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AMERICA
: THE LAST BEST HOPE
CHAPTER 11
To Bind Up The
Nation’s Wounds
(1865-1877)
Presidential Terms
Andrew Johnson
1865-1869
Ulysses S. Grant
1869-1877
STUDENT
This chapter on Reconstruction begins with a vivid description of the Grand
Army of the Republic’s joyful victory parade in the nation’s capital six weeks
after the war ended. The victorious Union forces could pause to celebrate
before getting down to the hard work of “binding up the nation’s wounds.”
Americans needed to address key issues, including how to treat Confederate
leaders who had brought on and fought the war, and how to bring the four
million freedmen into the larger society.
But in addition to these monumental domestic concerns, foreign policy
issues also required the nation’s attention. Secretary of State Seward, having
survived a knife attack on the same night Lincoln was killed, led America
to pressure France to remove its troops from Mexico – troops that Emperor
Napoleon III had placed there during the Civil War when Americans could
not respond. Americans saw this as a violation of the Monroe Doctrine.
As a result of the military buildup during the war, America now had the
strength to actually enforce the doctrine; something the nation did not
have when Monroe issued it. France did remove its troops and its “puppet”
Maximilian was left to face a Mexican firing squad. Seward also led efforts
resulting in the American purchase of Alaska from Russia, an acquisition
deemed by some as worthless at the time, but greatly appreciated later.
America’s deep resentment over British support for the Confederacy during
the war (particularly the selling of arms and the building of naval vessels the
South used to damage American shipping) led to additional tension. Some
Americans called for war against Britain and the takeover of British Canada.
These threats led the Canadians to join together and form a Confederation
in 1876 – a form of government that would provide more self-rule and
protection from American attempts to annex Canadian provinces. This
was a key step in that nation’s move toward its own form of independence
from Britain. Americans broke from Britain through revolution, Canadians
through evolution. This tense situation was resolved during the Grant
administration with the 1871 Treaty of Washington. Britain agreed to
submit American damage claims to arbitration and eventually paid the U.S.
over fifteen million dollars to settle the issue.
But foreign policy questions paled in comparison to the reconstruction issues
facing the nation, now led by southern War Democrat Andrew Johnson.
Lincoln’s call for “malice toward none” quickly dissipated in the wake of
AMERICA
: THE LAST BEST HOPE
STUDENT
his assassination. Johnson claimed to want to follow Lincoln’s plans for a
mild reconstruction, but he clearly had different motives. Johnson seethed
with jealousy at the southern upper classes he had never been a part of in his
native Tennessee. He had personal scores to settle, as seen in his demand
that southern leaders appeal to him personally for amnesty. He also wanted
Confederate military leaders, including Robert E. Lee, tried for treason.
General Grant acted as a counter to the unstable and hateful president.
Americans debated about what kind of nation America would become –
particularly with the inclusion of the freedmen. While some Republicans
wanted to grant full civil rights to the former slaves for idealistic reasons,
others made political calculations. Without the votes of freedmen in the
South, the Republicans would quickly become a minority party once again.
Their legislative achievements during the war (such as support for railroads)
might be threatened. Also, while some Republicans agreed with Lincoln
on the need to reconcile and bring southerners and seceded states back into
the Union rapidly (something Johnson tried to do), others saw correctly
that again, this likely meant a resurgence of the Democrats and an end to
Republican control of Congress.
President Johnson’s actions were damaging to the fate of the freedmen. His
racist rhetoric emboldened a determined minority in the South to fight any
efforts of freedmen to exercise their new civil rights. The brutal attacks on
blacks in Memphis and New Orleans should shocked the North. Johnson’s
disregard for the protection of the freedmen brought moderate and radical
Republicans in Congress together to battle the president. In doing so, they
followed the 13th Amendment that banned slavery with passage of the 14th
and 15th amendments that guaranteed citizenship and equal protection
under the laws to former slaves and the vote to male freedmen. Republicans
also banned together in Congress to override Johnson’s vetoes of the renewal
of the Freedman’s Bureau and the Civil Rights Act of 1866. Further,
Congressional Republicans divided the South into military districts and
used the army to insure that the civil rights of the freedmen were protected.
The House ultimately impeached President Johnson for violating the clearly
unconstitutional Tenure of Office Act, but he survived conviction in the
Senate by one vote.
Republican Ulysses S. Grant followed Johnson and served two terms.
Americans often associate Grant with the many examples of administrative
corruption but the author also notes key examples of Grant’s character and
willingness to go against the tide of public opinion. These include refusing
to arrest President Johnson while still a general, refusing to pursue wars of
retribution against the Sioux after the Little Big Horn, vetoing an inflation
AMERICA
: THE LAST BEST HOPE
STUDENT
bill the public demanded, and standing up against the Ku Klux Klan as they
terrorized freedmen in the South.
Americans were distracted from events in the South during Grant’s tenure.
Many were moving west and taking advantage of free land offered by the
Homestead Act. Many focused on the new railroads that tied the East to
the Pacific. Industrialization, immigration, and the rise of unions created
new issues and problems for the North. Americans were excited about
the inventions and progress highlighted at the International Centennial
Exhibition. And the Panic of 1873 led to a depression that finally sapped
the nation’s energy to continue reconstruction efforts. These distractions
led Americans to want to “move on” from the pain of the Civil War and
thus Reconstruction failed. There was no longer the energy in the North to
maintain the ideals of freedom for all.
Once northern troops left at the conclusion of Reconstruction, “Redeemers”
in the South used any measure (including violence) to bring back
Democratic rule and strip away nearly all rights exercised by the freedmen
during Reconstruction. No more African-Americans held office in the
region, much less voted. In this manner, the Jim Crow world replaced
the hopeful era of Reconstruction in the South. The nation’s wounds
may have been bound, but only at the cost of leaving African-Americans
to fend for themselves with no civil rights. However, the few years of
harsh reconstruction did guarantee the ratification of the 14th and 15th
amendments (Republicans required southern states to ratify these as a
condition for having representation in Congress). Though not enforced for
100 years after Reconstruction failed, their existence was the very foundation
of the modern civil rights movement.
The chapter closes with an account of one of the most disputed elections in
American history, the election of 1876. Republican Rutherford B. Hayes
prevailed over Democrat Samuel Tilden, despite losing the popular vote.
President Grant was influential in maintaining peace during the resolution
of the electoral dispute (that was not settled until March of the following
year). If African-American voting had not been suppressed by violence and
intimidation in the South, Hayes would have won the popular, as well as
the electoral vote. The tragedy of this election, though, was the agreement
between the parties to remove remaining federal troops from the South
as a condition for awarding disputed electoral votes to Hayes. With this
measure, Reconstruction and the dreams of equality for all Americans in all
regions died, only to be rekindled decades later.