives next door grows tomatoes in her garden. WHO LIVES NEXT DOOR? He, she, or they OR him, her, or them lives next door. She lives next door. If the clause uses an object pronoun (him, her, or them), use whom. Peter, whom you met yesterday, has four younger brothers. WHO DID YOU MEET YESTERDAY? You met he, she, or they OR him, her, or them yest. You met him yesterday. 8 The relative pronoun that gives necessary information about things. Necessary information narrows down what you're talking about and is not set off by commas. We walked to a park that has a tire swing. WHERE DID YOU WALK TO? To a park THAT has a swing. The information narrows down which park we walked to. It is necessary. The relative pronoun which adds unnecessary information about things. This extra information does not narrow down what you're talking about. It is always set off by commas. We walked to Glendale Park, which has a tire swing. WHERE DID YOU WALK TO, Glendale park, WHICH has a swing. The information is extra. It does not narrow down which park we walked to. The relative pronoun whose shows possession. Emily, whose hair is quite long, likes wearing braids. WHO DID THE BRAIDS BELONG TO? Emily, WHOSE hair is long…. Do not confuse whose with who's. Who's is a contraction for who is or who has. It does not show possession. Emily, who's quite tall, can reach the top shelf. Emily, who is quite tall, can reach the top shelf. PRONOUN-ANTECEDENTS A pronoun is a word that takes the place of a noun or noun phrase. The noun or noun phrase that the pronoun refers to is called the antecedent. A pronoun must agree with its antecedent. Singular pronouns take the place of singular nouns. Singular pronouns include I, you, she,he, it, me, him, her, his, its, my, and your. Rachel is tired, even though she slept for ten hours last night. Rachel IS she Surprisingly, my brother's basketball team won all of its games this season. team IS its Plural pronouns take the place of plural nouns, or of nouns joined by the conjunction and. Plural pronouns include we, you, they, us, them, our, your, and their. My neighbors spent the weekend at their cabin in South Lake Tahoe. neighbors IS their Izzy and I spent all day on our science project. Izzy and I IS our 9 REFLEXIVE AND INTENSIVE PRONOUNS: Reflexive pronouns are pronouns that end in -self or -selves. Subject (singular) Reflexive pronoun I myself you yourself she herself he himself it itself Subject (plural) Reflexive pronoun we ourselves you yourselves they themselves A reflexive pronoun is used to refer back to the subject of the sentence or clause in which it appears. It should agree with that subject. We helped ourselves to some more soup. The subject of the sentence is we, so use ourselves. After the guests left, Amy made herself a cup of tea. The subject of the clause in which the pronoun appears is Amy. Amy can be called she, so use herself. A reflexive pronoun can only be used to refer to the subject of the sentence or clause in which it appears. To refer to someone else or something else, a personal pronoun, like me, you, him, her, it, us, or them, should be used instead. Jake wrote a note for himself. The reflexive pronoun, himself, refers back to the subject, Jake. Jake wrote a note for him. The personal pronoun, him, must refer to someone other than the subject, Jake. 10 Intensive pronouns emphasize, or intensify, the noun or pronoun they refer to. They can refer to any noun or pronoun in the sentence, not just a subject. Intensive pronouns are used for emphasis only — they are not objects of verbs or prepositions. No one else was home, so I brought in the groceries myself. The intensive pronoun myself emphasizes the pronoun I. After waiting in line all afternoon, we were finally able to meet the queen herself. The intensive pronoun herself emphasizes the noun queen. One way to tell if a pronoun is reflexive or intensive is to try replacing it with an object pronoun, like me, her, or us. If you can replace it with an object pronoun and still have a complete sentence, it is reflexive. Did Sarah save any of the cookies for herself? Did Sarah save any of the cookies for him? You can replace herself with the object pronoun him and still have a sentence. This tells you that the pronoun is reflexive. If you can't, it is intensive. No one else was home, so I brought in the groceries myself. No one else was home, so I brought in the groceries her. You can't replace myself with the object pronoun her. The second sentence doesn't work. This tells you that the pronoun is intensive. 11 SUBJECT AND OBJECT PRONOUNS: You can use a subject pronoun as the subject of a sentence or clause. It tells who is doing something, and it is usually at the beginning of the sentence. You can also use a subject pronoun after a linking verb (like am, is, are, was, were, or be). The subject pronouns are I, you, he, she, it, we, and they. Yes, it was she who won first place. The subject pronoun she is used after a linking verb, was. I is a subject pronoun. You can use it as the subject of a sentence or clause. It tells that the speaker is doing something, and it is usually at the beginning of the sentence. After finishing the experiment, I showed my teacher the results. The subject pronoun I is the subject of the sentence. You can use an object pronoun after an action verb. You can also use an object pronoun after a preposition (like at, for, of, on, to, or with). The object pronouns are me, you, him, her, it, us, and them. After finishing the experiment, my teacher showed me the results. The object pronoun me is used after an action verb, showed. My teacher showed the results to me. The object pronoun me is used after a preposition, to. Me is an object pronoun. You can use it after an action verb. You can also use it after a preposition (like at, for, of, to, or with). After finishing the experiment, my teacher showed me the results. The object pronoun me is used after an action verb, showed. My teacher showed the results to me. The object pronoun me is used after a preposition, to. 12 When a pronoun is connected to a noun with the word and (like Rick and I or Rick and me), it can be hard to tell which pronoun is correct. To tell which one is correct, look at the sentence without the other noun. Rick and I discussed the results with the teacher. I discussed the results with the teacher. I is used as the subject of the sentence. The teacher discussed the results with Rick and me. The teacher discussed the results with me. Me is used after the preposition, with. 13 PRESENT TENSE Present tense verbs tell you about something that is true or is happening now. The presenttense form of a verb must agree with its subject in number. Singular subjects go with singular verbs. To form most singular present-tense verbs, add -s. For verbs that end in -sh, -ch, -s, -x, and -z, add -es. For verbs that end in consonant-y, change the y to i and add -es. Snow falls outside my window. Dylan washes the dishes. Susan carries the boxes to her room. Plural subjects, I, and you go with plural verbs, which have no ending. Ice cubes float in water. You look nice today. REGULAR PAST TENSE : The past tense usually tells about something that has already happened. Regular past-tense verbs end in -ed. We washed the car a few days ago. They walked to school last Friday. walk → walked greet → greeted push → pushed watch → watched If the base form ends in -e, add -d. They biked to school last Friday. bike → biked hope → hoped hate → hated assume→ assumed seize → seized tie → tied For regular verbs that end in a vowel+y, add –ed. They played in the yard. play → played survey→ surveyed decay→ decayed enjoy→ enjoyed 14 free → freed If the base form ends in consonant-y, change y to i and add -ed. They hurried to school last Friday. hurry → hurried dirty→ dirtied cry→ cried magnify→ magnified If the base form ends in a short vowel and a consonant, double the consonant and add -ed. They jogged to school last Friday. jog → jogged plan→ planned strip→ stripped dam→ dammed beg→ begged FUTURE TENSE: The future tense tells about something that is going to happen. To use a verb in future tense, add will before the base form of the verb. He will walk to school. 15 TO BE AND TO HAVE: The verb to be is irregular. It does not follow the rules that most verbs follow. You have to remember the forms. Subject Present Past I am was he, she, it is was you, we, they are were The verb to have is irregular. It does not follow the rules that most verbs follow. You have to remember the forms. Subject Present Past I, you, we, they have had he, she, it has had 16 IRREGULAR PAST TENSE: Most verbs are regular in the past tense. That means you follow a rule like "add -ed" or "add-d" to get the past-tense form of the verb. Some verbs are irregular in the past tense. That means you don't follow a rule. Instead, you must remember the past-tense form of the verb. Simple Present Simple Past arise awake be bear beat become begin bend bet bite bleed blow break bring build burn burst buy catch choose cling come cost creep cut deal dig dive do draw arose awoke was, were bore beat became began bent bet bit bled blew broke brought built burned or burnt burst bought caught chose clung came cost crept cut dealt dug dived or dove did drew 17 dream drink drive eat fall feed feel fight find fit flee fling fly forbid forget forgive forgo freeze get give go grind grow hang have hear hide hit hold hurt keep kneel knit know lay lead leap leave lend dreamed or dreamt drank drove ate fell fed felt fought found fit, fitted fled flung flew forbade or forbad forgot forgave forwent froze got gave went ground grew hung or hanged had heard hid hit held hurt kept knelt or kneeled knitted or knit knew laid led leapt or leaped left lent 18 let lie (down) light lose make mean meet pay prove put quit read ride ring rise run saw say see seek sell send sew shake shave shear shine shoot show shrink shut sing sink sit slay sleep slide sneak speak let lay lit or lighted lost made meant met paid proved put quit read rode rang rose ran sawed said saw sought sold sent sewed shook shaved sheared shone or shined shot showed shrank or shrunk shut sang sank sat slew slept slid sneaked or snuck spoke 19 speed spend spill spin spit split spread spring stand steal stick sting stink strew strike strive swear sweep swim swing take teach tear tell think thrive throw undergo understand upset wake wear weave weep win wind withdraw wring write sped spent spilled or spilt spun spat or spit split spread sprang stood stole stuck stung stank or stunk strewed struck strove or strived swore swept swam swung took taught tore told thought thrived or throve threw underwent understood upset woke or waked wore wove wept won wound withdrew wrung wrote 20 COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS Coordinating conjunctions are used to connect words, phrases, and simple sentences. Coordinating conjunctions create the ACRONYM FANBOYS: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, and so. Use and to connect words, phrases, or sentences that go together or are alike. My sister is going to France and Spain this summer. I have a pet dog, and my cousin does, too. Use but to show a contrast. My brother loves apples but hates apple pie. I usually walk to school, but my dad drove me today. Use or to show a choice. Today we can go to the beach or the park. You can finish your homework now, or you can finish it after school. Use so to tell that something happens because of something else. I forgot to set my alarm, so I was late for school. Use for to explain why something is [more formal and less common than because] He’s overweight, for he eats too many cakes and biscuits. Use nor to show two non-contrasting grammatically negative items (not + not) He doesn’t eat cake, nor does he eat biscuits. Use yet to show contrast, despite something [synonyms = nevertheless, but still] He’s overweight and feels terrible, yet he continues to eat lots of cakes and biscuits. 21 SUBORDINATING CONJUCUNCTIONS: The conjunctions after and before tell you when something happens. I need to return this book before the library closes. The conjunctions as and while tell you that two things happen at the same time. As we lie on the grass, we look for shapes in the clouds. My brother likes to listen to music while he does homework. The conjunction until tells you how long something takes or lasts. My mom told me to wait until she comes back. The conjunctions because and since tell you why something happens or why something is true. I was late to school because I forgot to set my alarm. Since I left my phone at home, I have to borrow my brother's. The conjunction unless shows an exception. Unless it's cloudy tonight, we will see the full moon. some others after although as as if as long as as much as as soon as as though because before even if even though how if inasmuch in order that lest now that provided (that) since so that than that though till ( or 'til) unless until when whenever where wherever while 22 COMMAS: Use commas to separate the name of a person being spoken to from the rest of the sentence. Thank you, Bella. Thank you, Bella, for your help. Use a comma after words like yes, no, well, and many others, when they are followed by a complete sentence. Yes, that sounds great! Use a comma after a mild interjection. Oh, what a stunning sunset. Use commas around an interrupter, which is a word, phrase, or clause that adds additional, nonessential information to the sentence. You, of course, may have a different opinion. Use commas to set off phrases that use the words not or unlike to qualify adjacent text. Alexander the Great was Macedonian, not Greek. Tara, unlike Megan, finds chemistry fascinating. Use commas to separate three or more items in a series. Put a comma after each item in the list, except for the last one. The last comma in the list (right before the coordinating conjunction) is called an Oxford comma or serial comma. The serial comma is sometimes considered optional, but most style guides demand it. Red, white, and blue are the colors of the American flag. Expressions that consist of pairs of words, such as "thunder and lightning" and "bread and butter," are generally treated as single items. College costs typically include tuition, room and board, and textbooks. In dates with a day and a year, use a comma after the day. Also use a comma after the year unless the date ends the sentence. January 1, 2001, was the first day of this century. Mahatma Gandhi was born on October 2, 1869. When the name of a city is used with the name of its state or country, use a comma after the city. Also use a comma after the state or country unless it ends the sentence. Chicago, Illinois, is known as the Windy City. We've just booked our flight to Athens, Greece. In a compound sentence, use a comma before the coordinating conjunction that joins the two independent clauses. Examples of coordinating conjunctions are and, or, but, and so. We saw a flash of lightning, and seconds later we heard the rumble of thunder. In a complex sentence, if a dependent clause comes before an independent clause, use a comma after the dependent clause. A dependent clause is one that starts with a subordinating conjunction, such as after, although, as, because, before, if, since, unless,until, when, or while. If she ever gets the chance, Terri would love to visit the Egyptian pyramids. 23 SEMICOLONS Use a comma to separate two complete sentences that are joined with a coordinating conjunction, such as and, or, but, or so. However, if the coordinating conjunction joins verbs or verb phrases in a compound predicate, a comma should not be used. Wyatt was reserved around new people, but he was hardly shy. Wyatt was reserved around new people but was hardly shy. Also use a comma after a dependent clause if it is followed by a complete sentence. These dependent clauses usually start with a subordinating conjunction, such as after, although, or because. Although Wyatt was reserved around new people, he was hardly shy. Use a semicolon to connect two closely related sentences that are not joined with a coordinating conjunction. Wyatt was hardly shy; he was simply reserved around new people. Also use a semicolon to connect two sentences that are joined with a conjunctive adverb, such as consequently, however, or therefore. Wyatt was hardly shy; nevertheless, he was reserved around new people. Use a colon to introduce a list after a complete sentence. If a list does not follow a complete sentence, do not use punctuation to introduce the list. My parents have visited much of Western Europe: Austria, Belgium, France, Germany, Greece, Italy, the Netherlands, Portugal, and Spain. My parents have visited much of Western Europe, including Austria, Belgium, France, Germany, Greece, Italy, the Netherlands, Portugal, and Spain. Use commas to separate three or more items in a series. Put a comma after each item in the list, except for the last one. Our speakers will be Kevin O'Malley, Rachel Stein, and Linda Wu. Use semicolons to separate items in a series when using commas would be unclear, such as when one or more items in the series already contain commas. Our speakers will be Kevin O'Malley, an English professor; Rachel Stein, a print journalist; and Linda Wu, a blogger. 24 HYPHENS: (you also need to know adjectives describe the noun) A compound adjective is an adjective made up of more than one word. In general, use a hyphen to join the words of a compound adjective, if the adjective could be misread. a full-time job an open-ended question that well-known actor an ear-splitting scream my two-year-old cousin an open-and-shut case an expensive new desk an expensive-looking desk In the first example, the desk is expensive. In the second example, the desk isn't expensive, but it looks expensive. no hyphen adverb ending in -ly. that actor is well known a barely visible star my cousin is two years old freshly washed sheets DASHES A dash often represents a pause in a sentence. The dash can show a clear break or set off extra content from the rest of the sentence, such as an aside, an explanation, or additional details. According to legend, King Midas ultimately died of starvation—all because of his wish that everything he touched should turn to gold. The dash shows a clear break. Warren strives to control every aspect of his life, but life—surprise, surprise—doesn't always accommodate his wishes. The dashes set off an aside from the rest of the sentence. Certain quirks—repeatedly washing one's hands, checking that doors are locked, or counting things—may actually be symptoms of obsessive-compulsive disorder. The dashes set off additional details from the rest of the sentence. In dialogue or quoted text, a dash can indicate an interruption or mid-sentence correction. Lauren protested, "But—no, you're mistaken!" The dash shows an interruption. 25