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Erik Smitterberg ([email protected])
Dept. of English, Uppsala University
A1/HS1 Grammar
Autumn/Fall Term 2010
Lecture 8. Adjectives; Adverbs and Adverbials; Numerals;
Word Order
1 Adjectives vs. Adverbs
An adjective:
o
Typically describes:

A noun (e.g. The book was really good; Have you seen my purple tie?).

A pronoun (e.g. Crowds make me nervous).
o
Functions:

Predicative: the head of a Ps or Po (e.g. The book was really good; Crowds
make me nervous).

Attributive: modifier in a noun phrase, usually but not always before the
head (e.g. my purple tie).

(Less often) the head of a noun phrase (see below).
o
NOTE 1. Adjectives are used in the phrase as—as when it means ‘så—som’ (e.g.
as soon as possible) and in phrases such as as usual and if possible. This is
because such constructions can be expanded to structures where the adjective
is predicative (e.g. Go there as soon as [it is] possible [for you to go there]).
o
NOTE 2. When smell and taste occur in descriptions of smells and tastes, they
are linking verbs followed by adjectives; the corresponding Swedish verbs are
typically intransitive and followed by adverbs (e.g. The soup smells good vs.
Soppan luktar gott). Smell and taste can also be used transitively (e.g. I was
smelling the soup; Taste the food before you add salt).
An adverb:
o
Typically describes:

A verb (e.g. He shook my hand briefly).

An adjective (e.g. The shoes were extremely expensive).

Another adverb (e.g. He shook my hand very briefly).

A whole clause (e.g. Sadly, he lost the game).
o
The most frequent functions of adverbs are:

The head of an adverbial (e.g. He shook my hand very briefly; Sadly, he lost
the game).

Modifier of adjectives (e.g. The shoes were extremely expensive; the very
cheap shoes).

Modifier of adverbs (e.g. He shook my hand very briefly).
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Erik Smitterberg ([email protected])
Dept. of English, Uppsala University
A1/HS1 Grammar
Autumn/Fall Term 2010
2 Adjectives
Most adjectives are central adjectives and can be used both attributively and
predicatively (see above). However, a few peripheral adjectives can be used only
with attributive function (e.g. utter) or only with predicative function (e.g. alone) –
see lists in UGE, pp. 221–222.
Comparison:
o
Gradable adjectives can be compared and have three forms: the absolute
form, the comparative (-er or more), and the superlative (-est or most).
o
Four groups:

One-syllable adjectives except real, right, wrong (and, in informal speech,
fun): -er/-est (e.g. warm—warmer—warmest).

Two-syllable adjectives: show variation depending on their form and
their ending (see section 6.2.1 in UGE for details).

Adjectives with three or more syllables: always more/most (e.g. fantastic—
more fantastic—most fantastic). Note that Swedish sometimes uses
-are/-ast with long adjectives!

Irregular comparison (see list in UGE) (e.g. good—better—best).

NOTE 1. Except in a few set phrases, participles used as adjectives always
take more/most regardless of how many syllables they contain (e.g.
spoiled—more spoiled—most spoiled).

NOTE 2. Double comparison (e.g. *more warmer) is not acceptable in
Standard English.
o
Superlatives have to take the definite article (or another definite determiner,
such as my) when the adjective premodifies a noun (That is the best news I’ve
heard in years), and often do so when the adjective is predicative as well: His
presentations are always (the) best.
o
Spelling changes in comparison:

After a consonant, -y in the absolute form > -ier in the comparative and
-iest in the superlative: cosy—cosier—cosiest.

One-syllable adjectives ending in one single consonant double the
consonant before -er and -est: sad—sadder—saddest. But this does not
happen if the preceding vowel sound is spelt with several letters (this is
not mentioned in UGE!): lean—leaner—leanest.

If the absolute form ends in -e, this -e disappears when -er and -est are
added: gentle—gentler—gentlest.
o
Variation in comparison:

Far: far—further—furthest is more common than far—farther—farthest, and
always works.
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Erik Smitterberg ([email protected])
Dept. of English, Uppsala University
A1/HS1 Grammar
Autumn/Fall Term 2010

o
o
Late: late—later—latest is about time, late—latter—last is about order (e.g.
her latest book ‘her most recent book’ vs. her last book ‘the book that came
before this one’ or ‘the last book that she ever wrote’).

Near: the superlative nearest is usually used about space (e.g. the nearest
petrol station ‘den närmaste bensinstationen’) and next about order (e.g.
the next petrol station ‘nästa bensinstation’). But: next door.

Old: elder and eldest are used almost only in BrE, and only in some
contexts and expressions; otherwise, older and oldest always work.
In Standard English, the comparative should be used when two things are
compared, and the superlative when more than two things are compared (e.g.
The older of the two brothers is dating the oldest of the three sisters). In Swedish,
the superlative is often used in both cases (e.g. Den äldste av de två bröderna …).
Swedish has an ‚absolute‛ comparative, where the comparative is used
without any comparison being made, as an alternative to the absolute form
(e.g. Vi gick ut och åt på en /bra/bättre/ restaurang). English does not use the
comparative in this way (e.g. We had dinner at a good restaurant).
Adjectives as heads of noun phrases:
o
Less frequent than in Swedish; two main types occur in English (see below).
o
Used (almost) only with generic reference.
o
Used with the definite article (despite the generic reference) – see below.
o
Cannot take the genitive – have to take the of construction even when the
adjective refers to people (e.g. the plight of the homeless, not *the homeless’s
plight).
o
Type 1: the adjective refers to a group of people in a generic sense (e.g. The rich
are getting richer and the poor have become poorer).

The adjective takes a plural verb (see above).

The generic reference may be limited to an area, a place, etc. (e.g. The
homeless in Uppsala have a new shelter).
o
Type 2: the adjective refers to an abstract phenomenon in a generic sense (e.g.
The unknown is often frightening).

The adjective takes a singular verb (see above).
o
English usually cannot use adjectives as heads of noun phrases when the
adjective is used in a specific sense, while Swedish can (e.g. Den arbetslöse har
fått jobb; Efter kraschen har fem överlevande hittats; Det intressanta var att jag
aldrig såg bussen som stals; Det musikaliska i Dylans sånger har underskattats).

Some solutions with specific people:
Add a suitable head noun (e.g. The unemployed person has got a
job).
The adjective can sometimes be replaced by a noun (e.g. After the
crash, five survivors have been found).
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Erik Smitterberg ([email protected])
Dept. of English, Uppsala University


A1/HS1 Grammar
Autumn/Fall Term 2010
In a very few cases, the adjective can be used in a specific sense
(e.g. The accused shows no sign of remorse). Some such adjectives
have become ordinary nouns (e.g. Adults should know better).
Some solutions with specific situations:
Use a dependent what-clause instead of a noun phrase (e.g. What
was interesting was that I never saw the bus that was stolen).
Add a suitable head noun (e.g. The interesting thing was that I never
saw the bus that was stolen).
The adjective can occasionally be replaced by a noun (e.g. The
musicality of Dylan’s songs has been underestimated).
In a few cases, the adjective can be used in a specific sense in fixed
phrases (e.g. We can’t do the impossible).
One is used instead of repeating a singular countable noun after an
adjective (e.g. I would always prefer a new bike to an old one). Swedish often
has nothing (e.g. Jag skulle alltid föredra en ny cykel framför en gammal).
3 Nationality Words
Three words are involved:
o
1: the nationality as an adjective (and its language, if any, as a noun).
o
2: the people from the nation generically, or people who represent the nation
(e.g. a national sports team).
o
3: an individual belonging to the nation.
Four groups (see Appendix 7 in UGE for a list of nationalities):
o
Group 1: the same word for (1) and (2), a different word for (3), e.g. Welsh—the
Welsh—a Welshman/Welshwoman. Used about Britain and close geographical
neighbours.
o
Group 2: a different word for (1), the same word for (2) and (3), e.g. Danish—
the Danes—a Dane.
o
Group 3: the same word for (1), (2), and (3), e.g. German—the Germans—a
German.
o
Group 4: the same word for (1), (2), and (3), and zero plural for (2), e.g.
Portuguese—the Portuguese—a Portuguese. See also section 4.4.1 in UGE.
o
NOTE. Upper-case initial letters are used for nationalities in English.
4 Adverbs
Many adverbs are derived from adjectives by means of adding -ly (e.g. He is careful
[adjective] vs. She drives carefully [adverb]).
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Erik Smitterberg ([email protected])
Dept. of English, Uppsala University
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A1/HS1 Grammar
Autumn/Fall Term 2010
Adjectives that end in -le, as well as due and true, lose their -e when they add
-ly and become adverbs (e.g. Lower him down gently; This is truly tragic).
Adjectives ending in [consonant + -y] change the -y to an -i- when they add -ly
and become adverbs (e.g. The baby smiled happily). Exception: shyly.
Adjectives ending in -ic end in -ically as adverbs (e.g. She went to work
energetically). Exception: publicly.
NOTE 1. Do not forget to add -ly when it is required in Standard English (e.g. *I
want this victory bad).
NOTE 2. Do not add -ly where an adjective without -ly should be used (e.g.
*Buying fresh fish in Germany was almost impossibly).
NOTE 3. Some other endings are used to turn nouns into adverbs (e.g.
clockwise, southwards, sideways, California-style).
Adverbs that may look the same as adjectives (see Appendix 8 in UGE):
o
Both the adverb and the adjective end in -ly (e.g. early: I had an early breakfast
since I got up early).

NOTE. With most adjectives in -ly, the construction in a(n) X
way/manner/fashion is used instead of an identical adverb (e.g. They told us
the story in a lovely way).
o
Neither the adjective nor the adverb ends in -ly (e.g. fast: You have a fast car, but
you never drive too fast).
o
The adverb may either end in -ly or be identical with the adjective (see
Appendix 9 in UGE), with slightly different meanings (e.g. I always fly direct
vs. I looked directly at the aeroplane).
Many frequent adverbs are not related to adjectives through endings, e.g. always,
here, quite, however. Pay attention to very and much:
o
Very is used with the absolute form of adjectives and adverbs (e.g. very
nice/quickly).
o
Much is used with comparatives (e.g. much better; much more interesting).
o
Very much is used with prepositional phrases (e.g. I’m very much into rugby).
Comparison:
o
Gradable adverbs can be compared and have three forms: the absolute form,
the comparative (-er or more), and the superlative (-est or most).
o
Three groups:

One-syllable adverbs + early: -er/-est (e.g. I went home earlier than I
thought, and walked faster than I usually do). See comparison of adjectives
above and section 6.2.2 in UGE for spelling changes in comparison.

Two or more syllables: more/most (e.g. You have to work more quickly).

Irregular comparison (see UGE for a list), e.g. badly—worse—worst.
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Erik Smitterberg ([email protected])
Dept. of English, Uppsala University
A1/HS1 Grammar
Autumn/Fall Term 2010
5 Adverbials
Differences between adverbs and adverbials:
o
Not all adverbs are adverbials; not all adverbials are adverbs.
o
An adverb is a word that belongs to the word class ‚adverb‛ (see Lecture 1).

The lecture was really good (really is an adverb, but not an adverbial – it is
a modifier in the adjective phrase really good, which is a subject
predicative).

The student solved the problem quickly (quickly is an adverb and an
adverbial).
o
An adverbial is a clause element that may consist of constructions such as:

An adverb phrase (adverb + modifiers, if any, e.g. Do the assignment
quickly, but answer the questions really thoroughly).

A prepositional phrase (e.g. People were disappointed after the election).

A noun phrase (e.g. Next Tuesday, we will travel to India).

A dependent clause (e.g. I missed the bus although I woke up in time).
Adverbials can express a wide range of meanings – see lists in UGE (pp. 266–270) for
examples:
o
Specific meanings such as place, time, manner, instrument and agency, cause
and purpose, condition and concession, and degree.
o
Modal adverbials comment on an entire clause, and express probability or
speaker attitude (e.g. Unfortunately, I missed the interview).
o
Linking adverbials link clauses, sentences, and paragraphs together and are
usually placed at the start of a sentence (e.g. It is a pity that you lost the game.
However, you will get a new chance tomorrow).
6 Numerals
Two main types:
o
Cardinal numerals (grundtal): one, fifteen, three billion, etc.
o
Ordinal numerals (ordningstal): first, fifteenth, billionth, etc. Ordinal numerals
end in -th except those ending in first, second, and third (e.g. her thirty-third
attempt).
Some difficulties (see UGE for more information):
o
See UGE p. 345 for difficult spellings.
o
Hundra kilometer etc. corresponds to /a/one/ hundred kilometres etc.
o
1800-talet = the 19th century etc.
o
Fractions (bråktal) are usually expressed as cardinal + ordinal in English: fyra
femtedelar = four fifths. Exception: one half.
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Erik Smitterberg ([email protected])
Dept. of English, Uppsala University
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A1/HS1 Grammar
Autumn/Fall Term 2010
With fractions and percentages, subject–verb agreement depends on what they
are fractions or percentages of (e.g. Thirty per cent of the books have arrived;
Thirty per cent of the money has arrived).
Anything above one is plural in English: en och en halv månad = one and a half
months.
English uses a decimal point, not a comma as in Swedish (e.g. The approximate
value of π is 3.14).
Words such as dozen, hundred, million etc. take neither an -s nor an of after a
cardinal number in English: tre miljoner människor vs. three million people.

In vague plural figures, the plural form in -s and of are used (e.g. There
were hundreds of people at the meeting). Note: hundreds of thousands of
people.
In measurements with a [numeral + noun] compound before another noun, the
[numeral + noun] compound is singular, and there is a hyphen between the
numeral and the noun (e.g. a five-week vacation). Swedish often has plural
forms, which may be in the genitive (e.g. fem veckors semester).

If an adjective like old or long follows the [numeral + noun] compound,
there is another hyphen (e.g. a six-year-old child).
Varannan: every two + plural noun (e.g. every two weeks), every other + singular
noun (e.g. every other week), every second + singular noun (e.g. every second week).
7 Word Order
Adverbials and word order:
o
Three positions:

Initial position – especially modal and linking adverbials (e.g.
Furthermore, we have to finish the assignment).

Mid-position – especially some short, frequent adverbials (e.g. He
always takes the last piece of cake).

Final position – especially long adverbials and manner adverbials (e.g. I
did my homework when I came home).
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Problems:

Initial adverbials generally do not cause inverted word order in English
(e.g. Yesterday we played rugby).
EXCEPTION 1. If the subject is stressed and longer than the verb,
and the main verb is intransitive, the word order is inverted (e.g.
Here comes the sun). But: Here it comes.
EXCEPTION 2. Negating or restricting adverbials in initial position
cause word order change (one auxiliary + subject + rest of verb
phrase, i.e. the same as in questions) (e.g. Only recently did I
realize the truth). The auxiliary do is used if there is no other
auxiliary.
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Erik Smitterberg ([email protected])
Dept. of English, Uppsala University



A1/HS1 Grammar
Autumn/Fall Term 2010
A number of one-word adverbials are placed before the finite verb form
of a verb phrase in English (e.g. I never have time to read the paper).
EXCEPTIONS. The verb to be as main verb (e.g. I am never awake
before 7 a.m.) and finite auxiliaries (e.g. I have never seen a total
eclipse) come before the adverbial. Note the error in UGE (bottom
of p. 274): this applies to all finite auxiliaries, not just modal
auxiliaries.
In English dependent clauses, complex adverbials do not occur between
the subject and the finite verb form (e.g. When/, after several years,/ I passed
the test /after several years/, I was destitute; not *When I after several years
passed the test, I was destitute).
In written Standard English, to and the infinitive verb form should not
be ‚split‛ by not, never, or only (e.g. Remember never to split an infinitive).
Some other comments on English word order:
o
Reporting clauses can, but do not have to, have verb–subject order (e.g. “You
owe me ten pounds,” said the police officer) instead of subject–verb order (e.g.
“You owe me ten pounds,” the police officer said) if three conditions are met:

The subject is a noun phrase headed by a noun (the police officer above).

The verb phrase has only one verb form (said above).

There is nothing specifying who is spoken to following the subject and
verb (e.g. “You owe me ten pounds,” the police officer said to Mary).
o
See ‚Adverbials and word order‛ above for other exceptions to subject–verb
word order in English.
o
Word order within noun phrases (see also the handout to Lecture 3):

The indefinite article follows:
Such and what, as well as half in the expression half a(n) (e.g. half a
pound of sugar).
Often quite and sometimes rather (e.g. This is quite a good story).
Adjectives that follow how, however, so, and too (e.g. This is too
difficult a question).
No + comparative adjective (e.g. This is no tougher a decision than
the one you made last week).
Adjectives that occur with as … as (e.g. This is as difficult a
decision as the one I made last week).

See section 6.3.1 in UGE for cases where attributive adjectives follow the
head of a noun phrase instead of preceding it (e.g. the people present at the
meeting; something important).

See section 6.3.2 in UGE for the relative order of adjectives in a noun
phrase. Pay special attention to old and little (e.g. the good old days vs. den
gamla goda tiden).
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