Download McCammon IM Chapter 2

Chapter Two
Sex Research and Theory
Copyright Atomic Dog Publishing, 2004
Overview of Scientific Research
• Scientific research involves methods of collecting and
analyzing empirical evidence, or data that can be
observed.
• Scientific knowledge is different from common sense,
intuition, tradition, and authority in that it is supported
by observable evidence.
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The Interdisciplinary Nature
of Sexology
• Biosexology
Study of the biological aspects of sexuality
• Psychosexology
Area of sexology focused on how psychological
processes influence and are influenced by sexual
development and behavior
• Sociosexology
Aspect of sexology that is concerned with how social
and cultural forces influence and are influenced by
sexual attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors
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Theories of Sexuality
•
Biological Theories
•
Psychological Theories
•
Sociological Theories
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Biological Theories
• Physiological theories
Theories that describe and explain how physiological
processes affect and are affected by sexual behavior
• Evolutionary/Sociobiological Theories
Theories that explain human sexual behavior and
sexual anatomy on the basis of human evolution
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Psychological Theories - 1
• Psychoanalytic theory
Freud’s theory emphasizes the role of unconscious
processes in one’s life.
• Classical conditioning
Behavior modification technique in which an
unconditioned stimulus and a neutral stimulus are
linked to elicit a desired response.
• Operant learning theory
An explanation of human behavior that emphasizes
that the consequences of a behavior influence
whether or not that behavior will occur in the future.
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Psychological Theories - 2
• Social learning theory
A theory that emphasizes the process of learning
through observation and imitation.
• Cognitive/affective theories
As related to sexuality, these theories emphasize the
role of thought processes and emotions in sexual
behavior.
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Sociological Theories - 1
• Symbolic interaction theory
A theory that focuses on how meanings, labels, and
definitions learned through interaction affect one’s
attitudes, self-concept, and behavior.
• Structural-functional theory
A theory that views society as a system of interrelated
parts that influence each other and work together to
achieve social stability.
• Conflict theory
A theory that views society as consisting of different
parts competing for power and resources.
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Sociological Theories - 2
• Feminist theories
Perspectives that analyze discrepancies in equality
between men and women, and how these imbalances
affect sexuality, studies in sexuality, and sexual
health-care delivery.
• Systems theory
Theory that emphasizes the interpersonal and
relationship aspects of sexuality.
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Eclectic View of Human Sexuality
Eclectic view
View that recognizes the contribution of multiple
perspectives to the understanding of sexuality
“We cannot expect to understand human sexuality
unless we consider both biology and culture . . . and
the interface between them as it affects the individual,
the dyad, and the group.”
John Bancroft
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Conducting Sex Research:
A Step-by-Step Process
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Identifying a Research Question
• The framing of research questions may be affected by
the social and political context of the times.
• Alfred C. Kinsey conducted the first large survey study
of human sexuality, the results of which he published
in Sexual Behavior in the Human Male and Sexual
Behavior in the Human Female.
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Reviewing the Literature
• Reviewing the literature enables researchers to
discover what other researchers have already learned
about a topic, provides researchers with ideas about
new research questions, and suggests ways to
conduct research.
• Journals publishing research on human sexuality
include The Journal of Sex Research, Archives of
Sexual Behavior, Journal of Homosexuality, Electronic
Journal of Human Sexuality, Family Planning
Perspectives, Psychology of Human Sexuality, and
many others.
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Formulating a Hypothesis
and Operationalizing Variables - 1
• Hypothesis
A tentative and testable proposal or an educated
guess about the outcome of a research study.
• Variable
Any measurable event or characteristic that varies or
is subject to change.
• Dependent variable
Variable that is measured to assess what, if any, effect
the independent variable has on it.
• Independent variable
The variable that is presumed to cause or influence
the dependent variable.
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Formulating a Hypothesis
and Operationalizing Variables - 2
• Operationalize
Defining how a variable will be measured
• Operational definition
Working definition; how a variable is defined in a
particular study
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Methods of Data Collection
• After identifying a research question, reviewing the
literature, formulating a hypothesis, and
operationalizing variables, researchers collect data.
• Methods of data collection include:
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Experimental Research
Survey Research
Field Research
Direct Laboratory Observations
Case Studies
Historical Research
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Experimental Research
• Experimental Research
Research methodology that involves manipulating the
independent variable to determine how it affects the
dependent variable.
• Strength: provides information on causal
relationships; that is, it shows how one variable
affects another.
• Weakness: experiments are often conducted on small
samples, usually in artificial laboratory settings.
Therefore, the findings may not be generalizable to
other people in natural settings.
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Survey Research
• Survey Research
Research that involves eliciting information from
respondents using questions (Interviews,
questionnaires, new technologies for research).
• Sample
A portion of the population that the researcher studies
and attempts to make inferences about the whole
population.
• Representative sample
A sample the researcher studies that is representative
of the population from which it is taken.
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Personal Choices: Participating
in Sex Research as a Subject?
• Individuals who participate in sexuality research
benefit the larger society.
• As a student at a college or university, you may be
asked to complete a questionnaire or participate in an
interview as part of a sex research project being
conducted by a professor or graduate student.
• Before deciding whether to participate in the study,
you may want to be sure that the research follows
established ethical guidelines for research with
human participants.
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Field Research
• Field research
Method of data collection that involves observing and
studying social behaviors in settings in which they occur
naturally.
• Participant observation
The researcher participates in the phenomenon being
studied to obtain an insider’s perspective of the people
and/or behavior being observed.
• Nonparticipant observation
The investigators observe the phenomenon being studied,
but do not actively participate in the group or the activity.
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Direct Laboratory Observations
• Direct laboratory observation
In human sexuality research, actually observing
individuals engage in sexual behavior.
• One problem with laboratory observation research is
the use of volunteers. Are those who volunteer to
participate in such research similar to those who do
not?
• Volunteer samples may not be representative of the
group from which they are recruited, and caution
should be used in making generalizations based on
the findings.
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Case Studies
• Method involves conducting an in-depth, detailed
analysis of an individual, group, relationship, or event.
• Case studies are valuable in providing detailed
qualitative information about the experiences of
individuals and groups. The main disadvantage of the
case study method is that findings based on small
sample size (in some cases a sample size of one) are
not necessarily generalizable.
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Historical Research
• Historical Research
Historical research involves investigating sexuality
and sexual issues through the study of historical
documents.
• Data sources used in conducting historical research
include newspapers, magazines, letters, literature
(such as novels and poetry), diaries, medical texts
and popular health manuals, court records, hospital
records, prison records, and official (government)
statistics on such topics as birth rates, arrest and
conviction rates, sexually transmittable diseases
(STDs), and nonmarital pregnancies.
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Levels of Data Analysis
• Description
• Correlation
• Causation
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Description
• Descriptive research
Qualitative or quantitative research that describes
sexual processes, behaviors, and attitudes, as well as
the people who experience them
• Qualitative descriptions
Verbal narratives that describe details and nuances of
sexual phenomena
• Quantitative descriptions
Numerical representations of sexual phenomena
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Correlation
• Correlation
Statistical index that represents the degree of
relationship between two variables
• Positive correlation
Relationship between two variables that exists when
both variables change in the same direction
• Negative correlation
Relationship between two variables that exists when
the variables change in opposite directions
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Causation
• To demonstrate causality, three conditions must be
met:
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First, the research must demonstrate that variable A is
correlated with variable B.
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Second, the researcher must demonstrate that the
presumed cause (variable A) occurs or changes prior to
the presumed effect (variable B).
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Third, the researcher must demonstrate that the
observed correlation is nonspurious.
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Interpretation and Discussion
• Following data analysis, the researcher evaluates and
interprets the results and their implications.
• The researcher may qualify the results, draw
inferences from them, assess the theoretical
implications, and discuss possible applications.
• Publishing results of sexuality surveys may
accomplish more than simply reporting on trends; it
may help shape them.
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