Download Wisdom Literature in the Ancient World

Session 1: MARCH 2
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Wisdom Literature in
the Ancient World
T
hroughout history, every culture has
valued wisdom. Certainly all of us at
times have wished we were wiser than
we are. When life presents us with a difficult
decision or an excruciating problem, and
we are at a loss to know what to do, we long
for divine wisdom. Sometimes God speaks
directly to us to communicate His wisdom;
often, however, He speaks through wise
people instead.
Because God has given selected people
extraordinary wisdom, it is not surprising
that the teachings of these wise individuals were written down and preserved for
future generations in ancient times. The Bible
includes several books widely recognized as
wisdom literature, particularly the books of
Job, Proverbs, and Ecclesiastes. There are also
several wisdom psalms that address the same
issues and concerns. The book of James in
the New Testament has many characteristics
of wisdom literature. In addition, the Roman
Catholic and Eastern Orthodox canons of
the Old Testament include two apocryphal
wisdom books: the Wisdom of Solomon and
Sirach.
The Israelites were not the only ancient
people who recorded wisdom literature.
Mesopotamia and Egypt were also centers
of wisdom in the ancient world, and both of
these civilizations have left us various kinds of
wisdom literature. Although there are many
similarities between the wisdom of Israel’s
pagan neighbors and the wisdom of the
Bible, there are also important differences.
The worldview of the people of Israel was
profoundly different from their neighbors.
The Israelites worshiped the one true God,
the God who not only imbedded wisdom into
His very creation (see Prov. 8:22-31), but also
granted to His covenant people the ability to
receive and understand His wisdom.
What Is Wisdom?
Defining wisdom is not quite as easy as it
might seem. In fact, in some ways it is easier
to say what wisdom is not rather than to say
what it is. First of all, wisdom is not the same
as information. We all know people who have
mastered a great deal of data and factual
information, yet who are not wise. Wisdom
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Egyptian hieroglyphics crafted of colored glass cover the sarcophagus of Petosiris,
priest of Thoth, god of wisdom and writing (ca. 300 BC). The Israelites were not the
only ancient people who recorded wisdom literature. Mesopotamia and Egypt were
also centers of wisdom in the ancient world, and both of these civilizations have left us
wisdom literature. Although there are many similarities between the wisdom of Israel’s
pagan neighbors and the wisdom of the Bible, there are also important differences.
transcends mere information because it
involves applying information to life in an
appropriate, helpful, and meaningful way.
Second, wisdom is not the same as law.
The law codes of the Pentateuch are quite
different from wisdom literature and have a
very different purpose and function. Finally,
wisdom should not be understood as a collection of divine promises. Even though some
Bible readers have interpreted statements in
Proverbs as unbreakable promises from God,
this is probably not the most helpful way to
understand and utilize this important biblical
resource.
What, then, is wisdom? Whether we realize
it or not, we rely on wisdom every day of
our lives. Wisdom is, in part, the repository
of human experience that enables us to live
successfully in the world. When driving on
a snowy road, for example, we slow down
because it is the wise thing to do to avoid an
accident. Human experience shows us that
people who drive fast in such conditions
frequently end up in the ditch. Similarly, we
try to eat a healthy diet and exercise regularly
because experience shows that people who
do this are usually healthier and live longer
and more fulfilled lives. Just as we do today,
the ancient Israelites carefully observed how
the world seems to work, what patterns of life
are beneficial, and what patterns are harmful.
The Wisdom of the Bible
Drawing on centuries of experience, the
Israelites recorded proverbs, instructions, and
dialogues to encapsulate the truths God had
taught them through observation. Hundreds
of these sayings have been recorded in the
book of Proverbs in order to instruct God’s
people how to live a fulfilling life. The proverbs present both sides of human conduct—
guidelines for right living and warnings
against destructive behavior. The primary
context for the book of Proverbs seems to be
family instruction. Passages, such as Proverbs
1:2-7, and verses, such as 1:8, “Listen, my son,
to your father’s instruction and do not forsake
your mother’s teaching,” indicate that the
proverbs were especially used by parents and
teachers in the education of children. Thus,
the proverbs taught very practical wisdom
that was applied to everyday life and needed
to be mastered by the people of Israel.
Biblical wisdom goes further, however, and
addresses many of the deep, eternal questions of human existence. In this respect,
wisdom is somewhat like philosophy, yet
even here it deals with issues that concern
all people everywhere, both common folks
and intellectuals. The book of Ecclesiastes,
surely one of the most perplexing books
in the Bible, addresses some of the most
fundamental questions we humans have: Is
there meaning to life? Why do I exist? Does
my life have a purpose? Does the shortness
of human life prove the author’s repeated
refrain: “‘Meaningless! Meaningless!’ says the
Teacher. ‘Utterly meaningless! Everything is
meaningless’” (Eccles. 1:2)? Ecclesiastes does
not provide simple answers for these questions, but above all, it encourages us to “fear
God and keep his commandments, for this is
the duty of all mankind” (12:13).
The majestic book of Job considers another
basic question, one which all thinking people
inevitably ponder: Why do evil things happen
to innocent people? This is the problem of
evil and is usually discussed by means of two
propositions: First, if God is truly good, then
surely He would not want evil to torment
guiltless people. Second, if God is all-powerful, then surely He is able to prevent evil from
afflicting the innocent. God describes Job as
a man who is “blameless and upright, a man
who fears God and shuns evil” (Job 1:8), yet
this godly man suffers all kinds of evil. The
book explores how Job seeks to understand
his suffering in light of his faith in a God who
is both good and all-powerful.
Although the wisdom books of the Old
Testament contribute a great deal to our
understanding of the practical issues of daily
life and of the deep questions of existence,
we cannot claim that these books give us the
“final” answers. In a very real sense, we will
never fully understand these things this side
of heaven. Yet, Christians should boldly affirm
that we do indeed have the Answer to these
questions. Along with Paul, “We preach Christ
crucified: a stumbling block to Jews and
foolishness to Gentiles, but to those whom
God has called, both Jews and Greeks, Christ
the power of God and the wisdom of God” (1
Cor. 1:23-24). Christ is the answer; He is the
wisdom of God!
by OWEN DICKENS
professor of Bible and theology, Asbury University, Wilmore, Kentucky
Think about it . . .
3 Is it possible to be extremely intelligent
and yet not wise? How does godly wisdom
differ from intelligence?
3 What is wisdom? What are the characteristics of wisdom literature?
3 How does biblical wisdom differ from the
wisdom literature of Israel’s neighbors?
How does this wisdom speak to us today?
3 In what sense is Christ the “wisdom of
God”? How do we find the answers to life’s
questions in Christ?
Commentary Proverbs 8:12-21
I
n the world of the Bible, where the authoritative voice of woman
was seldom heard, the sages who produced the book of Proverbs,
in a daring and challenging way, presented the voice of wisdom
as that of a woman (1:20-33; 8:1-36; 9:1-12). The first two passages
(1:20-33; 8:1-36) are in the form of speeches given by Lady Wisdom.
The third passage (9:1-12) contrasts the house of Lady Wisdom and
the house of a seductive and adulterous woman (Dame Folly, also the
subject of chap. 7).
In a number of places in chapters 1—9, the voice of a female
speaker is implied; in these passages, however, the speaker is clearly a
woman. Scholars do not know why wisdom teachers utilized a woman
to represent wisdom (known in the scholarly circles as Lady Wisdom).
The word for wisdom in Hebrew is a feminine noun, but that does not
fully explain the practice.
Furthermore, the identity of Lady Wisdom in Proverbs is a subject of
speculation among biblical scholars. Some understand it as a poetic
and metaphorical personification of God’s wisdom. Others think the
personified wisdom in these passages is God’s attribute of wisdom
that has become an independent personal being, who shares the essential nature and characteristics of God (known as the hypostasis of
God). Some recent feminist biblical scholars have argued that personified wisdom is a female personification of God’s own being, involved
in the work of creation and salvation.
Proverbs, however, clearly presents wisdom as “the first of his works”
(8:22), and thus not identical with God’s being. Wisdom was present
with God when He created the world (vv. 22-31), and it was “by wisdom” that God created the world (3:19-20; see also Jer. 10:12). Wisdom,
though personified in these passages, is equivalent to God’s Word in
the book of Proverbs. So, when Wisdom speaks, what one hears is a
word from God.
Personified wisdom speaks her words of wisdom to those who are
simpleminded (1:20-33; 8:1-36). The language of the first speech is
similar to that of a prophetic speech. It begins with the indictment
that those without wisdom (those “who are simple”; v. 22) have
refused to pay attention to the counsel of wisdom. The first speech
concludes with a detailed description of the consequences of rejecting wisdom’s admonitions.
Wisdom’s second speech has a more positive tone; it is almost
self-praise. This speech sharply differs from the seductive speech of
the adulterous woman (Dame Folly) who lurks in the street when
darkness comes to lead astray the young who have no wisdom (see
7:27). Death is the destiny of those who are victims of Folly. Lady
Wisdom, on the other hand, stands boldly in public (intersections and
city gates; see 8:2-3) and offers a powerful alternative—the path of
truth and uprightness (vv. 8-9). Her speech is addressed to everyone
(v. 4). All humans are endowed with the desire to acquire wisdom; the
Bible recognizes that some may seek to acquire wisdom on their own
(as we find in Gen. 3). The Bible, however, asserts that true wisdom,
true knowledge of what is good and evil, is God’s gift to those who
“fear the Lord” (Prov. 8:13), those who live in recognition of God as the
sovereign Creator and Sustainer of the world.
This week’s lesson comes from the second speech of Lady Wisdom.
In the first part of our passage (8:12-16), wisdom shows how she contributes to the proper conduct of everyone in society, including those
who are rulers. In the second part (8:17-21), Lady Wisdom shows the
blessings she bestows on those who love her.
1. Wisdom’s Role in Social Order and Government
(8:12-16)
12 “I, wisdom, dwell together with prudence;
I possess knowledge and discretion.
13 To fear the Lord is to hate evil;
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discretion, could be read: “I cause [humans] to find knowledge and
discretion.Ӡ Prudence, knowledge, and discretion are all qualities we
need for proper conduct and to maintain order in the world. Proverbs
1:4 makes clear that one of the goals of the book is to give “prudence”
to the “simple” and “knowledge and discretion to the young.” Prudence
in Proverbs is shrewdness, not in the negative sense of cunningness
or treachery, but in a positive sense as the opposite of foolishness.
Knowledge means discernment, the ability to distinguish between
good and evil, and that which is profitable and that which is destructive. Discretion is one’s ability to formulate plans that are realistic and
practical. All of these qualities are essential for success and for morallyand ethically-responsible actions in society.
13. The key theological theme of Proverbs can be summed up as
“The fear of the Lord is the beginning of knowledge” (1:7). To fear the
Lord is to hate evil. Fear of the Lord in Proverbs means recognition of
the reality of God’s absolute claim on everything in creation; in the
context of Israel’s covenant with God, fear the Lord also means to live in
response to God’s claim on Israel by loving, serving, and obeying God
with one’s whole heart, soul, and strength
(see Deut. 10:12-13). God’s claim on human
lives—indeed, of the whole creation—requires us to pursue that which is morally
good and profitable for everyone, which
in turn means to hate and turn away from
anything that is evil and destructive (see also
Prov. 3:7). Lady Wisdom identifies specific
manifestations of wickedness that she hates:
pride and arrogance, evil behavior and perverse
speech. By an emphatic assertion, I hate, Lady
Wisdom disassociates herself from the world
of wickedness; the list here presents the opposite of the qualities found in the world of
wisdom—prudence, knowledge, and discretion. Pride and arrogance are usually manifested by those who trust in human wisdom
and autonomous thinking. These manifestations of evil are also clear evidence of a lack of
humility, or fear of the Lord. Perverse speech is
another form of wickedness; it does not profit
anyone except those who practice it for their
own evil purposes.
14. This verse introduces the list of qualities
necessary for proper governmental leadership and administration. Counsel . . . insight,
or understanding, and power, or might, are
among the attributes of the ideal Davidic ruler of Israel according to Isaiah 11:2. In Isaiah,
God bestows these attributes on the coming
messianic ruler. The book of Job states that
God possesses wisdom, power, counsel, and
understanding (12:13). In Proverbs, however,
Lady Wisdom claims that she is the source of
these qualities necessary for successful leadership and administration. Lady Wisdom thus
associates herself closely with the Lord; as
stated previously, when Lady Wisdom speaks,
we hear a word from God. Counsel is advice
given to rulers, particularly on political or military matters. Sound judgment means making
sound decisions on practical matters. Insight
is one’s intellectual capacity and discernment.
Mark writes his gospel at the direction of Wisdom in an illustration from the sixthPower is strength exercised in political or
century purple Codex Rossanensis. In the world of the Bible, where the authoritative
military matters.
voice of woman was seldom heard, the sages who produced the book of Proverbs
15-16. Lady Wisdom claims that political
leaders carry out the functions of the governpresented the voice of wisdom as that of a woman.
I hate pride and arrogance,
evil behavior and perverse speech.
14 Counsel and sound judgment are mine;
I have insight, I have power.
15 By me kings reign
and rulers issue decrees that are just;
16 by me princes govern,
and nobles—all who rule on earth.”
12. I, wisdom: This entire chapter is made up of Lady Wisdom’s
words. Throughout this chapter, wisdom utilizes the first person pronoun (I) to assert her authority to speak words that will benefit all humans, and to offer counsel to them for proper conduct and behavior.
She establishes herself as teacher, guide, and counselor, and even the
standard for speech and conduct in society. The meaning of I . . . dwell
together with prudence in Hebrew is not clear. With a slight change in
the vowels, the Hebrew verb could mean, “I cause to possess”; thus,
the first line could be read: “I, wisdom, cause (humans) to possess
prudence.Ӡ In the same way, the second line, I possess knowledge and
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ment by her or through the wisdom she
grants to them. Kings, rulers, princes and
nobles: These were the four highest levels
of human government in the ancient world.
The phrase, all who rule on earth, covers all
who have governmental authority. In 11:4,
Lady Wisdom invited “all mankind” to receive
words of wisdom from her mouth. Wisdom’s
presence in creation (vv. 22-31) means that
whoever is willing to pay attention to the
words of wisdom may enjoy the benefits and
blessings of God. Those who are in positions
of authority need proper counsel, insight,
sound judgment, and power to govern in a
manner that is just and righteous. The underlying claim of these verses is that God set
the standard of human government at the
time of creation. These verses also claim that
all authority derives from God, and governments carry out their functions through
the agency of wisdom that God established
at creation. This promise moves beyond
the realm of Israel’s political structure and
A planetarium in Valencia, Spain, called the “Eye of Wisdom.” Defining wisdom is not
government to all governments of the world.
quite as easy as it might seem. In fact, in some ways it is easier to say what wisdom is
Proverbs 25:1 indicates that these sayings
not rather than to say what it is!
were compiled by Hezekiah’s men, between
715 and 686 BC. Thus, Israel’s political
verses, however, do not suggest that possession of wisdom is a guarstructure (the period of the monarchy) was in its final days. Wisdom
antee of material wealth or temporal success. Wisdom teachers did
teachers assumed that the pagan world and its governments did not
not think the wise were always rich and powerful, or that wealth was
exist independently of the God of Israel—they ruled and governed
a sign of one’s wisdom. These verses are about the honor and respect
by His authority. The message, then, is of optimism and not despair or
bestowed on those who exemplify the virtues of wisdom in their
fear; regardless of the historical and political changes that were taking
public and private lives. Such people will be respected and rememplace, wisdom teachers saw at work in the governments of their day
bered for their integrity and honesty forever. The literal meaning of
the standards of wisdom that God had established at creation. They
the Hebrew word translated prosperity is “righteousness.” This conveys
believed that even pagan rulers, by following the wisdom reflected in
the moral tone of this verse: Wealth without righteousness has no
creation, served the will and purpose of the God of Israel.
enduring value.
19. Lady Wisdom compares herself to a fruitful tree; however, the
2. The Life of Those Who Love Wisdom (8:17-21)
fruit she produces is no ordinary fruit that spoils and loses its value.
17 “I love those who love me,
The fruit of wisdom is precious and valuable and enduring; fine gold
and those who seek me find me.
and choice silver represent that which is pure, without any trace of
18 With me are riches and honor,
impurity.
enduring wealth and prosperity.
20-21. Our passage ends with a description of the close relation19 My fruit is better than fine gold;
ship between Lady Wisdom and the path of righteousness and justice.
what I yield surpasses choice silver.
Lady Wisdom invites her followers to walk with her in the way of
20 I walk in the way of righteousness,
righteousness and justice. Righteousness and justice are fundamental
along the paths of justice,
to the well-being of any society and necessary for the removal of all
21 bestowing a rich inheritance on those who love me
evil in the world. Righteousness is right conduct and right relationand making their treasuries full.”
ships; justice is the fulfillment of legal, moral, and ethical obligations
17. This passage begins and ends with a description of the reciprocal
within a community. The path of wisdom is not an easy path; walking
relationship of love that exists between Lady Wisdom and those who
along with wisdom requires discipline, intentionality, and commitlove her: I love those who love me (see also v. 21). The language of love
ment to pursue that which is good and pleasing to the Lord. The rich
in this passage is taken from the context of family relationships. More
inheritance they receive is wisdom—wisdom to live in fear of the Lord,
specifically, the language of love in these verses belongs to the context
doing that which is just and righteous. Those who inherit wisdom will
of courtship that leads to marriage and family life. Wisdom’s relationhave their treasuries full; they will be always resourceful and ready to
ship with those who love her is intimate and personal. This love is
meet any circumstance in life. They will not lack wisdom to make the
healthy and wholesome and totally the opposite of the illicit love of the
right decisions, say the words that are gracious and grace-filled, and
strange woman in chapter 7 (see 7:10-20), who lavishes her words of
do the things that would promote wholeness in society.
love upon “a youth who had no sense” (v. 7). In contrast, Lady Wisdom
makes clear that she will not disappoint those who apply themselves
All Scripture quotations marked † are the author’s own translation from the
wholeheartedly to acquire wisdom: those who seek me find me.
original languages.
18. Lady Wisdom presents herself as the source of riches and honor,
. . . wealth and prosperity that last forever. Those who seek her and
by Alex Varughese
find her, those who acquire wisdom from her, will certainly enjoy the
division chairperson of religion and philosophy at Mount Vernon Nazblessings and benefits that she lavishes on them. In wisdom tradition,
arene College, Mount Vernon, Ohio, and general editor, section editor,
wealth and prosperity are usually linked to one’s fear of God. These
and author of Jeremiah in the New Beacon Bible Commentary series
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