Download PART I From Hunting and Gathering to Civilizations, 2.5 million

PART I From Hunting and Gathering to Civilizations, 2.5 million–1000 B.C.E.: Origins
Overview. The first human beings appeared in east Africa over two million years ago. Gradually humans
developed a more erect stance and greater brain capacity. Early humans lived by hunting and gathering. The
most advanced human species, Homo sapiens sapiens, migrated from Africa into the Middle East, then into
Europe, Asia, Australia, and the Americas. Over time, they learned to fashion tools and weapons from stone,
bone, and wood, and were, therefore, able to move away from hunting-and-gathering practices to form larger
groups. The beginnings of agriculture, about 10,000 B.C.E., were based on improved tools during the New
Stone Age (Neolithic). The development of agriculture was a radical change in humans’ way of life. By
providing a dependable source of food, people could stay in one place, develop toolmaking technologies
using metals, and, by increasing agricultural output, free individuals to specialize in other kinds of work. More
elaborate political and cultural forms slowly emerged. Civilization emerged in five different regions. While
focusing on the agricultural revolution, we must not lose sight of the many areas in which other systems
prevailed. Hunting-and-gathering was not only a different economic system, it brought with it differences in
gender relations, daily life, and social complexity.
Big Concepts. Each of the key phases of the long period of early human history (2.5 million B.C.E.—1000
B.C.E.) can be characterized by a central topic or Big Concept. The first of these is the development of
human hunting skills, the adaptation of those skills to the shift geography and climate of the Ice Age, and the
patterns of human migration. The second Big Concept is the rise of agriculture and the changes in
technology associated with the Neolithic revolution (9000 B.C.E. and 4000 B.C.E.). These changes set in
motion the agricultural phase of human experience that lasted until just a few centuries ago. The final Big
Concept is the appearance of increasingly distinctive human societies through agriculture or nomadic
pastoralism and the early contacts among these societies, particularly after 3500 B.C.E. when larger and more
formally organized societies, often with early cities as well, emerged and began to develop more consistent
patterns of interregional trade.
Triggers for Change. The phase of human history talked about in this chapter is mainly the story of
accommodating different environments, especially in the search for food. Around 10,000 years ago, near the
Black Sea, humans turned to agriculture, as hunting became less productive. The reasons for the change are
not clear, but possibilities include population pressure, and shortages caused by accidental or deliberate overhunting. Agriculture brought essential changes in social organization, tool-making, and specialization of
occupation.
The Big Changes. Agriculture involved a different set of challenges and benefits than did hunting-andgathering. The demands of farming meant a sedentary life and larger settlements. Social structures became
more complex, and greater gender divisions of labor. Agriculture also made possible the key elements of
civilization: states, towns, and monumental building. The first four civilizations arose in river valleys that
made irrigation, and, hence, large-scale agriculture possible.
Continuity. This transition took place over millennia. Many peoples adhered to their traditional economy,
which meant, as well, adherence to traditional social and cultural ways. As they took to farming, traditionally
women’s work, men developed ideas of superiority over women. This can be interpreted not as innovation,
but as a way to compensate for change.
Impact on Daily Life: Children. Hunting-and-gathering societies necessitated small families, because of the
migratory lifestyle and limited resources. With farming, however, not only were larger families possible, they
made sense. Children were an integral part of traditional agriculture. Birth rates increased enormously,
although infant mortality remained high. The importance of child labor, moreover, brought with it strict
control over children. A culture of parental dominance developed—totalitarian in some instances.
PART I GLOBAL RETROSPECTIVE
Contacts and Their Limits. This period saw no regular contacts between population centers. Notable
similarities between the emerging civilizations resulted from similar needs, not exchange. Three kinds of
intermittent contact did occur in early human history. First, trade between neighboring areas was an
important vehicle for the diffusion of knowledge. Diplomatic exchanges, often in the form of gifts, were also
important. Most of the details of this kind of commerce remain a mystery to us. While the products can be
traced, the mechanics of the exchange cannot. Movement of peoples, through migration or invasion, was
another kind of contact. While these movements could be traumatic, they were nevertheless often fruitful.
Finally, direct trade between centers of civilizations also occurred. Some areas, such as China and the
Americas, remained isolated.
PART II THE CLASSICAL PERIOD, 1000 B.C.E. – 500 C.E.: UNITING LARGE REGIONS
In the classical period, China, India, the Mediterranean, and the Middle East, East Africa, and Mesoamerica
all saw the development of large regional civilizations, and, in some cases, massive empires. These
civilizations had not only the greatest concentrations of people, but also influenced areas outside their
control. Classical civilizations also had important relationships with nomadic groups, mostly from central
Asia, who traded with them and periodically attempted invasion. For the most part, little contact existed
between the regions, but for some, trade forged links, and sometimes served to further an exchange of ideas.
Syncretism, the combination of cultural elements such as an Indian sculpture of Buddha clothed in Greek
fashion, was often a result of this exchange. Syncretism was not the most common feature of the classical
period, but its occurrence hinted at what would be developed more fully later. The establishment of
distinctive cultural and institutional patterns was a key legacy of this period.
Big Concepts. The formation of the classical societies involved two striking features. First was the
emergence and standardization (within each society) of key cultural and religious traditions and second, in
the political realm, was the development of state and empires—again, with each society producing some
characteristic political forms within this category. Finally, as the period’s third overarching feature, the
contacts that did develop among different regions spurred trade and, to some degree, communication. All
three of these features would affect world history long after the classical period had itself ended.
Triggers for Change. Despite the lack of a clear transition, the classical civilizations that began to emerge
about 1000 B.C.E. were measurably different from their river valley predecessors. While they built on earlier
achievements, they grew noticeably larger in their geographic, cultural, and economic reach. What allowed
this greater reach was military conquest, made possible by the introduction of iron tools and weapons,
beginning around 1500 B.C.E. As larger empires developed, leaders worked to tie their territories together
both commercially and culturally. New trade links emerged, sometimes aided by new infrastructure such as
canals (China) or postal service (Persia). Religion and philosophy were formalized and disseminated as part
of training a cohesive elite. Each of the classical societies ultimately declined, some collapsed altogether,
Though these developments did not happen at exactly the same time, together they brought the classical
period to a close by 500 C.E.
The Big Changes. Each of the classical civilizations had its own social structure, religion, political system,
system of science, and styles of art. Comparisons of these differences, which have continued to the present
day, form a vital part of studying the classical period. To take one example: in the late 20th century the
Chinese government proved reasonably effective in mandating drastic changes in birth rates. The Indian
government tried and failed to enforce similar regulations. One significant factor in explaining the difference
is the extent to which these populations considered it the legitimate business of government to regulate
personal life. The differences in attitude can be traced back to the classical period. All of the civilizations
that marked this period have proved to have lasting influence. Moreover, each area developed a common
culture, especially in ideology. Conquest was also a commonality. Each of these civilizations had an impact
on surrounding peoples, India had the largest commercial reach. Even more widely, nomadic peoples were
often attracted toward centers of civilization as immigrants, soldiers, or invaders. Some nomadic peoples
facilitated trade between civilizations. Finally, in each area, the achievements of civilizations inspired awe, at
the time and later. Great developments in philosophy, politics, and art in classical civilizations provided the
foundations for subsequent civilizations.
Continuity. Although technology was a factor in change, particularly iron, the era was not marked by
widespread innovation. In the rural world in particular, continuity was more common than change.
Patriarchy remained the norm, now integrated into new cultural systems. In general, some of the hallmarks
of the earlier civilizations—money and law codes for instance—were carried forward and further developed.
Impact on Daily Life: Old Age. A respect for the aged was common to all of the great cultural regions. It
was seen as a sign of good habits and wisdom. Furthermore, in groups where literacy was not common, the
elderly could be a vital source of information and cultural memory. Respect for the elderly was a sign of
good manners in all the classical societies. Confucianism in China placed special value on veneration of
elders. The Mediterranean culture, that of Classical Greece, Rome, and Hebrews, showed greater
ambivalence.
Trends and Societies. Initial chapters in this section describe developments in each of the major areas,
starting with China in chapter 2. Chapter 3 concerns India, before turning back to the Mediterranean for the
history of Greece and Rome in chapter 4. Chapter 5 returns to the main classical centers, dealing with
patterns of decline and concurrent religious innovations, including the rise of Christianity.
PART II GLOBAL RETROSPECTIVE
Contacts and Their Limits. Unlike the period of the river valley civilizations, the classical period that
followed saw the development of regular contacts from China to the Mediterranean. Both sea and land routes
were commonly used. A find from Taxila, Pakistan at the Roman city of Pompeii confirmed trade between
the Roman Empire and India. Aside from trade, two other influential connections existed. In the first,
following Alexander the Great’s conquests, important cultural exchange resulted. Greek art and Greek
science influenced Indian work. Indian missionaries appear to have influenced early Christianity. Moreover, as
Rome took over Alexander’s empire, it also fell heir to Hellenistic contacts with the East. In the second
development, China became deeply influenced by Indian Buddhism. This is particularly noteworthy as the
only example of significant outside influence on China until modern times. Finally, it is important, when
assessing the contacts between these civilizations, to measure the lasting effects they had. In most cases in
this period, developments within civilizations far outweighed the effects of outside influence.
PART III THE POSTCLASSICAL PERIOD, 500–1450: NEW FAITH AND NEW COMMERCE
The World Map Changes
Two developments stand out in the postclassical period: the further spread of major religions and flourishing
trade networks connecting Africa, Asia and Europe. While two of the major religions were established in the
previous period, they expanded greatly now. The third, Islam, was new, and spread extremely quickly. These
religious developments are especially interesting because they set patterns that essentially dominate today. In
the world of international commerce, the old Silk Road proved insufficient for new demands. Instead, the
Indian Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea carried the increased traffic. The east-west trade now expanded to
include Japan, west Africa and northwestern Europe.
Triggers for Change. Developments in the postclassical period were largely effected by the decline or end
of the great empires. Religion became overwhelmingly important in an era when social, economic and
political dislocation prevailed. Moreover, regions between the empires took on new roles as borders
disappeared. Contacts between world areas increased as a result. Finally, expanding trade itself became a cause
of change, as the tools of trade—the compass, maps and more— developed and commercial practices
became more sophisticated.
The Big Changes. Contact between conflicting religions brought both intolerance and tolerance. Muslim
Spain was the foremost example of the latter. Religion was itself an issue in the postclassical period.
Resources were increasingly diverted to fund religious institutions. At the same time, trade networks
expanded and became more systematic. Commerce in both raw and finished goods throve. Less tangible
goods also moved along the trade networks. Paper and printing made their way to the west from China.
Indian mathematics also began to move west, via the Middle East.
Continuity. As always, focus on change should be balanced with due regard for continuity. Survival of
traditions, and looking backward to the classical era, ensured that elements of earlier culture would survive. In
the Middle East, although Islam brought changes, links with the Hellenistic past also remained vital. Also,
fusion took place, for instance in the ways Buddhism absorbed traditions concerning the family in China. The
postclassical period saw no major developments in social or political structures. The merchant class loomed
larger, but did not affect the role of the landowner in most of the cultures studied. As a final point, many
areas were not affected by international trade. In the Americas and Oceania, developments took place
regionally, in relative isolation.
Impact on Daily Life: Women
The place of women in much of Afro-Asia underwent conflicting changes in this period. The religious
transformations brought with them new attitudes towards women, and especially the role of women in
religious life. At the same time, expanding commerce and the concomitant urbanized world, brought with
them a more ornamental role, especially for elite women. Such practices as footbinding in China and sati in
India arose in this period. In many areas, patterns were established that last to this day.
Trends and Societies in The Early Modern Period
In Chapters 6 and 7, Islam is the focus, as it spread from the Arabian peninsula to neighboring areas.
Chapter 8 moves to sub-Saharan Africa, and developments there in trade and civilization. In Europe, two
regions developed, both affected by the expansion of Islam and by long-distance trade. In Chapter 9,
Eastern Europe and the Byzantine Empire are the focus, while western Europe is the subject of Chapter 10.
Chapters 11 and 12 describe developments in the Americas and China, and Chapter 13 focuses on Chinese
influence on Japan, Korea and Vietnam. The final chapters of this section deal with the last two centuries of
the postclassical period. The spread of the Mongols is the subject of Chapter 14, and Chapter 15 describes
the following transitional period.
PART 3 RETROSPECTIVE A Look Back at the Postclassical Period
Contacts and Their Limits. The postclassical period saw many new contacts forming. The years around
1000 C.E. were a watershed. In the previous period the major world areas followed their own paths. After
1000, contacts became common in Afro-Asia. Imitation was common: with Japan copying China, and
western Europe mimicking the Byzantines. Although contact increased in this period, they were far from
being widespread or of profound effect. Several travelers made epic journeys in the postclassical period. As
contacts increased, tolerance was put to the test. As travelers wondered at the marvels they saw, they were
just as much struck by the differences between their own culture and the ones they visited.
PART IV The Early Modern Period, 1450–1750: The World Shrinks
The World Map Changes. Two maps illustrate major changes in world history between 1450 and 1750. The
first is the formation of new empires. Several of these were European, but the Ottoman Turks, Mughal India
and Russia also expanded. The other big change came in trade routes, which shifted from land routes and
seaways via the Indian Ocean and the Mediterranean to the Pacific and Atlantic oceans.
Triggers for Change. The early modern period was distinguished by renewed empire building. The
Ottoman Empire is a notable example, taking over the former Byzantine Empire, and its capital at
Constantinople. European exploration of the margins of the Atlantic also separated this period from earlier
eras. A third development is encompassed by the term gunpowder empires, characterized by their use of new
military technology. However, other technologies also made their mark, including the compass, and improved
sailing techniques.
The Big Changes. Reactions to the changing world affected all parts of the world, but differently. The three
major changes are discussed below.
A New Global Economy. International trade increased in volume, and now the Americas were part global
commerce. Changes after 1450 brought the regions of the world into much closer contact.
Biological Exchange. All manner of living things now moved or were moved around the world. Population
often followed the introduction of new foodstuffs. At the same time, disease was often transmitted. The
Atlantic slave trade had enormous consequences on both sides of the ocean.
New Empires. The new empires formed in this period often represented significant shifts in power. The
power of Europe, in particular, increased, although it was not alone. These shifts in some cases translated into
serious imbalances.
Continuity. Preexisting trade routes continued to be important. Culturally as well, a great deal of continuity
prevailed. Although world religions spread, many major areas also maintained their religious traditions. In
gender relations too, little systematic change occurred. In the area of technology, this area was relatively
stagnant until after 1750. Earlier developments, such as the use of gunpowder, continued to spread. In the
face of pressure from other regions, some cultures such as the Chinese embraced their cultures more firmly
than ever.
Impact on Daily Life: Work. Diseases, introduced to those with no immunities, were devastating in many
areas of the world. Many Chinese found themselves reduced to poverty when unable to pay taxes in silver,
now the common currency of the wealthy. Millions of Africans died on the trip to the Americas or became
slaves. The most widespread change was in the nature of work. Working conditions were more crowded, and
the workload was often increased to keep pace with competitors. Child labor increased in many areas. The
term for the period, early modern, reflects the fact that the period shared many features with the modern
world, while still bearing a resemblance to the past.
Trends and Societies. The chapters of this section examine in more detail the changes highlighted above.
Chapter 21 provides an overview of changing international trading patterns. Internal changes affecting
western Europe is the focus of Chapter 22. The case of Russia, one of the gunpowder empires, is the subject
of Chapter 23. Chapters 24 and 25 turn to the Atlantic world. The Americas saw the formation of a new
society as indigenous peoples were conquered by Europeans, with African slaves adding to the mix. Chapter
26 focuses on the Muslim world. In Chapter 27, the Asian world presents the example of an area of the world
that was more affected by internal developments in this period, than by global changes.
PART IV RETROSPECTIVE A Look Back at the Early Modern Period
Contacts and Their Limits. New levels of international contact were the significant change in world history
in the early modern period. Europeans went further afield than before, aided by their superior arms. The
Columbian Exchange was one product of the increased contact. While great changes occurred in seaborne
travel, connections were also forged in land empires such as that of the Russian tsars. In this period, exchange
involved goods rather than ideas. European missionaries were not in short supply, but their success was
limited. Rulers of China, Japan, and the Ottoman Empire were successful in controlling intellectual exchange.
While no such restrictions existed in Europe, complacency kept out new ideas, although not goods such as
coffee and sugar. Initial Asian toleration of foreigners changed over time in Japan, China, and India. Russia,
on the other hand, turned eagerly to the West. Unlike trade with the East, the Columbian Exchange—
including animals, plants, and diseases—also included ideas. A great deal of fusion occurred, with native,
European and African traditions merging to create a new culture. In short, the early modern period saw
greatly increased contact between world areas, but also great variation in the paths by which contact
developed. A new feature of this period is cosmopolitanism, limited but notable. European Christians became
familiar with Hinduism and Confucianism. Ottoman diplomats were at home in Europe.
PART V The Dawn of the Industrial Age, 1750–1914
The Industrial Revolution brought great changes to the Western economy and society. Major technological
innovations intensified international commercial contacts. The West was able to acquire hegemony—through
colonization or economic dependence—over most other world civilizations. Industrialism was not confined
to the economic world, but affected art in many ways. Futurism, emerging around 1900, was inspired by
industrial change, while Impressionism turned to natural subjects in reaction. Moreover, international
exchange influenced artistic movements.
Triggers for Change. Many of the gunpowder empires were in difficulty in the beginning of the Modern
period. It was at this time that innovations in Great Britain inaugurated the Industrial Revolution. Several
factors led to change. European experience in the world economy drove manufacturers to speed up
production, while governments encouraged commerce through a number of institutions. Population growth
in Europe led to a ready supply of labor. The Enlightenment also contributed, fostering enthusiasm for
innovation and faith in progress.
The Big Changes. New sources of power and new technology were at the heart of the Industrial
Revolution, but the changes that resulted were more far-reaching. Fundamental change came in the balance
between rural and urban living, with the number of workers in manufacturing outstripping those in
agriculture for the first time in world history. Two groups of changes can be discerned. First, daily life was
transformed, beginning with profound changes in the work day. As work changed, family dynamics changed.
Politics were affected by the growing proletariat, as well as Enlightenment ideas and nationalism. Second, the
consequences of industrialization spread worldwide. Some world areas began to industrialize, while many
others became suppliers of cheap goods to the industrial world. Latin America is an example of the latter,
supplying foodstuffs like coffee and raw materials like copper to fuel industrialization elsewhere. Moreover,
Europeans moved into new areas, looking for opportunities to control low-cost sources of goods. Finally,
two other deep-seated developments resulted. Slavery and serfdom were ended in most world areas. Lastly,
intensification of production led to an increase in human impact on the environment.
Continuity. Industrialization, though revolutionary, occurred over several decades. Traditional modes of life
continued even in the most industrialized countries. The impressive growth of cities and their attendant
institutions masks the fact that rural life and customary commercial exchange continued. The power of the
past is also apparent in the varied responses of different cultures. For example, China and Japan reacted very
differently to industrialization, in part because of longstanding cultural differences. Not only did historical
disparities influence response to change, but new customs appeared. Thanksgiving became a national holiday
in the United States, as a means of promoting unity.
Impact on Daily Life: Leisure. In the industrialized world, leisure became a hindrance to greater
productivity, and for the first time a sharp line was drawn between work and play. Yet, new sports came into
being at the same time. Leisure itself was commercialized, as the travel industry emerged. The leisure activities
of the West spread to nonindustrialized areas.
Societies and Trends. This section begins with developments in the West, starting with the settler societies
of North America, Australia, and New Zealand, in Chapter 28. The world economy and the global impact of
industrialization are the subject of Chapter 29. In Chapter 30, the focus is on formative changes in Latin
America and how they related to world developments. Key developments in Asia, in response to Western
pressure, are described in Chapter 31. Finally, Chapter 32 focuses on Russia and Japan as they began to
industrialize.
PART V RETROSPECTIVE The Dawn of the Industrial Age, 1750–1914
Contacts and Their Limits. Contacts rose to unknown levels in the long 19th century. Travel changed
enormously, with steamships, trains and the telegraph lessening distances. Globalization first appears in this
period. Corporations had factories in different countries. On the political front, Western reformers attempted
to apply their principles to foreign countries, and governments concluded international agreements on
commerce. The International Court emerged in the late 1800s. The spread of Western cultures was another
feature of globalization. Limits in this first wave of globalization include largely one-way cultural borrowing,
and even the imposition of policies by the West. Moreover, many areas were largely unaffected by outside
influence. Little homogenization occurred as yet. In fact, rising nationalism in many areas led to greater
distinction between countries.
PART VI THE NEWEST STAGE OF WORLD HISTORY: 1914–PRESENT
Maps of the world in 1914, in 2006, and of multinational corporations in 2000 reflect two of the biggest
developments in the 20th century. Massive changes in boundaries resulted from the end of the Ottoman,
Austro-Hungarian, and Russian empires. Deep-rooted changes also took place in political forms—
monarchies had predominated in 1914—and in social systems. The emergence of multinational companies
was the other area of great change. While it is clear that the age of empires is over, defining the period that
followed is difficult. In this period, following world history from 1914, it is difficult to achieve a perspective.
The history of the period is not over, and discerning the most important ideas is challenging.
Triggers for Change. World War I, worldwide depression, and World War II were clearly major factors.
Everywhere, European dominance was questioned, threatened. Former colonies challenged Western military
supremacy. A framework was provided by the cold war. When the Soviet Union collapsed and the United
States emerged as the sole world power, new questions emerged. Would some other nation become the global
power? Technological change profoundly affected life. The destructive power of weaponry grew, as did the
nature of warfare, with civilians increasingly under fire. Genocide was frequently a feature of the post-war
period. Population growth, made possible by 19th-century improvements in health care, created a new
concern. Taken together, the factors in the rapid changes of the 20th century, coupled with the problem of
historical perspective, raise many questions concerning the most significant triggers.
The Big Changes. Political changes were substantial. Everywhere aristocracies were replaced, in some
instances by totalitarian governments, elsewhere by democracies. Economically, many countries followed the
Western lead in industrialization. Oil-producing countries played a new role in world events. China and India
transformed themselves into major exporters. Nationalism, Marxism, and consumerism comprised the secular
forces that had the greatest influence on culture. Religion continued to play a vital role. Globalization
continued in the latter half of the 20th century, after a hiatus in the 60s and 70s. This period was considerably
more intense than the first development of globalization, as China, Russia, Japan, Germany, and the United
States played key roles. Environmental change also became global, with the products of one nation affecting
another far away.
Continuity. Three areas of continuity can be discerned. Some countries continued to produce raw materials
and goods in traditional low-cost ways. Gender roles were influenced by changes in other spheres, but
pressure for change was countered in many areas by resistance. In the same way, cultural change was resisted
by efforts to underline native culture. Governments in some cases reacted to change by insisting on their
rights. For instance, the United States remained hostile to what it viewed as infringements of its sovereignty
in matters of the environment, punishment of war criminals, and banning land mines.
Impact on Daily Life: Emotions and Behavior. Emotional and behavioral patterns were impacted by
global change. In some cases, change was brought about intentionally, to help effect reform. Lowering birth
rates also impacted family life. The demands of consumerism brought sales tactics that forced changes in
behavior. As increasing numbers of businesspeople traveled the globe, they brought with them a new set of
global behaviors.
Societies and Trends. Chapter 33 covers World War I. The interwar period is examined in Chapter 34,
focusing on anticolonialism and major regime changes in Russia, Germany and Italy. Chapters 35 and 36 deal
with World War II and the cold war, respectively. Latin America is the focus of Chapter 37. Decolonization
and its impact in Africa, the Middle East and south Asia are the subjects of Chapter 38. Events in east Asia
and the Pacific Rim are dealt with in Chapter 39. The turn of the 21st century is covered in Chapters 40 and
41.