Download STUDENTS` MISCONCEPTIONS ABOUT CELL BIOLOGY AND

STUDENTS’ MISCONCEPTIONS ABOUT CELL BIOLOGY AND CELL
DIVISION: THE CASE OF KELAFO SECONDARY AND
PREPARATORY SCHOOL, SOMALI REGION,
ETHIOPIA
M.Ed Thesis
GETNET HAILEGEBRIEL
October, 2014
Haramaya University
STUDENTS’ MISCONCEPTIONS ABOUT CELL BIOLOGY AND CELL
DIVISION: THE CASE OF KELAFO SECONDARY AND
PREPARATORY SCHOOL, SOMALI REGION,
ETHIOPIA
A Thesis Submitted to the College of Natural and Computational Sciences,
Department of Biology, School of Graduate Studies, HARAMAYA
UNIVERSITY
In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of
MASTER OF EDUCATION IN BIOLOGY
By
Getnet Hailegebriel
October, 2014
Haramaya University
ii
SCHOOL OF GRADUATE STUDIES
HARAMAYA UNIVERSITY
As thesis research advisor, I hereby certify that I have read and evaluated this thesis prepared
under our guidance by Getnet Hailegebriel, entitled “STUDENTS’ MISCONCEPTION
ABOUT CELL BIOLOGY AND CELL DIVISION: THE CASE OF KELAFO
SECONDARY AND PREPARATORY SCHOOL, SOMALI REGION, ETHIOPIA”. I
recommended that it be submitted as fulfilling the Thesis requirement.
Sissay Menkir (PhD)
Advisor
______________________
Signature
____________________
Date
As member of the board of examiners of the M.Ed Thesis Open Defense Examination, we
certify that we have read and evaluated the thesis prepared by Getnet Hailegebriel and
examined the candidate. We recommended that the thesis be accepted as fulfilling the thesis
requirements for the degree of Master of Education in Biology.
___________________
Chairman
____________________
Internal Examiner
____________________
External Examiner
_____________________
Signature
_____________________
signature
______________________
Signature
iii
__________________
Date
__________________
Date
__________________
Date
DEDICATION
I dedicated this thesis work to my beloved families and friends who provided me with love
and support throughout my studies.
iv
STATEMENT OF THE AUTHOR
First, I declare that this thesis is my original work that all sources of materials used for this
thesis have been duly acknowledged. This thesis has been submitted in partial fulfillment of
the requirements for M.Ed. degree in biology at the Haramaya University and deposited at the
University Library to be made available to borrowers under rules of the Library. I solemnly
declare that this thesis is not submitted to any other institution anywhere for the award of any
academic degree, diploma or certificate.
Brief quotations from this thesis are allowable without special permission provided that
accurate acknowledgement of source is made. Requests for permission for extended quotation
from or reproduction of this manuscript in whole or in part may be granted by the head of the
major department or the Dean of the School of Graduate Studies when in his or her judgment
the proposed use of the material is in the interests of scholarship. In all other instances,
however, permission must be obtained from the author.
Name: Getnet Hailegebriel
Signature _____________
Place: Haramaya University, Haramaya
Date of Submission: August, 2014
v
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH
The author was born in 1986 in Sheno town, North Shoa Zone. He attended his Elementary
Education at Sheno Elementary School and secondary education at Sheno Secondary School.
He joined Addis Ababa University in 2007 and graduated with B.Ed degree in Biology in
2009. Upon his graduation, he has been employed by Ethiopian Somali Region Education
Bureau and worked as biology teacher in Gode zone, at Kelafo Secondary and Preparatory
School. In 2010, he joined the School of Graduate Studies of Haramaya University in
Summer (Kiremt) Program in College of Natural and Computational Sciences, Biology
Department to pursue Master of Education in Biology.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to thank my advisor Dr. Sissay Menkir for his precious assistances and
professional guidance. I have received his assistances during my proposal formulation and
preparation of the thesis. I also would like to thank Biology Department of Haramaya
University. I also thank biology teachers of Kelafo Secondary and Preparatory School for
their extensive help during the study. Indeed, my thank goes to students who were
participated in this study. I would like to express my heartfelt thanks to my families and to all
my friends for providing me moral support, encouragement and financial support when I most
need it.
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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS
AAAS
American Association for the Advancement of Science
CSA
Central Statistical Agency
KSPS
Kelafo Secondary and Preparatory School
NEA
National Education Association
NCERT
National Council of Educational Research and Training
TTDT
Two Tier-Diagnostic Test
VSLB
Virginia Standards of Learning for Biology
viii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
STATEMENT OF THE AUTHOR
V
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH
VI
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
VII
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS
TABLE OF CONTENTS
VIII
IX
LIST OF TABLES
XII
ABSTRACT
XIII
1. INTRODUCTION
1
1.1. Background of the Study
1
1.2. Statement of the Problem
2
1.3. Research Questions
2
1.4. Objectives of the Study
3
1.4.1. General Objective
3
1.4.2. Specific Objectives
3
1.5. Significance of the Study
4
1.6. Delimitations of the Study
4
1.7. Limitations of the Study
4
1.8. Operational Definition of Key Terms
4
1.9. Study Period
5
2. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
6
2.1. The concept of Misconceptions
6
2.2. Sources of Misconceptions
7
2.3. Common Misconceptions in Biology
9
2.4. Methodologies for Investigating Students‟ Misconceptions in Biology
13
2.4.1. Interviews
14
2.4.2. Multiple Choice Tests
15
2.4.3. TTDT
17
2.5. Methods of Removing Students‟ Misconceptions
18
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3. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
21
3.1. Description of the Study Area
21
3.2. Research Design
21
3.3. Study Population, Samples and Sampling Procedures
21
3.4. Data Collecting Tools
22
3.4.1. Document Analysis
22
3.4.2. Interview guide
23
3.4.3. Questionnaires
23
3.4.4. TTDT of Cell Biology and Cell Division
24
3.4.5. Classroom Observations
24
3.4.6. Procedures of Data Collection
25
3.5. Methods of Data Analysis
25
4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
26
4.1. Identified Key Concepts and Propositional Knowledge Statements about Cell Biology
and Cell Division
26
4.2. Assessment of Students‟ Misconception about Cell Biology and Cell Division
29
4.2.1. Students‟ Misconception Identified by Interview
30
4.2.2. Students‟ Misconception Identified by Questionnaires
32
4.2.3. Students‟ Misconception Identified by TTDT Items
33
4.3. Observed Misconception Held by Students about Cell Biology and Cell Division
38
4.4. Level of Students‟ Misconception about Cell Biology and Cell Division
40
4.5. Common Sources of Students‟ Misconception about Cell Biology and Cell Division
41
4.6. Evaluation of Teachers‟ Instructional Methods Used to Remediate Students‟
Misconception about Cell Biology and Cell Division
42
5. SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
44
5.1. Summary
44
5.2. Conclusions
45
5.3. Recommendations
46
6. REFERENCES
47
7. APPENDICES
55
7.1. Appendix I. TTDT
55
x
7.2. Appendix II. Questions for Interview
58
7.3. Appendix III. Open-ended Questionnaires
59
7.4. Appendix IV. Close-ended Questionnaires
61
7.5. Appendix V. Cell Biology and Cell division Diagnostic Test
62
7.6. Appendix VI. Classroom Observation Checklist
67
7.7. Appendix VII. Target Concept and Propositional Statements of Cell Biology and Cell
Division
69
7.8. Appendix VIII. Response of Students for Interview Questions
73
7.9. Appendix IX. Response of Students for Open-ended Questionnaires
77
xi
LIST OF TABLES
Table
Page
1
Students‟ sample size
2
Summary of key concepts and their propositional knowledge statements that are
included in grade 10 biology textbook and syllabus related to understand cell
26
division.
3
Summary of key concepts and their propositional knowledge statements that are
included in grade 11 biology textbook and syllabus to understand cell biology.
4
5
6
7
8
9
22
Summary of grade 10 and 11 students‟ misconception about cell biology and
cell division of TTDT.
Frequency of students‟ response categories for interview questions about their
prior conceptions of cell biology and cell division.
Frequency of students‟ response categories for open-ended questionnaires
regarding their prior conceptions of cell biology and cell division.
Frequency of students‟ response categories for TTDT items regarding their
understanding of cell biology and cell division.
Common misconceptions identified about cell biology and cell division in grade
10 and 11 students at KSPS.
Criteria to analyze the cell biology and cell division diagnostic test items based
on students‟ response.
10 Sources of Students‟ misconception as reported by teachers for close-ended
question categories about cell biology and cell division.
xii
27
29
31
32
34
39
40
41
STUDENTS’ MISCONCEPTIONS ABOUT CELL BIOLOGY AND CELL
DIVISION: THE CASE OF KELAFO SECONDARY AND
PREPARATORY SCHOOL, SOMALI REGION,
ETHIOPIA
Getnet Hailegebriel
Advisor - Sissay Menkir (PhD)
ABSTRACT
The purpose of this study was to identify grades 10 and 11 students’ misconceptions about
cell biology and cell division, their sources and levels and to evaluate the effectiveness of
biology teachers’ instructional methods to remediate students’ misconception. The study was
carried out at KSPS, Somali Region, Ethiopia. The TTDT of cell biology and cell division was
prepared and administered to 120 grade 10 and 11 students after their prior conceptions
about the selected topics of the study were collected from students through interview and
open-ended questionnaires. Three biology teachers were observed in classroom using
observation checklist while they were teaching different topics of cell biology and cell
division. A mixed probe design was employed in this research. The researcher has identified
two key concepts and 22 prepositional knowledge statements related to cell division, and
three key concepts and 24 prepositional knowledge statements related to cell biology of grade
10 and 11 biology, respectively. The result revealed the existence of students’ (grade 10 and
11) misconception about cell biology and cell division with average value of reliability
coefficient, discrimination indices and difficulty indices of 0.58, 0.41 and 0.37, respectively.
The results also revealed that biology text books, teachers’ English language skills and
biology instructional methods were the major source of students’ misconception about cell
biology and cell division. The result showed that the majority of the students’ had high level
of misconception about cell biology and cell division. The result showed 16 types of common
misconceptions about cell biology and cell division, which were categorized into: definition of
cell biology and cell division, structures and functions, types, energy and cell cycles.
Moreover, the observed classes of cell biology and cell division lessons showed that all
biology teachers did not implement effective instructional methods to remediate students’
misconceptions. Educational curriculum designers and stakeholders need to design the
educational materials including biology text books and continuous educational supervisions
and on-job trainings for school biology teachers as well as fulfillment of the required
educational facilities are recommended by the researcher.
Keywords: Cell biology, Cell division, Misconception, TTDT.
xiii
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1. Background of the Study
Human beings can learn and explore the horizons of the universe and create knowledge. The
human basic knowledge can be acquired through logic and observation which is further
refined into scientific knowledge. Beginning with the work of Piaget in the 1920s to the
present time, enormous studies have been done on science education focusing on identifying,
analyzing, understanding and mapping the concept students held before and after instruction
(Wanderse, 1994). Identifying students‟ concepts (prior knowledge) is a major area of science
education research. Mental representations of a given concept which is different for the
currently held scientific theories is termed as misconception (Kesidou and Duit, 1993; Lewis
and Linn, 1994) which can be distinguished into two kinds: (a) alternative or experiential or
intuitive or native conceptions and (b) instructional misconception (Skelly and Hall, 1993;
Nakiboglu, 2003).
Over the past three decades there have been growing international interest in studying the
ways in which learners view the natural world and their resulting conception. Studies in
science education have been focusing on identifying and analyzing the idea and concepts
students held before and after instruction. Most of the studies have confirmed the students
usually bring in science education ideas that differ from those held by the instructors and
accepted as correct by scientific community. Such views of students have been variously
described by different researchers. For example, alternative conception (Driver and Easley,
1978) and misconception (Fisher, 1985).
Misconceptions have serious impact on students‟ learning. The occurrence of these
misconceptions hinders students from learning concepts that are more advanced. When
students‟ initial understanding is not carefully considered, they may fail to grasp new
concepts and information presented in the classroom, or they may learn for the purpose of test
but revert to their misconceptions outside classroom (Ozmen, 2004). It is important that the
biology teachers find ways to identify and carefully address those misconceptions that
students bring to the classroom.
1
Misconceptions that already exist in learners‟ mind are considered as barriers in
understanding biological sciences and they adversely affect subsequent learning. Recent
studies on students‟ conceptual understanding of fundamental concepts in life science have
indicated that new concepts can hardly be learned unless the existing misconception is
corrected or students are made to bring conceptual change. However, before misconception
can be corrected, they need to be identified. It is a well known fact that students enter in
biology classroom with a lot of misconceptions which are based on their beliefs and
observations. In Ethiopia only few attempts have been made to identify students‟
misconception in physical and life sciences, such as biology, physics, chemistry and
mathematics (Temechegn, 2002). The researcher temechegn has investigated on primary and
secondary school teachers‟ alternative conceptions about structural models and fourth year
Addis Ababa University students understanding of basic concepts of solid-state chemistry.
1.2. Statement of the Problem
This research would be an investigation of existing misconceptions that conflict with
currently accepted scientific concepts in students studying about cell biology and cell division
at KSPS. There was no any research have been done on students‟ misconceptions in biology
and other subjects at KSPS. In this study to address students‟ misconceptions and identified
the common misconceptions previously held by students at KSPS. Therefore, the purpose of
this research was to identify grade 10 and 11 students‟ misconception about cell biology and
cell division using TTDT, identify the target concepts and propositional knowledge
statements, sources of students‟ misconception, level of students‟ misconception and to
evaluate the effectiveness of biology teachers‟ instructional methods to remediate students‟
misconception at KSPS, Ethiopian Somali regional state, eastern Ethiopia.
1.3. Research Questions
1. What were the identified target concepts and propositional knowledge statements
necessary for grade 10 and 11 students to understand the topics of cell biology and cell
division?
2. What were the common misconceptions held by grade 10 and 11 students about cell
biology and cell division at KSPS?
2
3. What were the sources of grade 10 and 11 students‟ misconception about cell biology
and cell division at KSPS?
4. What was the level of grade 10 and 11 students‟ misconception about cell biology and
cell division held at KSPS?
5. Are the instructional methods practiced by biology teachers effective enough to
remediate students‟ misconceptions about cell biology and cell division at KSPS?
1.4. Objectives of the Study
1.4.1. General Objective
The main objective of this study was to identify grade 10 and 11 students‟ misconception
about cell biology and cell division using TTDT, identify the target concepts and
propositional knowledge statements, sources of students‟ misconception, level of students‟
misconception and to evaluate the effectiveness of biology teachers‟ instructional methods to
remediate students‟ misconception at KSPS.
1.4.2. Specific Objectives
The specific objectives of the present study were to:
1. Identify the target concepts and propositional knowledge statements necessary for
grade 10 and 11 students to understand cell biology and cell division at KSPS.
2. Identify common misconceptions about cell biology and cell division held by grade 10
and 11 students at KSPS.
3. Assess the sources of students‟ misconception about cell biology and cell division at
KSPS.
4. Assess the level of students‟ misconception about cell biology and cell division at
KSPS.
5. Evaluate the effectiveness of grade 10 and 11 biology teachers‟ methods of instruction
about cell biology and cell division to remediate students‟ misconception at KSPS.
3
1.5. Significance of the Study
Information about the development of misconceptions was particularly useful for science
teaching community in order to develop curriculum materials and design instruction.
Therefore, this study was significant in helping teachers and curriculum developers to address
and design teaching and learning process. It was also used as a starting point for the
development of subsequent learning activities based on some common and key
misconceptions. Moreover, this study lays a foundation for future studies that aim to
investigate it the causes of misconceptions and appropriate to bring conceptual change and
develop problem solving skill.
1.6. Delimitations of the Study
The primer concern of this study was to identify students‟ misconception about cell biology
and cell division at KSPS the key factors that significantly affects students‟ misconception.
The study was confined in KSPS, kelafo wereda, Gode Zone, Somali National Regional State,
would be addressed. It is assumed that the findings of the study would be sound enough in
addressing the problems of students‟ misconception at KSPS.
1.7. Limitations of the Study
The results and conclusions generated in this study refer specifically to the sample groups
involved in the study. Generalization of the findings to all students in Gode Zone must be
considered with caution due to the nature of environment and the limited size of the sample.
Students may not understand or may misinterpret the questions and options in the cell biology
and cell division diagnostic test, and since they are commonly familiar with the normal
traditional multiple choice types of test items that have only one part, this may affect the
validity and reliability of the test.
1.8. Operational Definition of Key Terms
Concept is an abstract or general idea inferred or derived from specific instances
Misconception is a belief that contradicts accepted scientific theory.
Conception is the power of recalling a past sensation or perception
4
Diagnostic tests are a test with items in multiple-choice or short answer format that has been
designed with common misconceptions
Statement of proposition is two more concepts are linked by word (s) to describe the relation
between the concepts.
1.9. Study Period
Interview questions about their prior conceptions of cell biology and cell division, in grade 10
and 11 students at KSPS, were distributed during December, 2013; Open-ended
questionnaires were distributed during January, 2014 and TTDT were distributed during
February, 2014.
5
2. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
2.1. The concept of Misconceptions
In broad terms, misconception corresponds to the concepts that have peculiar interpretations
and meanings in students‟ articulations that are not scientifically accurate. In the literature
misconception are also referred to as naive beliefs (Caramazza, McCloskey and Green, 1980),
erroneous ideas (Fisher, 1985), preconceptions (Hashweh, 1988), multiple private versions of
science (McClelland, 1984), underlying sources of error (Fisher and Lipson, 1986), personal
models of reality (Champagne, Gunstone and Klopfer, 1983), spontaneous reasoning
(Viennot, 1979), persistent pitfalls (Meyer, 1987), alternative frameworks (Driver and Easley,
1978) and children science (Gilbert, Watt and Osborne, 1982). Although the term
misconception is dominant in the literature, some researchers (Abimbola, 1988; Gilbert and
Swift, 1985 and Wandersee, Mintzes and Novak, 1994) now prefer the term alternative
conception. It is important to use the term misconception rather than the alternatives in order
not to create concept confusion because of the following reasons. It is still commonly used by
many researchers, the term already has familiarity in the public and it easily conveys the
message that a concept might have contradictory connotations with the current scientific
thought in science education.
The term concept does not have a standard meaning but the researcher was accepted this
definition for his research. Concepts can be considered as ideas, objects or events that help us
understand the world around us (Eggen and Kauchak, 2004). Concept is an explanatory
principle in a scientific system also called conception the interpretation and explanation given
by the student will exhibit his or her concept about the specific term (Voska and Heikkinen,
2000). A conception is an idea or notion. The ideas, notions and understandings about a
specific topic or subject that students possess prior to formal instruction are considered
preconceptions (Brown, 1994). Misconception on the other hand can be described as ideas
that provide an incorrect understanding of such ideas, objects and events that are constructed
based on a person‟s experience (Martin et al., 2002) including such things as preconceived
notions,
non-scientific
beliefs,
naive
theories,
mixed
conceptions
or
conceptual
misunderstandings. Research into conceptions held by students has shown that there can be
6
significant differences between the same phenomena even after formal instruction, this is
refereed as misconception. Children assemble their thoughts about how the world works and
explain scientific phenomena in terms of their thoughts. These kinds of ideas are referred as
misconception or alternative conceptions (Canpolat, Nurtac and Pnarba et al., 2006).
Nakhleh (1992) defines misconception as concepts which students construct on their own but
these are outside the concepts which are scientifically accepted or are aimed to be constructed
by teachers. Main reasons for misconception are faulty or insufficient perception of the
concepts learnt, concepts of daily language having different meanings in scientific language,
not using appropriate teaching approaches while teaching topics and concepts, insufficiency
in the construction of relationships between the concepts and concepts and daily life (Mann
and Treagust, 1998). The big issues are that once a misconception has been formed it is
extremely difficult to change (Eggen and Kauchak, 2004) and that possessing misconception
can have serious impacts on learning (Hanuscin, 2005). Students come into the classroom
with prerequisite knowledge or existing schemas and as they progress through their education
these schemas are progressively or sequentially built upon (Alagumalai, 2005).
2.2. Sources of Misconceptions
A search of related literature reveals that textbooks, reference books, teachers, language,
cultural beliefs and practices are some of the principal sources of high school students‟
misconception of many science concepts including those in biology. There are many possible
sources for the development of misconception. First, not all experiences lead to correct
conclusions or result in students seeing all possible outcomes. Second, when parents or other
family members are confronted with questions from their children rather that admitting to not
knowing the answer it is common for them to give an incorrect one (Alagumalal, 2005).
Textbook is one of the sources of misconception. It is a tool used in the teaching-learning
process and is the guide for teachers and students. It is the tool to show the scope and
limitations of the curriculum and a major resource in school sciences. The textbook is usually
regarded by educators throughout the world as a good source of information for teaching.
Abimbola and Baba (1996) stated that American biology teachers rely solely on textbooks for
use in their instruction. According to them “nearly 90% of teachers use a textbook 90% of the
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time”. In India too, science teachers rely solely on textbooks for the appropriate content
materials that satisfy the requirements of the science syllabus and the national curricula in the
different science subjects. Textbooks are perhaps the only learning materials available and
used in most Indian schools. The textbook as a tool of instruction has great significance in
learning because it presents a treasure of knowledge to students and also creates real interest
for subjects. If the instructional material contains any defective knowledge or information the
consequences will be serious for students and hence for the whole country. In India most
textbooks are prepared by the government bodies such as the National Council of Educational
Research and Training (NCERT) (2006) and are used all over the country for central schools
or by the state bureaus of textbook production and curriculum research for use in state
schools.
Teachers as a source of misconception studies provide valuable information regarding
awareness of and struggle with misconception there are not enough studies regarding
teachers‟ attitudes towards misconception such as teachers‟ general perceptions of
misconception or how much importance they give to students‟ misconception during their
teaching. In fact, teachers‟ attitudes may affect their teaching process in the lessons and the
environment they create for students‟ meaningful learning. As for science lessons (Huinker
and Madison, 1997) stated those teachers‟ attitudes and beliefs about science and science
education play an important role in the way their behaviors in science teaching take shape. It
is expected that understanding teachers‟ attitudes towards students‟ misconception provide
useful information to teacher educators, curriculum developers, textbook writers and teachers
in their struggle with students‟ misconception. Other sources of misconception include
reference books, language, cultural beliefs and practices. The main issue is that all of the
above sources are considered to be trustworthy leading to ready acceptance by students of
what they are being taught.
8
2.3. Common Misconceptions in Biology
To date, several studies have investigated students' understanding of biological concepts in
different countries. Cell (Dreyfus and Jungwirth, 1988), photosynthesis (Bell, 1985, Haslam
and Treagust, 1987, Waheed and Lucas, 1992), respiration (Sanders, 1993), genetic (Lewis,
Leach and Wood-Robinson, 2000, Pash1ey, 1994), ecology (Griffiths and Grant, 1985,
Munson, 1994), classification (Trowbridge and Mintzes, 1988), the circulatory system (Yip,
1998), vertebrate and invertebrate (Braund, 1998) and energy (Boyes and Stanisstreet, 1991).
From these studies revealed that students‟ misconception about different concepts of biology,
students leave secondary school with a distorted view of concepts, objects and events.
In the connection with cell structures and cell functions students‟ idea of these concepts and
their conceptual difficulties or misconception will be investigated in different studies.
Students are expected to know that all organisms including animals, plants, fungi and
microorganisms are made up of cells, cells vary in size, shape and specialized functions, most
cells are so small that their details can be seen only with a microscope, living things can be
made of just one cell to many millions of cells, some organisms are made of many types of
cells and many of each type, in single-celled organisms such as bacteria the single cell carries
out all of the functions needed for the organism to stay alive, in organisms made of many cells
individual cells work together with or depend on other cells to carry out their essential life
functions, in multi cellular organisms the structures that make up those organisms including
brain, muscles, skin and lungs in animals and stems and flowers in plants are made up of cells
(Dreyfus and Jung wirth, 1988). Research has shown that students have difficulty making the
connection between molecular and cellular organization (Driver, Rosalind, Squires, Ann,
Rush worth, Peter, Wood-Robinson and Valerie, 1994). Students seem to understand that both
atoms and cells are made up of smaller parts including the nucleus. However, they struggle to
conceptualize the foundational principal that all matter including cells is made of atoms. This
misunderstanding seems to perpetuate beyond differentiation between cells and atoms in their
understanding of the structure and function of macromolecules. The learning goals set by the
American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS) (1994) for the topic of cell
structure and function for grades 9-12 include understanding that cell structure affects
function and understanding that living cells are made of chemical elements. Additionally, the
9
Virginia Standards of Learning for Biology (VSLB) (2003) include understanding the
structure and function of macromolecules and learning key differences between prokaryotic
and eukaryotic cells. These standards help shape the curriculum for high school biology in
Virginia and make up a continuous theme throughout the course. According to the American
Association for the Advancement of Science (1994) students should experience a progression
of their understanding of cell structure and function as they move through the grade levels. As
elementary students they should have an understanding that some parts of organisms must be
seen through a magnifying glass and then as they enter the upper elementary grades them
should begin to form the concept of a cell as the basic unit of life. Finally, as they exit middle
school students should have a clear understanding of basic cell function. By the end of the
12th grade students should have knowledge and understanding of the nature and function of
proteins and the specialization of organelles within the cells including the cell membrane.
Driver et al. (1994) a leader in misconception research has discovered that students often
confuse the concepts of molecules and cells. Often times, students have a very general
concept of molecules and cells both of which contain a nucleus and are surrounded by other
small things. This confusion seems to stay with children though the teenage years. Also,
students at the high school level tend to think that larger macromolecules such as proteins and
carbohydrates are made of cells rather than atoms. They did not understand the difference
between cells and molecules. More confusion has been found in students‟ ability to
differentiate the sizes of cells and atoms. Many students at the high school level believe that
cells and molecules of protein are the same size. Driver et al. (1994) research also found that
students believe single-celled organisms contain intestines and lungs.
A large number of prior studies reported that primary and Secondary School students have
many conceptual problems concerning cell biology and genetics (Flores et al., 2003, Lewis
and Wood-Robinson, 2000 and Marbach and Stavy, 2000). However, any detailed research
related to biology students‟ misconception about cell biology and cell division was not found.
If higher education curriculum designers knew students‟ misconception it might be helpful to
prepare effective teaching strategies. Teachers can play an important role in teaching
scientific concepts and from a constructivist perspective students should gain meaningful
knowledge about biological concepts like cell biology and cell division. Biologically literate
10
students should be able to use and apply basic biological concepts when considering
biological problems or issues. Prior studies have shown that students experience difficulties in
learning concepts related to the cell division process (Kindfield, 1994). Cell division
constitutes the basis for genetics, reproduction, growth, development and molecular biology
subjects in the biology curriculum. As a matter of fact, a majority of the students evaluated
topics such as gene, DNA, chromosome and cell division as difficult to learn topics (Oztas,
Ozay and Oztas, 2003).
Research on students‟ conceptual understandings often indicates that even after being taught
students use misconception different from the scientific concepts (Lewis et al., 2000,
Yesilyurt and Kara, 2007). Reasons for these misconception include students‟ inability to
differentiate between doubling or replication, pairing or synapses and separating or
disjunction, as well as determining whether or not these processes occur in mitosis, meiosis or
both (Smith, 1991). Further misconception includes a lack of understanding of basic terms
confusing chromatids with chromosomes or replicated chromosomes with un replicated
chromosomes etc. (Kindfield, 1994). This is a concern for instructors because cell division
processes are fundamental to the understanding of growth, development, reproduction and
genetics (Chinnici et al., 2004, Cordero and Szweczak, 1994). Studies conducted on problemsolving related to genetics revealed that students have some misconception regarding the
stages of meiosis (Brown, 1990, Stewart and Dale, 1989). Accurate organizing of many
concepts in cell biology is dependent on the degree of understanding cell division (Smith and
Kindfield, 1999). As a matter of fact, a study related to genetics mentioned that students
possess misconception and inadequate knowledge about the behavior of chromosomes and
transference of genetic material during cell division. It further suggested that such
misconception lead to conceptual problems in genetics (Kibuka-Sebitosi, 2007). Yenilmez, A.
and Tekkaya, (2006) studied the misconception possessed by 9th grade students relating to
cell division and the effect of the conceptual teaching regarding elimination of such
conceptions. They hypothesize that conceptual teaching is an effective method for
understanding the concepts related to cell division and for elimination of misconception.
(Lewis et al., 2000) studied the students‟ levels of understanding in regards to mitosis,
meiosis and fertilization.
11
Students possess inadequate knowledge and numerous misconceptions related to the physical
relationships between the genetic material and the chromosomes and the relationships
between the behavior of the chromosomes and continuity of the genetic information. Lewis et
al. (2000) further emphasized the fact that the students mainly experience difficulties for
explaining the relationships between the cell, nucleus, chromosome and gene concepts and the
similarities and differences between mitosis and meiosis.
Clark and Mathis (2000) indicated that students experience difficulties particularly for
discriminating chromatids, chromosomes and the homologous parts of the chromosomes
during the cell division process, conclusions of the study have shown that these difficulties
related to the structure and behavior of the chromosome can be easily identified and removed
by means of models. Atilboz (2004) studied the level of understanding and misconception of
9th grade students related to mitosis and meiosis, from this study students experience
difficulties in understanding fundamental concepts such as DNA, chromosome, chromatid,
homologous chromosomes, haploid and diploid cells and the relationships between such
concepts and possess some misconception.
Saka, Cerrah, Akdeniz and Ayas, (2006) have shown that science student have misconception
particularly regarding the concepts of gene and chromosome in accordance with their findings
obtained from written responses and drawings. Kruger et al. (2006) studied the concepts of
students regarding cell division and growth, the study revealed that students generally focus
on the increase occurring with number of the cells, as a result of cell division and disregard
the growth occurring in the cells. Kruger and colleagues also indicated that such difficulties
experienced during understanding such concepts might be overcome by learning activities that
researchers have developed. Riemeier and Gropengieber (2008) analyzed the difficulties in
learning as experienced by the 9th grade students regarding cell division and their conceptual
understandings with in teaching experiments. They have shown that well planned teaching
activities for the cell biology and cell divisions might enhance the conceptual development
process and might contribute to the conceptual learning by the students. It is obvious from the
literature that misconception related to cell division processes lead to a series of problems for
the biology teaching. When attending their biology classes students bring their perceptions,
prejudices and former experiences in conflict with the scientific facts. This situation causes
12
various problems to arise during their biology classes. Keeping knowledge or conceptual
frames of the students in line with the scientific facts can only be possible with effective
conceptual teaching.
2.4. Methodologies for Investigating Students’ Misconceptions in Biology
Science education researchers have widely surveyed students‟ knowledge in various domains
known as students‟ misconception or alternative conceptions (Wandersee, Mintzes and
Novak, 1994). Researchers have developed methods to explore student alternative
conceptions for instance interviews (Bell, 1995, Posner and Gertzog, 1982) and concept maps
(Novak and Gowin, 1984). However, these methods often require additional training and
amounts of time to conduct, analyze and to make interpretation (Ruiz-Primo and Shavelson,
1996). There are a number of techniques used to determine conceptual understanding and
misconception of students. Open-ended questions, two-tier diagnostic tests, interviews and
drawings may be given as examples of these techniques. Using drawings to access student‟s
thinking has been a feature of educational research. Students can present a broad spectrum of
ideas through drawings (Rennie and Jarvis, 1995). Drawings have been used broadly in
science education studies of students‟ conceptual understanding (Ben-Zvi Assaraf and Orion,
2005).
It is recognized that drawings expose students‟ true understanding and conceptualization of
basic scientific ideas and concepts. This is in contrast to what is exposed by standard written
texts where students can repeat what they learned in class without revealing their
misconception (Scherz and Oren, 2006). Student drawings in the area of biology can provide
useful insight into common misconception or alternative conceptions (Bahar et al., 2008;
Bowker, 2007; Kose, 200; Prokop and Faneovieova, 2006). As a technique for exploring ideas
drawing taps holistic understanding and prevents students from feeling constrained by
attempting to match their knowledge with that of the researcher (White and Gunstone, 2000).
Thus, by using simple drawings biology educators can gather large amounts of data on the
mental models students have about scientific concepts.
Before misconception can be corrected they need to be identified. Since identification of
misconception is needed to develop strategies to provide student with the accurate conceptual
13
knowledge. As mentioned earlier, misconception also developed by the student during the
lesson if they are not detected and corrected immediately they will be adversely affecting the
students' subsequent learning. This is a major source of learning problems in schools. In many
countries, including Ethiopia assessment can be done at the end of a semester. However, this
kind of assessment is not appropriate as a feedback on teaching. The teacher has no idea of
how well or how poorly his students have learnt until at a very late stage. In order to identify
and analyze misconception at an early stage, various forms of assessment should be used
throughout a course. For example, quiz and discussion can take place any time during the
lesson which provides opportunities for students to express their own ideas c1early. A short
test given at the end of a topic also helps to motivate the students to review their work. A
concept map constructed by each student is an excellent way of not only the reviewing a
given topic but also detecting students' specific misconception. The nature and uses of
interviews, multiple choice test and two-tier diagnostic instrument are discussed in the
following sections.
2.4.1. Interviews
Interviews can be structured, semi-structured or unstructured. In a structured interview a
series of questions called a protocol is prepared prior to the interview and the interviewer has
to follow rigidly the series of questions. In a semi-structured interview the interviewer also
follows a sequence of questions prepared beforehand but he or she is allowed to probe the
interviewee's answers with additional questions. In an unstructured interview the interviewer
asks open-ended questions and based on the response given by the interviewee more specific
follow-up questions are asked to probe any point of interest. Carr (1996) believed that
unstructured interviews are difficult to sustain and are confrontational for interviewees so the
interviewer must have a set of questions in mind for use when necessary.
Interview methods, for example, interview-about-instances and interview-about-events (Carr,
1996) are very useful for exposing the nature of students' understanding and possible
misconception. An interview about an instance is a deep probe of the student's understanding
of a single concept (White and Gunstone, 1992). It is a conversation that an expert has with
one student focused by initial questions about situations represented in a series of line
14
diagrams that checks not only whether the student can recognize the presence of the concept
in specific instances but also whether the student can explain his or her decision. The quality
of the student's understanding can be determined by his or her explanation. Interviews-aboutevents are similar probes though the emphasis is now on the student's interpretation of a
natural phenomenon or social occurrence and his or her ability to explain it (White and
Gunstone, 1992).
Interviews also can involve the manipulation of concrete objects (Lazarowitz and Tamir,
1994) and students can be asked to explain the outcomes of their manipulations, for example,
the results obtained when the seedling is put in the dark place. Interviews are highly flexible
because they allow the interviewer to change his or her mode of questioning. When required,
the interviewer can rephrase the questions if the interviewee does not understand the questions
and he or she can probe any response to obtain clarification and elaboration from the
interviewee. Thus, the interview allows the interviewer to probe the interviewee‟ ideas in as
much detail as desired (Taber, 2000). The interview situation also allows the interviewee to
ask questions, for example, to clarify perceived or actual ambiguities before attempting to
answer a question (Osborne and Gilbert, 1980). An advantage that interviews have over
written answers is that students cannot easily ignore a question and give no answer or omit to
give a reason for an answer or simply produce an answer by guessing.
2.4.2. Multiple Choice Tests
Multiple choice tests have been used for measuring students' understanding of concepts as
they enable a large number of students to be sampled in a given amount of time as compared
to time-consuming interviews. These tests are also easy to administer and score and the results
obtained are also easily processed and analyzed (Taber, 2000). However, there are problems
associated with the pencil-and-paper tests. For example, multiple choice tests make some
demands on the reading comprehension skills of the respondents and students do not always
perceive and interpret test statements in the way that test designers intend (Hodson, 1993).
Since they have little option for clarification, misunderstandings do occur and this affects the
validity and reliability of the tests.
15
Strategies such as time-management, error avoidance, checking responses and elimination of
incorrect answers do not damage the validity and reliability of a test, while strategies that take
advantage of consistent idiosyncrasies of the test constructor such as grammatical agreement,
length of response, location of response and previous emphases of the test constructor.
Guessing when students do not know the answer is also a problem in multiple choice tests.
However, Tamir (1990) expressed his opinion that if a test consisted of cognitively high level
items, students should be advised to attempt all items making educated guesses where
necessary, for example, by narrowing down the possible choices through the elimination of
incorrect responses.
Tamir (1990) state that the development of multiple choice tests on student conceptions has
the potential to make a valuable contribution to the body of work in the area of students‟
conceptions and to enable classroom teachers to more readily use the findings of research in
their lessons. Ben-Zvi and Hofstein (1996) believed that research in student conceptions had
only limited impact on teaching and learning in schools one of the reasons being teachers‟
unawareness of the learning difficulties and misconception that exist among their students.
Thus, teachers could use such tests as a tool to diagnose student conceptions and steps could
then be taken to help students see that the science concepts make more sense than their
conceptions hence increasing the status of the science concepts (Hewson, 1996).
Classroom discussion of the items in such diagnostic tests provides a means of challenging
misconception as students are often well-motivated to know the right answers after they have
completed such an activity. Tamir (1990) pioneered the use of tests derived from a specified
and limited content area as well as the use of distracters which were based on students'
answers to essay questions and other open-ended questions in the multiple choice items. He
believes that normal multiple choice items tend to overestimate students‟ knowledge as
students may not be able to explain adequately their choices. He also suggests that students
should be made to justify their choices in the multiple choice items so that more information
can be obtained on the students‟ knowledge. Incorrect justifications could also provide a rich
source of students‟ misconception.
16
2.4.3. TTDT
Two-tier test is a pencil and paper test in a multiple choice format that proposed by science
educators to diagnostic students‟ misconception (Odom and Barrow, 1995). The two tier test
allows teachers not only understand students‟ scientifically incorrect ideas but also explore
students‟ reasoning behind these ideas. Moreover, it is easy for teachers to assess
misconception of a larger sample of students in a more efficient and relatively straightforward
method. It is recently widely used in science education research (Voska and Heikkinen,
2000).
Duit (1995) described that how two-tier diagnostic tests can identify and be used to evaluate
student conceptions in specific content areas.
The first-tier choices examine factual
knowledge while the second-tier choices examine the reasons behind the first tier. To ensure
the validity of the diagnostic instrument, the propositional knowledge statement is to be
specified clearly. The items in the test are to be developed based on known student
conceptions responses from students to interviews and free response items. This methodology
has been used to develop two-tier diagnostic tests in chemistry these tests were developed for
covalent bonding (Peterson and Treagust, 1989) and chemical equilibrium (Tyson and Bucat,
1999) and in biology on diffusion and osmosis (Odom and Barrow, 1995).
Two-tiered questions have two main benefits over conventional one-tiered questions. The first
is a decrease in the measurement error. In a one tier multiple choice questions with 5 possible
choices there is a 20% chance of correctly guessing the answer. These random correct guesses
must be accounted for in the measurement error. A two-tiered question is considered correct
only if both tiers are answered correctly. As a result, a student responding to a question with 5
choices in the first tier and 5 in the second has only 4% chance of randomly correct guessing.
The second benefit to the two-tiered format is that it allows for the probing of two aspects of
the same phenomenon. In the first-tier, students are asked to predict the outcome of a content
knowledge and the second-tier asks for an explanation. This allows the probing of the
phenomenological domain with the first-tier and the conceptual domain with the second
(Treagust, 1988). The rules of development of two-tiers multiple choice diagnostic tests used
in this study were described by Treagust (cited in Wang, 2004). In this test, the first-tier of
17
each item consists of a content question of five choices the second part of each item contain a
set of five justifications for the answers to the first part. Included in these justifications are the
correct answer and two to five distracters. Distracters are derived from students‟
misconception gathered from the literature, interviews and free responses. In advocating
different assessment procedures to probe students‟ understanding of scientific concepts
(Schmidt, 1991) recommended that information relating to erroneous concept held to be true
by students should be included in the tests that have distracters. This line of research in
assessment has included the development of multiple choice tests items that have distracters
based on students‟ conceptions.
2.5. Methods of Removing Students’ Misconceptions
To promote meaningful learning, ways must be found to eliminate or remove misconception.
Various instructional methods can be used for this purpose. One such method involves the use
of a conceptual change approach. A conceptual change approach proposes that if students are
to change their ideas, they must become dissatisfied with their existing conditions or
dissatisfaction, new concepts must intelligible, plausible and fruitful (Posner et al., 1982).
Several research studies suggested that instructional strategies leading to conceptual change
such as concept maps, conceptual change texts, analogies and reputational texts could be
employed to remove students' misconception and improving learning. Concept maps,
conceptual change texts, conceptual change model and classical conceptual change are briefly
discussed below.
Concept Maps: Compartmentalization of concepts is a common problem in biology learning
which occurs when concepts are studied with little integration. Students may be able to state
correctly the individual events but often do not understand the relationship between them. An
effective way to tackle this problem is to use a concept map. They are diagrammatic
representations which show meaningful relationships between concepts in the form of
proposition. Propositions are two or more concept labels linked by words which provide
information on relationships or describing connections between concepts. Concept maps serve
to clarify links between new and old knowledge and force learners to externalize those links.
From these aspects, concept mapping has become increasingly useful as an instructional
18
strategy for the diagnosis of students' misconception by facilitating meaningful learning
(Guastello, 2000; Kinchin, 2000; Novak, 1990; Okebukola, 1990; Sungur et al., 2001 and
Yılmaz, 1998).
Conceptual Change Text: Conceptual change text is an instructional technique that creates
conceptual change on students' minds while promoting meaning learning. Conceptual change
texts are designed to make students aware of both their misconception and scientifically
accepted concepts. Misconception is directly stated within the text and helped students to
understand and apply the target scientific knowledge through the use of more plausible and
intelligible explanations (Erdmann, 2001; Ozkan, 2001; Sungur et al., 2001 and Yılmaz,
1998). Thus, conceptual change instructional techniques have to use to change students'
misconception with the scientific view of world and taught the concepts in a meaningful
manner to students. Misconceptions also arise when the learning fails to induce the conceptual
change in students' minds. These strategies not only help teachers analyze the ideas of their
students but also help students get a better understanding of biological concept.
Conceptual Change Model: Students‟ conceptual ideas are based on personal experiences and
require real changes in thinking and adjustments at the neural levels (Zirbel „‟ learning and
concept formation”). Unfortunately, students often are not open to new ideas, in which case a
radical approach is needed to change preexisting concepts. With this mind, posner et. al.,
(1982) proposed the conceptual change theory, a combination of two theories: one from the
history and sociology of science (Kuhn, 1970), and one from developmental psychology
(Piaget, 1977). Posner et.al (1982) hypothesized that there are four essential conditions for
conceptual change: Dissatisfaction with one‟s current conception, followed by degree to
which the new conception is deemed b) intelligible c) plausible
and d) fruitful.
The interpretation of student responses as driven by alternative conceptions suggests that
learning may involve changing a person‟s conceptions in addition to adding new knowledge
to what is already there. This view was developed into a model of learning as conceptual
change model (CCM) by Posner et al., (1982) and expanded by Hewson (1981, 1982). From
this point of view, learning involves an interaction between new and existing conceptions
with the outcome being dependent on the nature of the interaction.
19
A central prediction of the conceptual change model is that conceptual changes do not occur
without concomitant changes in the relative status of changing conceptions. Learning a new
conception means that its status rises, i.e., the learner understands it, accepts it, and sees that it
is useful. If the new conception conflicts with an existing conception, i.e., one that already
have high status for the learner, it cannot be accepted until the status of the existing
conception is lowered. This only happens, according to the conceptual change model, if the
learner holding the conception has reason to be dissatisfied with it.
Classical Conceptual Change: Further development of the classical conceptual change ideas:
classical conceptual change is considered not as a replacement of an incorrect naïve theory
with a correct theory but rather, as an opening up of conceptual space through increased metaconceptual awareness and epistemological sophistication, creating the possibility of
entertaining different perspectives and different point of views” (Vosniadou, 2008).
Theoretical developments in the area of conceptual change that means students‟ conceptions
towards multiple conceptual changes, conceptions on the nature of science, meta-cognitive
conceptions science processes, tentativeness limitation multiple theories, views of teaching
and learning, methods/means of scientific inquiry and epistemological views of teaching and
learning. Teachers‟ conceptions have proven limited. Conceptions on the content level
conceptions on the Nature of Science and Science Processes - views of teaching and learning
science meta-cognitive conceptions teachers‟ conceptions have to undergo conceptual
changes. Basically the same conceptual change frameworks for addressing students‟
conceptions have proven valuable to develop teacher conceptual change approach.
20
3. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1. Description of the Study Area
Kelafo is one of the woredas in the Somali Region of Ethiopia. Part of the Gode Zone, Kelafo
is bordered on the south by the Somalia, on the west by Adadle, on the northwest by Gode, on
the northeast by the Korahe Zone and on the east by Mustahil. The Shebelle River is flowing
through this woreda. The major town in Kelafo woreda is Kelafo. The average elevation in
this woreda is 374 meters above sea level. As of 2008, Kelafo has 35 kilometers of all weather
gravel road and 300 kilometers of community roads and about 6.36% of the total population
has access to drinking water. This woreda has a total population of 77,471 people of whom
41,583 are males and 35,888 are females. 11,346 (14.65%) people are urban inhabitants and a
further 5,397 (6.97%) are pastoralists. 98.09% of the population is Muslim. This woreda is
inhabited by the following Somali groups, the Bah Geri of the Ogaden, Hawadle and Rer
Bare. The largest ethnic group reported in Kelafo is Somali 82,353 (99.6%) (CSA, 2007).
3.2. Research Design
To assess grade 10 and 11 students‟ misconception about cell biology and cell division at
KSPS, mixed probe design was employed with a cross-sectional descriptive survey method.
3.3. Study Population, Samples and Sampling Procedures
The KSPS was selected purposively since it is the only high school found in the study
woreda. Due to limitation of resources, only two grades (grade 10 and 11) were selected
purposively for this study. All the grade 10 and 11 students who were enrolled during the
2013/2014 academic year were considered as target population for the present study. All
students in the selected study grades (grade 10 and 11) were participated in the present study.
Different numbers of male and female students from grade 10 and 11 were participated for
interview, TTDT and questionnaire. Accordingly, a total of 165 students (81 and 84 students
from grade 10 and 11, respectively), were involved in this study. From the total of 165
students 8, 37 and 120 students were participated in interviews, open-ended questionnaires
and in TTDT, respectively (Table 1). The study participants were drawn using stratified
21
systematic random sampling methods. In addition, three biology teachers of grade 10 and 11
at KSPS were involved in this study.
Table 1: Students‟ sample size
Grades and sample size
Grade 10
Data collection tools
M
F
Interview
3
1
Open-ended questionnaires
11
TTDT
Total
Grade 11
T
Total
M
F
T
M
F
T
4
2
2
4
5
3
8
7
18
10
9
19
21
16
37
34
25
59
35
26
61
69
51
120
48
33
81
47
37
84
95
70
165
M-Male, F-Female and T-Total
3.4. Data Collecting Tools
In this study different data collecting tools were employed for different purposes. These
include document analysis of the grade 10 and 11 biology text books and syllabi were made to
identify key concepts and propositional knowledge statements related to cell biology and cell
division. Questionnaire survey, interview and classroom observation check list were used in
this study. Their details are described below.
3.4.1. Document Analysis
This was intended to identify the content boundaries of cell biology and cell division. Grade
10 and 11 biology textbook, teachers‟ guide and syllabi were used to assess and determine the
scope and specify the subject contents related to the study topic that would directly linked to
the actual curricular and instructional resources being used. The researcher identified and set
outline, particularly the key concepts and propositional knowledge statements related to cell
biology and cell division topics. These are later verified and validated by the biology teachers
of grade 10 and 11 at KSPS.
22
3.4.2. Interview guide
Sixteen semi-structured interview questions were prepared based on target concepts and
propositional knowledge statements that were identified from grade 10 and grade 11 biology
textbooks, teacher‟s guide and biology syllabi related to the study topics. These questions
were first reviewed by three KSPS biology teachers for its validity. Eight sampled students
were interviewed individually turn by turn. The interview took place in the students‟
classroom where there was silence and bright light. Each interview with selected students
lasted for 25 to 30 minutes. When students got the questions very difficult the researcher
provided additional information but when students provided a wrong answer the researcher
did not correct them. Besides, when the student‟s response was unclear, follow up questions
were used to elicit additional responses. The responses obtained from the interview were
categorized into correct answered (CA), partially correct answered (PA), wrong answered
(WA) and misconception (M) in such a way that they were used for developing open-ended
questionnaire and two-tier diagnostic multiple choice test item (Appendix II).
3.4.3. Questionnaires
Fifteen open-ended questionnaires were prepared according to the observed students‟
response during the interview and according to the related literature (Appendix III). For its
validity and reliability the pilot test was given at Gode Secondary and Preparatory School.
Most of the questionnaires items were adapted from interview. In addition, close-ended
questionnaires were prepared and administered to three biology teachers at KSPS (Appendix
IV). The open-ended questions were administered for 37 students in their classrooms where
there was suitable situation that means bright light and no noise disturbance. All the
questionnaires were completely filled by the students and returned. Volunteer teachers
assisted the researcher during the administration of the questionnaire. The time allowed to fill
the questionnaires was 60 minutes. The responses obtained from open-ended questionnaires
were grouped under correct response, wrong response, no response, meaningless response and
misconception in such a way that they were used for preparing TTDT item of cell biology and
cell division.
23
3.4.4. TTDT of Cell Biology and Cell Division
TTDT for cell biology and cell division was developed by the researcher based on previously
identified target concepts and propositional knowledge statements and from students‟
responses in the interview and open-ended questionnaires. For its validity and reliability the
pilot test was given at Gode Secondary and Preparatory School. The test was prepared based
on the procedure described by Treagust, (1988) (cited in Wang, 2004) that involved three
parts. These were: first, define the content domain under the topics of cell biology and cell
division in terms of the target concepts and propositional knowledge statements (Appendix
VII), second, obtaining information about students‟ prior conceptions through interview and
open-ended questionnaires and third, prepare the two-tier diagnostic test based on target
concepts and propositional knowledge statements and students‟ prior conceptions that was
documented in part I, part II and part III, respectively (Appendix I).
The TTDT was a multiple choice type of test that consists of two-tiers or parts. The first-tier
of each multiple choice item consisted; of content knowledge related question designed to
assess the students‟ knowledge level about cell biology and cell division and has two to three
choices. The second-tier of each multiple choice item contained the reasons for selecting the
responses to the first-tier and a set of four choices that could be possible reasons for the
answers given to the first part. The reasons consist of the designated correct answers together
with the distracters that were identified by the interview and open-ended questionnaires. The
target concepts and the propositional knowledge statements influenced the first-tier, whereas
the students‟ interview and open-ended questionnaires responses influenced the distracters of
second-tier of the item. Biology teachers and instructor of measurement and evaluation were
involved in validating all the items and confirmed that this was appropriate for grade 10 and
grade 11 students in order to determine their understanding. Finally, the revised test consisted
of 12 items (Appendix V).
3.4.5. Classroom Observations
Classroom observation was conducted with classroom observation check list to evaluate the
effectiveness of instructional methods used by biology teachers to remediate students‟
misconception on cell biology and cell division. Observation of biology classroom was
24
carried out by using structured observation checklist that was emphasized mainly on the
teaching methodology (Appendix VI). To cover the topics of cell biology a total of 29 periods
were needed for grade 11and under the topics of heredity, there were sub topics mitosis and
meiosis, chromosomes and genes 6 periods needed for grade 10. The duration of each period
was 40 minutes. 14 classroom observations were conducted at grade 11 and 6 classroom
observations at grade 10. Therefore, 20 classroom observations were conducted the total 35
periods of both grades. The observations were conducted on different sub topics under the
main topics of cell biology for grade 11 and all sub topics including cell division under the
main topics of heredity. The classroom observations took four weeks for grades 11 and two
weeks for grade 10, it was conducted in 2013 /2014 academic year.
3.4.6. Procedures of Data Collection
First define the content domains under the topics of cell biology and cell division. This is
intended to define the content boundaries for the students understanding of cell biology and
cell division. Then obtaining information of students‟ prior conceptions about cell biology and
cell division has been done through interview and open-ended questioners. Next Preparation
of cell biology and cell division TTDT, Finally Classroom observation was conducted to
evaluate the effectiveness of instructional methods used by biology teachers to remediate
students‟ misconception on cell biology and cell division.
3.5. Methods of Data Analysis
The research strategies employed in this study were used both qualitative and quantitative
methods. The quantitative methods were used to examine the data of TTDT, cronbach alpha
reliability coefficient, discrimination and difficulty indices, percentage, frequency and mean.
The analysis and interpretation of qualitative methods has been done using conceptualization,
explanations and argumentation.
25
4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
4.1. Identified Key Concepts and Propositional Knowledge Statements about Cell
Biology and Cell Division
List of key concepts and their corresponding propositional knowledge statements related to
cell biology and cell division in grade 10 and 11 biology text books and syllabi are
summarized and presented in table 2 and 3, respectively.
Table 2: Summary of key concepts and their propositional knowledge statements that are
included in grade 10 biology textbook and syllabus related to understand cell division.
No
Key concepts
1
Types of cell divisions: - Cell division is the process where a single living cell splits
Mitosis and Meiosis.
Propositional knowledge statements
to become two or more distinct new cells.
-The two forms of cell division mitosis and meiosis are the
biological mechanism by which the principles of heredity
and evolutionary theory are realized.
-Mitosis is simple cell division that creates two daughter
cells that are genetically identical to the original parent cell.
-Meiosis is the production of daughter cells having half the
amount of genetic material as the original parent cell. Such
daughter cells are said to be haploid.
2
Chromosome and genes
-Chromosomes are organized structures of DNA and
proteins that are found in cells.
-A chromosome is a singular piece of DNA which contains
many genes regulatory elements and other nucleotide
sequences.
-A gene is the basic functional unit of heredity. It made up
of DNA act as instructions to make proteins.
-Genes carry the information that determines your traits
which are features or characteristics that are passed on to
you or inherited from your parents.
26
Table 3: Summary of key or target concepts and their propositional knowledge statements that
are included in grade 11 biology textbook and syllabus to understand cell biology.
No
Key concepts
Propositional knowledge statements
1
Cell theory
-All living organisms are composed of one or more cells,
the cell is the most basic unit of life and all cells arise from
pre-existing living cells.
-All organisms including animals, plants, fungi and
microorganisms are made up of cells.
-Most cells are so small that their details can be seen only
with a microscope.
2
Cell structures and its -There are many different types of cells in terms of size,
functions.
structure and function.
-Cells vary in size, shape and specialized functions.
-All cells are composed of complex molecules made by the
cells themselves from simpler molecules such as amino
acids, simple sugars and fatty acids that enter the cells from
outside the cells.
-In multi cellular organisms, cells provide structural support
for the organism they are part of and carry out essential life
functions for that organism.
3
Types of cells
-Different body structures are made up of different types of
cells.
-The different body structures of plants and animals
including brain, muscles, skin and lungs in animals and
stems and flowers in plants are made up of different types
of cells.
-There are many different types of cells in terms of size,
structure and function. All cells have certain characteristics
in common.
-The different types of cells that make up the body parts of
animals develop from one single cell.
27
In grade 10 biology text book and syllabus, there was the concepts of cell division but there
was no the concepts of cell biology. However, grade 10 students learned it in more detail the
concepts of cell biology in grade 9. Similarly, in grade 11 biology text book and syllabus
there was the concepts of cell biology but there was no the concepts of cell division.
However, they were already learned the concepts of cell division in grade 10. So the concepts
of cell biology and cell division were described in different grade level of biology text books
and syllabi.
The results showed in tables 2 and 3 are summary of key concepts and their corresponding
propositional knowledge statements related to topics of cell division in grade 10 and to cell
biology in grade 11 biology text books and syllabi. The content framework of the topics of
cell biology and cell division was described through the review of grade 10 and 11 biology
textbooks, teacher‟s guide and syllabi and prepared the target concepts and propositional
knowledge statements. The researcher has identified two key concepts and 22 prepositional
knowledge statements related to cell division, and three key concepts and 24 prepositional
knowledge statements related to cell biology of grade 10 and 11 biology, respectively. The
results indicated that grades 10 and 11 biology text books and syllabi related to cell biology
and cell division were complete and sufficient to understand the topics. However, the lists of
target concepts and propositional knowledge statements, they met the requirements of grade
10 and grade 11 biology books and syllabi on topics of cell biology and cell division.
Moreover, these results were used to prepare the two-tier diagnostic test of cell biology and
cell division.
The teachers should make the content analysis for the topics that contain the concepts difficult
for understanding of the students. This process was better if it started by identifying the main
or target concepts in the topic followed by breaking down each concept to see how it was
explained in terms of other more fundamental concepts and then relates the links between the
different concepts. Taber (2000) suggested that a teacher should undertake a content analysis
when preparing to teach complex topics in order to determine the relationship between the
relevant concepts and logical order in which the concepts should be presented. The complete
lists of propositional knowledge statements of grade 10 about cell division and grade 11 about
28
cell biology which were found in biology text books and syllabi are summarized and
presented in more details (Appendix VII).
4.2. Assessment of Students’ Misconception about Cell Biology and Cell Division
In order to determine whether the grade 10 and 11 students had prior knowledge and or
misconception about cell biology and cell division a TTDT was conducted and the results are
summarized and presented in table 4.
Table 4: Summary of grade 10 and 11 students‟ misconception about cell biology and cell
division of TTDT
Variables
Grade 10 (N=59)
Grade 11 (N=61)
Both grade (N=120)
No. of items
12
12
12
Cronbach Alpha
0.86
0.8
0.83
Mean
7.1
6.3
6.7
Discrimination Indices Mean
0.42
0.4
0.41
Difficulty Indices Mean
0.36
0.38
0.37
Note: N-Number of students
The result in table 4 shows that the same 12 TTDT items were prepared for both grades. The
TTDT needed to consider both item discrimination and difficulty, whether the item allows the
knowledgeable students to perform better than the less knowledgeable students. The
discrimination indices for the items in the cell biology and cell division diagnostic test an
average value of 0.41 for both grades. The entire test items prepared to identify students‟
misconception about cell biology and cell division was presented (Appendix V). Lien (1971)
suggested that the discrimination indices of the item greater than 0.3 is acceptable without
further revision of the test items.
The TTDT item reliability coefficients, Cronbach alphas were calculated to be 0.86 for grade
10 and 0.8 for grade 11 students. This shows that almost both grades have similar reliability
coefficients. Moreover, this test was moderate with mean value 6.7 for both grades. The
difficulty indices of cell biology and cell division diagnostic test an average value of 0.37 for
both grades (Table 4). This shows that the two-tier diagnostic test of cell biology and cell
29
division was difficult for secondary school students. However, it was effective to identify
students‟ misconception and their level of conceptual understanding on the selected topics of
the study. For assessing understanding, items with difficulty indices of 0.9 is considered as
easy type, items with difficulty indices of 0.5 is consider as average type and items with
difficulty indices of 0.1 is consider as difficult type (Anastasi, 1982). In this study, students‟
misconception about cell biology and cell division detected by interview, questionnaires and
two-tier diagnostic test. Their details are described below.
4.2.1. Students’ Misconception Identified by Interview
Results of frequency of the response categories of interviewees and respondents for interview
about students‟ prior knowledge of cell biology and cell division are summarized and
presented in table 5. To find out students understanding related to the topics of cell biology
and cell division, their prior conceptions were assessed through interview. Students‟
responded about their prior conceptions of cell biology and cell division were categorized into
correctly answered, partially answered, wrongly answered and misconception. The complete
responses of the students‟ prior conceptions are summarized and presented in Appendix VIII.
30
Table 5: Frequency of students‟ response categories for interview questions about their prior
conceptions of cell biology and cell division
Students‟ responses (N-8)
Items CA
f (%)
PA f (%)
WA f (%)
M f (%)
1
1(12.5)
1(12.5)
___
6(75)
2
5(62.5)
2(25)
1(12.5)
___
3
1(12.5)
1(12.5)
1(12.5)
5(62.5)
4
___
2(25)
2(25)
4(50)
5
6(75)
2(25)
1(12.5)
___
6
2(25)
___
1(12.5)
5(62.5)
7
1(12.5)
2(25)
1(12.5)
5(62.5)
8
5(62.5)
___
3(37.5)
___
9
6(75)
2(25)
___
___
10
5(62.5)
1(12.5)
2(25)
___
11
4(50)
2(25)
2(25)
___
12
1(12.5)
1(12.5)
1(12.5)
5(67.5)
13
1(12.5)
2(25)
1(12.5)
4(50)
14
1(12.5)
1(12.5)
2(25)
4(50)
15
1(12.5)
1(12.5)
1(12.5)
5(62.5)
16
___
1(12.5)
1(12.5)
6(75)
(CA)-correctly answered,
(PA) -partially answered,
(W)-wrongly answered,
(M)-
Misconception and (-) no one answered.
Based on the results shown in table 5, in items 1, 3, 4, 6, 7, 12, 13, 14, 15 and 16, more than
half or majority of the interviewees had misconception about cell biology and cell division.
However, misconception was not observed for question items 2, 5, 8, 9, 10 and 11. But a
small number of the interviewees responded correctly for the above question items (table 5).
Thus, these items were excluded from developing questionnaires and TTDT items of cell
biology and cell division.
31
4.2.2. Students’ Misconception Identified by Questionnaires
Results of frequency of the response categories of open-ended questionnaires about students‟
prior knowledge of cell biology and cell division are summarized and presented in table 6.
The complete responses of the students‟ prior conceptions about cell biology and cell division
were summarized in Appendix IX.
Table 6: Frequency of students‟ response categories for open-ended questionnaires regarding
their prior conceptions of cell biology and cell division
Students‟ responses (N-37)
Items
CA
1
f (%)
PA f (%)
WA f (%)
M f (%)
NA (f %)
6(16.2)
5(13.6)
4(10.8)
20(54)
2(5.4)
2
4(10.8)
6(16.2)
7(18.9)
19(51.4)
1(2.7)
3
8(21.6)
5(13.6)
7(18.9)
11(29.7)
6(16.2)
4
12(32.4)
4(10.8)
5(13.6)
9(24.3)
7(18.9)
5
5(13.6)
9(24.3)
12(32.4)
7(18.9)
4(10.8)
6
10(27)
8(21.6)
10(27)
___
9(24.4)
7
4(10.8)
3(8.1)
9(24.3)
21(56.8)
___
8
8(21.6)
6(16.2)
11(29.7)
12(32.5)
___
9
12(32.5)
11(29.7)
6(16.2)
___
11(29.7)
10
3(8)
2(5.4)
5(13.6)
25(67.6)
2(5.4)
11
9(24.4)
10(27)
8(21.6)
10(27)
__
12
11(29.7)
7(18.9)
6(16.2)
8(21.6)
5(13.6)
13
9(24.3)
7(18.9)
5(13.6)
12(32.4)
4(10.8)
14
9(24.4)
5(13.6)
12(32.3)
11(29.7)
___
15
15(40.5)
5(13.6)
7(18.9)
___
10(27)
CA-correctly answered, PA-partially answered, WA- Wrong answered, M-Misconception,
NA-No answered and (-) no one answered.
As it is shown in table 6, low percentage of the students correctly answered the items which
probably indicate that students had content knowledge difficulties besides to the
understanding of that knowledge or conceptual understanding. However, the more
percentages of the students answered under the category of misconception. This shows many
32
students had misconception on those items. In items 1, 2, 7 and 10 above 50% of the students
answered under the category of misconception, on these items students had conceptual
difficulties on the concepts of the definition of cells, the difference between cells and atoms,
importance of surface area to volume ratio in cells and purpose of cell division. Almost in all
items, students‟ answers categorized under misconception were carefully read, rearranged and
documented. These were used as distracters of the second tier or the reason options together
with the students answer for interview questions (Table 5) during the preparation of two-tier
diagnostic test of cell biology and cell division.
4.2.3. Students’ Misconception Identified by TTDT Items
To find out students‟ misconception related to the topics of cell biology and cell division,
their prior conceptions were collected through two-tier diagnostic test. Students‟ prior
conceptions about cell biology and cell division were collected through the TTDT was
categorized into four understanding categories those were understanding, partially
understanding, misconception and not understanding (Table 7) and which were analyzed the
results and presented below.( Appendix V)
33
Table 7: Frequency of students‟ response categories for TTDT items regarding their
understanding of cell biology and cell division
Grades
Grade 10 (N-59)
Grade 11 (N-61)
N(T-T)
N(T-F)
N(F-T)
N(F-F)
N (T-T)
N(T-F)
N(F-T)
N(F-F)
Item
f(%)
f (%)
f (%)
f (%)
f (%)
f (%)
f (%)
f (%)
1
10(16.9)
43(72.8)
2(3.5)
4(6.8)
6(9.8)
41(67.2)
6(9.8)
8(13.2)
2
5(8.5)
42(71.2)
4(6.8)
8(13.6)
10(16.4)
36(59)
5(8.2)
10(16.4)
3
7(11.9)
40(67.8)
8(13.6)
4(6.7)
8(13.2)
38(62.8)
10(16.4)
5(8.2)
4
11(18.7)
28(47.5)
10(16.9)
10(16.9)
15(24.6)
25(41)
11(18)
10(16.4)
5
12(20.3)
27(45.7)
11(18.7)
9(15.3)
12(19.6)
20(32.8)
15(24.6)
14(23)
6
11(18.7)
29(49.1)
9(15.3)
10(16.9)
14(23)
27(44.3)
12(19.6)
8(13.1)
7
6(10.1)
38(64.4)
9(15.3)
6(10.2)
6(9.8)
39(63.9)
9(14.8)
7(11.5)
8
9(15.3)
45(76.2)
__
5(8.5)
7(11.5)
40(65.6)
8(13.8)
6(9.8)
9
7(11.9)
37(62.7)
7(11.9)
8(13.5)
14(23)
36(59)
6(9.8)
5(8.2)
10
__
43(72.8)
9(15.3)
7(11.9)
8(13.1)
37(60.6)
9(14.8)
7(11.5)
11
20(33.9)
25(42.5)
10(16.9)
4(6.7)
12(19.6)
23(37.7)
18(29.5)
8(13.2)
12
12(20.3)
24(40.7)
13(22.1)
10(16.9)
9(14.8)
24(39.3)
11(18)
17(27.9)
N (T-T) - Understanding, N (F-T) - Partial understanding, N (T-F) - Misconception and
N (F-F) - Not understanding
Items 1 and 9 referred to the definition and explanation of cell biology and cell division
concepts. In item 1, 72.8% of grade 10 students and 67.2 % of grade 11 students had
misconception. They understood cells are the building blocks of body and cell division is the
process of cells separation into many cells (Table 7). The reasons of students‟ misconception
were suspected to be due to concepts of daily language having different meanings in scientific
language, vocabulary and unfamiliarity with cell structures and functions. whereas many
curricula introduce them as the building blocks of all life, it has been reported that a common
misconception children have is that of cells as being inside the body but not as making up the
body that the term „building block‟ would imply (Dreyfus and Jungwirth, 1988). Even though,
students had been learning about cell biology starting from Elementary school, they did not
34
clearly understand the concept of it. Thus, they thought that cell is simply a structural and
functional unit of life.
In item 9, another misconception held by students was the meaning of cell division. They
thought that cell division is the process of cells separation into many cells. 62.7% of grade 10
students and 59% of grade 11 students had this misconception but cell division is division of a
cell into two daughter cells with the same genetic material. Most likely the reason for their
misconception may be the difference between the scientific and daily language and teachers‟
English language skills.
About 72.2% of grade 10 students and 59% of grade 11 students thought that both atoms and
cells are made up of smaller parts including the nucleus (Item 2). This belief of the students
may be tied with their chemistry knowledge. Research had shown that students have difficulty
making the connection between molecular and cellular organization (Driver et al., 1994).
Students seem to understand that both atoms and cells were made up of smaller parts
including the nucleus. However, they struggle to conceptualize the foundational principal that
all matter including cells is made of atoms. This misunderstanding seems to perpetuate
beyond differentiation between cells and atoms and into their understanding of the structure
and function of macromolecules. The reasons for misconception may be faulty or insufficient
perception of the concepts learnt.
In item 4, the students were required to explain the role of nucleus in cells. 47.5% of grade 10
students and 41% of grade 11 students believed that nucleus center of holds all the supplies
needed to make in the body and further they believed that cells holding all materials inside the
nucleus. This misconception may be arisen due to students observed the nucleus always found
at center of cells. However, the nucleus in a cell is the organelle in which the DNA and most
genetic material are stored including many proteins. The main function of the nucleus is to
regulate all cell activity. The nucleus also contains the hereditary information and has the
remarkable ability of making the exact copies of it. The nucleus also regulates the synthesis of
proteins and ribosome in the cytoplasm.
Item 6, requested student to explain which structure of plants that photosynthesis is taking
place. Accordingly, 49.1% of grade 10 students and 23 % of grade 11 students reasoned
35
correctly and suggested the correct reason as photosynthesis process is taking place in the
chloroplast that consists of grana and stroma. However, 15.3% of grade 10 students and
44.3% of grade 11 students thought that photosynthesis is taking place in the mitochondria.
This misconception of the students may be due to their knowledge that mitochondrion is the
power house of all cells where many biochemical reactions take place to release energy.
Many students of both grades had misconception on the concepts of surface area to volume
ratio is important in cells? items 7, 64.4% of grade 10 students and 63.9% of grade 11
students. Students believed that very large cell has a larger surface area to volume ratio than a
very small cell. But most of the students‟ misconception very large cell has a large surface
area to volume ratio than a very small cell. This misconception may be arisen due students‟
confusions that they believe as the size of cell increased with surface area and volume would
be increased. Surface area and volume are important the efficiently the cell is in obtaining
oxygen it needs for respiration and in determining how the given material will interact with
the world around it. As the size of cell increased surface area and volume were increased but
surface area to volume ratio decreased. Consider a mouse and an elephant. If both were left in
cold overnight the mouse would be in more danger of freezing because it has the large surface
area to volume ratio. So it can lose more heat. The elephant would actually be able to use its
large size to its advantage here and retain the heat in the large volume of its body. The mouse
has a much larger surface area and volume ratio so all physiological adaptations to
environments to the side of the mouse would be in danger of freezing to death much quicker
than the elephant should temperatures fall.
The common misconception indicated in item 8, was that most of the animal cells get energy
for its function from the chemical bond energy in food molecules. More than half of the
students from each grades, 76.2% of grade 10 students and 65.6% of grade 11 students
thought that animal cells get energy for its function by synthesis of their own food. This
misconception of the students, believed that animal cell makes their own food due to the
process digestions. But animal cells get there energy from glucose which is made by the plant
and ingested by the animal. The animal cells then take in the glucose and through cellular
respiration convert it into ATP using their mitochondria which the cell uses as energy.
Actually chloroplasts in a plant cell capture energy to produce glucose. In order to use that
36
energy all living things must go through the process of cellular respiration. Plants make their
own source of glucose. Animals must ingest and digest food to obtain our glucose or by eating
plants directly or eating animals that eat plants after we get the glucose into the cells then we
go through the process of cellular respiration.
In item 3, it was identified that 67.8% of grade 10 students and 62.8% of grade 11 students‟
responded that whether a cell is prokaryotic or eukaryotic, had misconception because they
believed that the difference between eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells are the presence or
absence of ribosome‟s (Table 7). This indicates that the students had conceptual difficulty
about the prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. The reasons for students‟ misconception may be
insufficiency in the construction of relationships between the concepts and concepts, and
teachers‟ English language skills. So both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells separation whether
or not the cell is partitioned by internal membranes or nuclear membranes.
In item 5, the students of the two grades indicated that they had misconception about the
difference between animal cells and plant cells. About 45.7% of grade 10 students and 32.8%
of grade 11 students believed that animal cells carry out that cell wall and chloroplasts just
like plant cells. Students believed that all cells contain the same organelles and the only
difference was in their size. But the major difference in both of these cells apart from cellular
differentiation is that plant cells contain chloroplast which helps to produce their food.
Animal cells do not have chloroplast and they are dependent on plants that animals for their
energy requirements. This misconception may arise due to the problem observed in textbook
quality which lacks proper explanation of the subject matter and scientific facts related to
animal cells and plant cells.
In item 10, the students were required to compare about mitosis and meiosis in cells. In this
item, the misconception identified was that mitosis and meiosis are functioning in an opposite
and contrasting manner. This misconception probably arose from their biology textbook,
instructional methods, unfamiliarity with cell structures, teacher confusion, not using
appropriate teaching approaches while teaching topics and concepts and poor understanding
of mitosis verses meiosis. This makes the students to have misconception on the concept how
mitosis and meiosis occurs. This misconception was held by 72.8% of grade 10 students and
37
60.6% of grade 11 students. Responses of many students showed that as if there was a
determined belief that mitosis and meiosis were mutually exclusive processes that occur at the
same time in cells. In general this finding provides useful indicators that students had
conceptual difficulties about the relationship between mitosis and meiosis in cells. On the
other hand many of the students of each grade had great misconception about the type‟s cell
biology and cell division in items 3, 5 and 10, respectively.
In item 11, it was identified that 42.5 % of grade 10 students and 37.7% of grade 11 students
had misconception as they responded that which phase of mitosis does chromatin change to
chromosomes. This indicates that the students had conceptual difficulty that both
chromosomes and chromatin are the same. Students may think that the two chromatids
making up a single replicated chromosome are joined at fertilization and that they represent
maternal and caring genetic information. This misconception arose may be the students
difficult to differentiate the word chromosomes and chromatin. Barras (1984) suggested that
sometimes textbook authors use misleading words that lead students to have misconception.
Hence, textbooks should not be regarded as a document which was free of error and a
document that explain and illustrate concepts perfectly.
In items 12, the students were required to explain which phase were the longest phases of the
cell cycle. 40.7% of grade 10 students and 39.3% of grade 11 students believed that Anaphase
was the longest phases of the cell cycle. This misconception probably arose from their biology
textbook, instructional methods and teachers‟ explanation. The teacher should be active
participation encouragement of students to understand the unfortunate terminology. It is
important to remind students that many events critical to the cell cycle take place during inter
phase and that the cell is metabolically active during this phase.
4.3. Observed Misconception Held by Students about Cell Biology and Cell Division
Based on the analysis of cell biology and cell division diagnostic test of the students‟ (Table
7) 16 types of common misconception about cell biology and cell divisions were identified.
The misconceptions were grouped into the five categories: definition of cell biology and cell
division, types, energy, structure and functions and cell cycles (Table 8).
38
Table 8: Common misconceptions identified about cell biology and cell division in grade 10
and 11 students at KSPS.
Percentage
of
students‟ common
misconceptions
G- 10
G-11
Categories of misconceptions
Item
f (%)
f (%)
Definition
Cells are the building blocks of body.
Cell division is the process of cells separation into many cells.
1
9
59.3
62.7
67.2
73.8
2
71.2
59
4
6
47.5
49.1
41
44.3
3
67.8
62.2
5
45.7
32.8
10
72.8
60.6
7
15.3
63.9
8
76.2
65.6
42.5
40.7
37.7
39.3
Structures and functions
Both atoms and cells are made up of smaller parts including the
nucleus.
Nucleus center of holds all the supplies needed to make in the
body.
Chloroplast is the energy transformation center of cells.
Centrioles are found in the nucleus of a cell.
Types
The differences between eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells are
presence or absence of ribosomes.
There is no cell division in plant cells but it occurs only in
animal cells.
The chromosome number is doubled in the Prophase of mitosis
and halved in the Anaphase of mitosis.
Mitosis and meiosis are function in an opposite and contrasting
manner.
Energy
Very large cell has a larger surface area to volume ratio than a
very small cell.
Animal cells get energy for its function by synthesis of their
own food.
Cell cycles
Chromosomes are formed as a result of shrinkage and
thickening of spindle fibers.
The organelles such as mitochondria and chloroplasts dissolve
and vanish during cell division and then are reformed.
DNA replication occurs in prophase during the process of cell
11
division.
12
Inter phase is the resting phase of mitosis.
39
4.4. Level of Students’ Misconception about Cell Biology and Cell Division
The students‟ level of responses to the cell biology and cell division diagnostic test were
ranked into three scales, zero to three levels as the criteria presented in table 9. The proportion
of correct responses and misconception were determined by the analysis of 12 items
(Appendix V) in the selected topics of cell biology and cell division. Students‟ misconception
determined from the analysis of the cell biology and cell division diagnostic test are presented
in table 7.
Table 9: Criteria to analyze the cell biology and cell division diagnostic test items based on
students‟ response
First tier
Second tier
Response
rank
True response
True reason
T-T
3
False response
True reason
F-T
2
True response
False reason
T-F
1
False response
False reason
F-F
0
This criterion adopted from Odom and Barrow (1995) presented a table showing scoring on a
two-tier test they developed for measuring college biology students‟ understanding of
diffusion and osmosis. The two-tier diagnostic test was administered in the selected topics and
the results were analyzed and presented in table 7. The proportion of correct responses and
misconception were determined by the analysis of 12 question items (Appendix V) in selected
topics of cell biology and cell division. The result in table 7 shows that the highest percentage
of the respondents‟ response was observed in the T-F category in both grade 10 and 11
students, particularly the highest percentage of T-F category was observed in the test items 1,
2, 3, 7, 8, 9 and 10, respectively. Above 50% of the students answered under the category of
misconception. On these items students had conceptual difficulties on the concepts. This
indicated that the majority of the students‟ had high level of misconception about cell biology
and cell division. Some difficulties in teaching cell biology and cell division that were
identified in the classroom that the case includes vocabulary, unfamiliarity with cell structures
and functions, teacher confusion, poor understanding of mitosis verses meiosis,
40
misunderstanding of chromosomes verses genetic information and the relationship between
DNA, chromosomes, genes and chromatids (Atilboz, 2004).
4.5. Common Sources of Students’ Misconception about Cell Biology and Cell Division
Data on students‟ misconception about cell biology and cell division, that teachers‟ respond,
were collected through close-ended questionnaires described by means of three categories that
was yes, no and not sure under listed the differ source of students‟ misconception of cell
biology and cell division (Table 10). (Appendix IV).
Table 10: Sources of Students‟ misconception as reported by teachers for close-ended
question categories about cell biology and cell division.
Teachers (N=3) responses
Cell biology
Cell division
Yes
No
Not sure
Yes
No
Note sure
f (%)
f (%)
f (%)
f (%)
f (%)
f (%)
1
2(66.7)
1(33.3)
___
2(66.7)
1(33.3)
___
2
1(33.3)
1(33.3)
1(33.3)
1(33.3)
1(33.3)
1(33.3)
3
1(33.3)
___
2(66.7)
1(33.3)
___
2(66.7)
4
2(66.7)
___
1(33.3)
2(66.7)
___
1(33.3)
5
2(66.7)
1(33.3)
___
2(66.7)
1(33.3)
___
6
1(33.3)
2(66.7)
___
1(33.3)
2(66.7)
___
7
1(33.3)
1(33.3)
1(33.3)
1(33.3)
1(33.3)
1(33.3)
Items
N- Number of teachers
Based on the result (Table 10) in items 1, 4 and 5 above 50% of the teachers‟ reported that the
major source of students‟ misconception about cell biology and cell division for both grade 10
and 11 students were biology text books, teachers‟ English language skills and biology
instructional methods. Student‟s misconception about human physiology have been associated
also with the way teachers and textbooks present the information and with incorrect use of
language in class (Barrass, 1984). The low percentage of teachers‟ responded on the source of
41
students‟ misconception were biology teacher‟s guide, biology reference books and students
cultural beliefs and practices.
4.6. Evaluation of Teachers’ Instructional Methods Used to Remediate Students’
Misconception about Cell Biology and Cell Division
The findings of the study showed that biology teachers of the school were not considering the
possible misconception that the students brought into the classroom and within the content
they were teaching. Teachers have a very important role in realization of the correct education
concepts. The educational approaches of today make emphasis on the student than on the
teacher. According to Demirel, (2005), the student centered educational approach requires
students to be more active in the classroom and participate at all levels.
The misconception may be revealed during normal classroom discussions, in assignments or
in test answer scripts and the teacher should organize effective teaching methods to overcome
them. Oliver (1989) indicated that teaching approaches that are designed to remediate
students‟ misconception can increases their understanding of concepts such as discussion,
communication and reflection of meaning are essential features of successful approaches to
resolve students‟ misconception.
Clear, appropriate and achievable objective, facilitating classroom interactions, engaging
students‟ in participation, relating concepts to students‟ experience, using active learning
strategies and etc. are very important for teacher to teach and students to learn the topics of
cell division and cell biology meaningfully. These instructional methods enable teachers to
confirm the understanding of their students what they would teach about and their
misconception. But, during classroom observations, the researcher observed that almost all
these activities were not sufficiently implemented by biology teachers observed in the school.
Students‟ interest, active participation, encouragement by the teacher and etc. are crucial to
understand what was taught in the class and give a confidence for students to explain their
idea without any hesitations in the classroom. These enable the teachers to probe what are the
students‟ difficulty and their misconception. However, what actually observed in the
classroom was that the students were silent and listens or follow their teacher what he or she
was teaching passively and sometimes they answer the questions that are asked by the teacher.
42
Therefore, these approaches of teaching learning processes are ineffective in order to identify
students‟ conceptual difficulty and to overcome their misconception about the topics of cell
division and cell biology.
Herron and Nurrenbern (1999) suggested that students should be allowed to express their
own pre-concepts during a lesson or in the attempt to introduce new subject matter in a lesson
and to let them be aware of inconsistencies regarding their ideas and the up to date scientific
explanation. In this way, they can be motivated to overcome these discrepancies. Only when
students feel uncomfortable with their ideas and realize that they are not making any progress
with their own knowledge they will accept the teacher‟s information and thereby build up new
cognitive structures. According to (Kose et al., 2006) that making use of different teaching
strategies in classrooms positively affected the grade nine students‟ learning of concepts.
In the biology student‟s textbook under the topics of cell division and cell biology there are
different practical activities. All essential practical works were not taught by teachers
theoretically or demonstrated practically for the students. This highly influenced student to
understand the concepts of cell biology and cell division made the students to continue with
their misconception about these topics. Skipping the practical works, which were included in
the curriculum, makes the students failed to understand the concepts of cell division and cell
biology. Probably these omissions of different practical works would affect students not to
answer some items correctly in diagnostic test and held common misconception identified
(Table 8). Besides, it may affect the subsequent learning of students. The teachers omitted
many practical activities due to lack of laboratory facilities. The tendency of students to form
relationship between newly learned concepts and previously learned concepts was important
for conceptual understanding. Students should be given with sufficient opportunities to think
about the daily lesson, to write down their thoughts and to discuss with their classmates.
These enable them to apply what they had learned in earlier lesson to explain the phenomena,
justify their own ideas, listen to their classmates‟ thinking, test the feasibility of the various
explanations and reversed any disagreement (Hodson, 1993). In general, the observed classes
of cell biology and cell division lessons showed that all biology teachers did not implement
effective instructional methods to remediate students‟ misconceptions.
43
5. SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1. Summary
The aim of the present study was to identify grade 10 and 11 students‟ misconception about
cell biology and cell division using TTDT, identify the target concepts and propositional
knowledge statements, sources of students‟ misconception, level of students‟ misconception
and to evaluate the effectiveness of biology teachers‟ instructional methods to remediate
students‟ misconception at KSPS, Ethiopian Somali regional state, eastern Ethiopia.
The subjects of the study were 165 students (81 and 84 students from grade 10 and 11,
respectively), selected using purposively and stratified systematic random sampling methods
and all the biology teachers of grade 10 and 11 at KSPS were also involved in this study. A
mixed probe design was employed in this research. Quantitative and qualitative data those
were necessary for the study generated using interview, questionnaires, TTDT and classroom
observations. The data collected was analyzed using quantitative and qualitative approaches
to answer the research questions. TTDT prepared by the researcher was able to identify
students‟ misconception about cell biology and cell division.
By using this test, 16 types of common misconception about cell biology and cell division
were identified and categorized into: definition of cell biology and cell division, structures
and functions, types, energy and cell cycles. The content framework of the topics of cell
biology and cell division was described through the review of grade 10 and 11 biology
textbooks, teacher‟s guide and syllabi and prepared the target concepts and propositional
knowledge statements. The researcher has identified two key concepts and 22 prepositional
knowledge statements related to cell division, and three key concepts and 24 prepositional
knowledge statements related to cell biology of grade 10 and 11 biology, respectively. The
key concepts and prepositional knowledge statements were complete and sufficient to
understand cell biology and cell division.
The results also revealed that text books, teachers‟ English language skills and biology
instructional methods were the major source of students‟ misconception about cell biology
and cell division. The result showed that the majority of the students‟ had high level of
misconception about cell biology and cell division. The instructional methods biology
44
teachers were implementing in teaching different concepts under the topics of cell biology and
cell division were ineffective in order to remediate students‟ misconception. Teachers
commonly used traditional instructional methods that were very difficult to find out students‟
conceptions.
5.2. Conclusions
The findings of this study indicated that biology teachers did not consider the possible
students‟ misconception within the lesson and not encourage their students in order to
participate actively in the lesson. As a result, many students had difficulties of both content
knowledge and concepts related to the topics of cell biology and cell division. So, in order to
deal with students‟ misconception teachers, should carefully understand the existence of any
misconception in different sub-topics of cell biology and cell division among students. Once
students‟ misconception is identified, biology teachers could modify their method to remedy
the problems by implementing alternative instructional methods that specifically address
students‟ misconception.
The instructional methods biology teachers implementing were ineffective to remediate
students‟ misconception. Therefore, facilitating group discussions, encouraging students‟
participation, using active learning strategies, considering the possible misconception that the
students brought into the classroom and within the content he or she teaching and etc are very
important for teacher to teach and students to learn biology meaningfully and used to
overcome students‟ misconception. The target concepts and the lists of propositional
knowledge statements identified are complete and sufficient for understanding of the cell
biology and cell division.
They met the requirements of grade 10 and 11 biology syllabi on topics of cell biology and
cell division the teachers should make the content analysis for the topics that contain the
concepts difficult for understanding of the students. The findings of this study suggested that
the two-tier diagnostic test of cell biology and cell division could be used for identification of
students‟ misconception. Using these test sixteen common misconception those held by
students were identified and classified into definition, structures and functions, types, energy
and cell cycles of cell biology and cell division. This study revealed student has a series of
45
significant problems regarding the concepts of cell biology and cell division and structuring of
such concepts in a meaningful manner. The students confuse the structures and functions of
cells, stages of the cell division process and the events occurring at these stages with each
other.
5.3. Recommendations
The researcher recommended the following points that biology teachers should design the
lesson based on students learning difficulties, the planner of the education should try his best
to avoid learning difficulties, educational curriculum designers and stakeholders need to
design the educational materials including active learning methods of instruction in the
syllabi, different instruments such as worksheets including graphic presentations, conceptual
problems and conceptual assignments help improve the instruction of cell biology and cell
divisions.
Biological science curriculum should be designed on conceptual change approach instruction
to minimize students‟ misunderstanding in science, teachers should be aware of students‟
misconception and their harm to learning, teachers developing their instruction materials and
planning, the teachers should be aware of students‟ misconception because teachers often
suffer from the same misconception students have. Therefore, teachers should receive courses
that can help them recognize and remediate their misconception, teachers should also be
aware of several sources that may cause misconception and teachers should be careful in
planning their lessons and their instructions in order not to let students for many
misconception.
Teachers may unwittingly transmit their misconception to the students. Thus, in addition to
studying students‟ conceptual understanding on some concept area of biology further study
could also be conducted to determine teachers‟ conceptual understanding. Due to limitation of
resources, this research was restricted to only two grades (grade 10 and 11) levels. For further
study, similar researches could be carried out for different grades levels and large sample size.
Finally, continuous educational supervisions and on-job trainings for school biology teachers
as well as fulfillment of the required educational facilities are recommended by the
researcher.
46
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7. APPENDICES
7.1. Appendix I. TTDT
Part I: Define the content domains under the topics of cell biology and cell division. This part
is intended to define the content boundaries for the students understanding of cell biology and
cell division. This includes the following steps: first, examine the biology textbooks, teacher‟s
guide and syllabi of grade 10 and grade 11. This step provides a direct link to the actual
curricular and instructional resources used. Second, identify target concepts and propositional
knowledge statements about cell biology and cell division and third, the draft of target
concepts and propositional knowledge statements about cell biology and cell division were
validated by two biology teachers. Part I, revealed there were two key concepts and 22
prepositional knowledge statements were indentified for grade 10 related to cell division and
three key concepts and 24 prepositional knowledge statements were indentified for grade 11
related to cell biology.
1. Cell theory
2. Parts of cells and its functions.
3. Types of cells
Each of these target concepts contained different propositional knowledge statements, for
example, cell theory are:
1. All living organisms are composed of one or more cells, the cell is the most basic unit
of life and all cells arise from pre existing living cells.
2. All organisms including animals, plants, fungi and microorganisms are made up of
cells.
3. Cells vary in size, shape and specialized functions.
4. Most cells are so small that their details can be seen only with a microscope.
5. Living things can be made of just one cell to many millions of cells.
6. Some organisms are made of many types of cells and many of each type.
7. In single celled organisms such as bacteria, the single cell carries out all of the
functions needed for the organism to stay alive; in organisms made of many cells
individual cells work together with or depend on other cells to carry out their essential
life functions.
55
Part II: Obtaining information about prior conceptions of students. This has been done
through interview and open-ended questioners.
Interview
Semi-structured questions were designed based on target concepts that were explained in part
Ito find out and grasp students‟ conceptions about cell biology and cell division. These
questions were reviewed by three biology teachers for its validity. The researcher interviewed
8 students of the two grades level individually using open-ended questions. The interview
took place in the students classroom where there was lit, silent and bright light. Students were
asked each question in order by turn. The interview was lasting for 25 to 30 minutes for each
question. When students got the questions very difficult the researcher provided additional
information but also when students provided a wrong answer the researcher did not correct
them. Besides, when the student‟s response was unclear follow up questions were used to
elicit additional responses. In the interview, students were asked to answer the questions like
what are the cells and cell division, what is the difference between cells and atoms, what are
the difference and similarity between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cell, what are the difference
and similarity between plant cell and animal cell, do other organisms make new cells? How
do you know, what are the differences and similarities between mitosis and meiosis, among
others questions (Appendix II). The responses obtained from interviews were analyzed and
categories into correctly answered, partially answered, wrongly answered and students‟
misconception in such a way that they were used for preparing open-ended questions and for
two-tier diagnostic test of cell biology and cell division.
Open-Ended Questionnaire
The open ended questionnaire was developed according to observed student response during
the interviews and the related literature (Appendix III). Most of the questions were adapted
from the items on the interview guide. The questions were administered in students‟
classroom where there was suitable situation that means bright light and no noise disturbance.
The volunteers‟ teachers were assisted the researcher during the administration of the
questionnaire. The time allowed to do the questions was 60 minutes. The responses of the
56
students were grouped under the following headings correctly answered, partially answered,
wrongly answered, no answered and students‟ misconception.
Part III: Preparation of cell biology and cell division TTDT. The content domain defined in
part I and obtaining information about students‟ conceptions in part II was used to develop
cell biology and cell division TTDT. The cell biology and cell division two tier-diagnostic test
was prepared for identifying grade 10 and grade 11 students‟ misconception about cell
biology and cell division. The test was designed using the data collected through interview
and open-ended questionnaires. The distracters the second tier, for each item of cell biology
and cell division two-tier diagnostic were based on students‟ interview and questionnaire data.
All item stems were the similar stems on the open-ended questionnaire. Two-tier diagnostic
tests are the form of multiple choice types of tests that consists of two-tiers or parts. The firsttier of each multiple choice item was consisting of content knowledge questions, it was
designed to assess the students‟ knowledge about cell biology and cell division and having
two to three choices and the second-tier of each multiple choice item was contain the reasons
for selecting the responses to the first-tier and a set of four choices that are possible reasons
for the answers given to the first part. The reasons consist of the designated correct answers
together with the distracters that were identified by interview and open-ended questionnaires.
The target concepts and the propositional knowledge statements were influenced the first-tier,
where as the students‟ interview and open ended questionnaires responses were influenced the
distracters of second tier of the item. Biology teachers and instructor of measurement and
evaluation were validating all the items and confirmed that this was appropriate for grade 10
and grade 11 students in order to determine their understanding. Finally, test consisted of 12
items (Appendix IV).
57
7.2. Appendix II. Questions for Interview
The main objective of this questionnaire is to gatherer data with regards to „„Students’
Misconception about Cell Biology and Cell Division’’ in the school. Your correct and
complete response to the following questions will have great value for this study. So, you are
therefore, kindly requested to reply all the items that request by the interviewee or researcher.
Thank you in advance for your cooperation!
1.
What is a cell? Explain in simple words?
2. What is the cell theory?
3. What is the difference between cells and atoms?
4. What are the difference and similarity between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cell?
5. What are the difference and similarity between plant cell and animal cell?
6. What is cell division? Explain in a simple word?
7. What are chromosomes?
8. During which phase of mitosis do chromosomes become shorter and thicker or
condense?
9. When does DNA replication occur in a cell?
10. During which stage of the cell cycle does DNA replication occur?
11. Do other organisms make new cells? How do you know?
12. What are the differences and similarities between mitosis and meiosis?
13. How does your body make new cells? What would happen if new cells were not
made?
14. Do your cells die? If so, how do you know and give an example of when they die?
15. What happens to the cell organelles during the cell division process?
16. How do the chromosomes act during mitosis and meiosis?
58
7.3. Appendix III. Open-ended Questionnaires
The main objective of this question is to gatherer data with regards to “Students’
Misconception about cell biology and cell division’’ in the School. Your correct and
complete answer to the following questions will have great value for this study. Therefore,
you are kindly requested to answer all the questions after reading thoroughly.
Thank you in advance for your cooperation!
Direction: - 1. Do not write your name
2. Write your response in brief on the space provided.
3. Respond all questions precisely, clearly and genuinely.
4. Use English for your answer.
Section 1:- Personal information
1.1. Name of school_______________________
Use (x) for sex
1.2. Sex
Female ( ) Male (
)
Section 2:- Detailed information
1. Define a cell
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
2. What is the difference between cells and atoms?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
3.
How many cells do you think you are made up of? Are they all the same?(Explain)
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
4. Define prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
5. What is role of nucleus in cells?
_____________________________________________________________________
59
6. Explain what is plant cell and animal cell?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
7. What is the importance of Surface area to volume ratio in cells?
_____________________________________________________________________
8. Where do animal cells get energy for their function?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
9. Where do plant cells get energy for their function?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
10. What is the purpose of cell division?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
11. Can your cells be repaired? Explain why or why not?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
12. Define what is mitosis and meiosis?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
13. Describe the structure of a chromosome?
_____________________________________________________________________
14. Do all of your cells contain DNA? If so, does each cell have the same DNA? Explain
your reasoning.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
15. Define what are chromosomes, genes and DNA.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
60
7.4. Appendix IV. Close-ended Questionnaires
These close-ended questionnaires were distributed to KSPS biology teachers. The main
objective of this question is to gatherer data with regards to “Students’ Misconception about
cell biology and cell division” in the School. Your correct and complete answer to the
following questions will have great value for this study. Therefore, you are kindly requested
to answer all the questions after reading thoroughly by making (x) in the box against the
choice. (N.B Yes; No or Not Sure)
Items
No.
Cell biology
Major source of students‟ Yes
No
misconception
1
Biology textbooks
2
Biology teachers guide
3
Biology reference books
4
Instructional
employed
methods
in
teaching
biology
5
Teachers‟ English language
skills
6
Students‟ cultural beliefs
and practices
7
Biology
competency
teachers‟
of
subject
matter
61
Not sure
Cell division
Yes
No
Not sure
7.5. Appendix V. Cell Biology and Cell division Diagnostic Test
The main objective of this instrument is to gather data regards to “Students Misconception
about cell biology and cell division” in the school. Your correct answer for the following
questions will have great value for this study. Therefore, you are kindly requested to answer
all the questions after reading thoroughly.
Thank you in advance for your cooperation!!!
Instructions:
1. Do not write your name
2. Choose the most suitable option and the reason for your choice in each question
3. Circle on the letter of your choice for first and second parts of questions.
4. If you feel that all options given are inappropriate, indicate the question (s) number
and write down what you think the correct answer should be behind the question paper.
Section 1:- Personal information
Use (x) for sex
Sex Female ( ) Male ( )
Detail Information:
1. What is a cell?
A. contain hereditary information
B. a structural and functional unit of life
C. Living things can be made of just one cell to many millions of cells
1.1. Reason:
1.All cells are composed of complex molecules made by the cells themselves from
simpler molecules (such as amino acids, simple sugars, and fatty acids) that enter the
cells from outside the cells.
62
2. All organisms including animals, plants, fungi and microorganisms, are made up of
cells
3. Most cells are so small that their details can be seen only with a microscope
4. Cells are the building blocks of body.
2. All matter, including cells, is made of atoms
A. true
B. false
2.2. Reason:
1. Both atoms and cells are made up of smaller parts, including the nucleus
2. Larger macromolecules such as proteins and carbohydrates are made of cells rather
than atoms
3. Cells are made of molecules, molecules are made of atoms and atoms are the basic
building blocks of ordinary matter.
4. Cells and molecules of protein are the same size.
3. Which of the following clues would tell you whether a cell is prokaryotic or eukaryotic?
A. the presence or absence of a rigid cell wall
B. whether or not the cell is partitioned by internal membranes
C. the presence or absence of ribosomes
3.3. Reason:
1. Whether or not the cell carries out cellular metabolism
2. Whether or not the cell contains DNA
3. Prokaryotic cells lack any internal membranous compartmentalization
4. Presence or absence of ribosomes.
4. The role of nucleus in cells:
A. absorb water from surrounding air
B. gives off oxygen and taken in carbon dioxide
C. controls and regulates the activities inside the cell
4.4. Reason:
1. Nucleus center of holds all the supplies needed to make in the body.
2. Nucleus contains the cell's genetic information
3. Nucleus controls the synthesis of ribosome‟s and proteins in the cytoplasm.
63
4. Nucleus contains the cell's hereditary information (DNA) and controls the cell's
growth and reproduction.
5. Plant cells differ from animals cell is that; plant cells:
A. plant cells have cell wall and chloroplasts
B. plant cells are eukaryotic
C. Plant cells are smaller than animal cells
5.5. Reason:
1. Animal cells break sugar into carbon while plant cells change carbon dioxide into
sugar.
2. Structural support and protection of the cell and they make their own food by
trapping sunlight for sugar.
3. No cell division in plant cells, it occurs only in animal cells.
4. Animal cells have rigid cells unlike Plant cells.
6. In which of the following structure of plant cells does photosynthesis take place?
A. Mitochondria
B. chloroplasts
C. leaves
6.6. Reason:
1. The chloroplast of plants cell consists of stroma and grana where photosynthesis
take place in:
2. in stomata of the leaves
3. in the xylem of the leaves
4. in the energy transformation center of cells
7. Surface area to volume ratio is important in cells:
A. True
B. False
7.7. Reason:
1. Very large cell has a larger surface area to volume ratio than a very small cell.
2. The efficiently the cell is in conserving energy.
3. The efficiently the cell is in obtaining oxygen it needs for respiration.
4. An increased surface area to volume ratio also means increased contact to the
environment.
64
8. Where do animal cells get energy for its function?
A. from the chemical bond energy in food molecules
B. by synthesis their own food the process of photosynthesis
C. from carbohydrates
8.8. Reason:
1. Animal cells make their own fuel molecules rather than plant cell.
2. Cells require a constant supply of energy to generate and maintain the biological
order that keeps them alive.
3. Cells produced their own food by using carbon dioxide and water in the presence of
sunlight and chloroplasts
4. Animals, in order to get fuel for our mitochondria, must eat plants
9. What is cell division?
A. is the process that cells go through in order to develop.
B. is the process of mitosis or meiosis.
C. is a process in which, a large cell called the mother cell splits into two parts and
each of the parts are called daughter cells.
9.9. Reason:
1. Cell division occurs in order for an organism to grow or repair damaged cells.
2. Cell division is important for reproduction and growth and repair damaged cells
3. Cell division is the way new cells are formed and a being is formed.
4. Cell division is the process of cells multiplication into many cells.
10. Which one of the following is true about mitosis and meiosis in cells?
A. There is no difference between mitosis and meiosis in cells
B. mitosis and meiosis in cells take place at different time
C. In both processes cells divide
10.10. Reason:
1. Mitosis takes place within somatic cells and gamete cells
2. Meiosis takes place within only somatic cells
3. Mitosis takes place within somatic cells and Meiosis takes place within sex cells.
4. Mitosis and meiosis are function in an opposite and contrasting manner.
11. During which phase of mitosis does chromatin change to chromosomes?
65
A. Inter phase
B. Prophase
C. Metaphase
11.11. Reason:
1. Chromatin fibers become coiled into chromosomes with each chromosome having
two chromatids joined at a centromere.
2. Chromosomes align at the metaphase plate at right angles to the spindle poles
3. DNA replication occurs in prophase during the process of cell division.
4. The paired centromere in each distinct chromosome begins to move apart.
12. What is the longest phase of the cell cycle?
A. Anaphase
B.G1 phase in mitotic
C. Inter phase
12.12. Reason:
1. In mitotic cell division cycle, the longest phase is G1 phase which lasts for 10
hours.
2. Inter phase is the longest phase in the cell cycle lasting 18 of the 20 hour cycle.
3. Anaphase is usually the longest because the cells are always working, getting work
done, and moving.
4. Inter phase is the resting phase of mitosis.
66
7.6. Appendix VI. Classroom Observation Checklist
The main purpose of this classroom observation is to evaluate the effectiveness of grade 10
and 11 biology teacher‟s instructional strategies in overcoming “Students Misconception
about cell biology and cell division” in the school.
Name of school ________________________________
Title of the daily lesson_________________________
Name of teacher________________________________
Class observed_________________________________
Observer (Researcher) __________________________
Number of students present during observation___________
Day of observation_____________
67
Focal
for
points Specific points of observation
observation
Instructional
approach
used by the teachers
Yes
The teacher
Lecture points without focus on the
students‟ misconception
Elicit students‟ pre- knowledge prior
Instruction
Encourage students to identify their
Misconception
Present contents in a variety of ways
Evaluate students progress toward
achieving conceptual change
Students‟ awareness
about misconception
present inquiry questions to elicit
students‟ prior conception
Provide a forum for students to
confront their misconception
Instructional
material or
Textbook
Implementation
Based on misconception approach
· Scope of subject matter is narrow and
· Do not include misconception
68
No
7.7. Appendix VII. Target Concept and Propositional Statements of Cell Biology and
Cell Division
Part I. The target concepts of the content domain of cell biology for grade 11 biology
textbook and syllabus include:
1. Cell theory
2. Parts of cells and its functions.
3. Types of cells
The propositional knowledge statements of the above target concepts are:
1. All living organisms are composed of one or more cells, the cell is the most basic unit
of life and all cells arise from pre existing living cells.
2. All organisms including animals, plants, fungi and microorganisms are made up of
cells.
3. Cells vary in size, shape and specialized functions.
4. Most cells are so small that their details can be seen only with a microscope.
5. Living things can be made of just one cell to many millions of cells.
6. Some organisms are made of many types of cells and many of each type.
7. In single celled organisms such as bacteria, the single cell carries out all of the
functions needed for the organism to stay alive; in organisms made of many cells
individual cells work together with or depend on other cells to carry out their essential
life functions.
8. In multi cellular organisms the structures that make up those organisms including
brain, muscles, skin and lungs in animals and stems and flowers in plants are made up
of cells.
9. All cells are composed of complex molecules made by the cells themselves from
simpler molecules such as amino acids, simple sugars and fatty acids that enter the
cells from outside the cells.
10. In multi cellular organisms cells provide structural support for the organism they are
part of and carry out essential life functions for that organism.
11. In cells of plants and animals there are internal structures that perform specialized
functions such as extracting energy from food, making new molecules for growth and
eliminating wastes.
69
12. In addition to the internal structures that perform specialized functions for cells the
interior of cells is also filled with water and molecules that are dissolved in that water.
13. A membrane makes up the outer surface of a cell which controls what enters and
leaves the cell. For example, small molecules such as amino acids, fatty acids and
simple sugars can enter and leave through the cell's membrane.
14. Many of the same basic life processes such as extracting energy from food making the
materials needed for their own growth and eliminating wastes take place within the
individual cells of all organisms including plants, animals, fungi and microorganisms.
15. Plant and animal cells need molecules from food, water, oxygen and a way to
eliminate wastes in order to continue to function.
16. Bacteria need molecules from food, water and a way to eliminate wastes to continue to
function. Some bacteria need oxygen and others do not.
17. The different body structures of plants and animals including brain, muscles, skin and
lungs in animals and stems and flowers in plants are made up of different types of
cells.
18. Different body structures are made up of different types of cells.
19. There are many different types of cells in terms of size, structure and function. All
cells have certain characteristics in common
20. The different types of cells that make up the body parts of animals develop from one
single cell.
21. The different types of cells that make up the body parts of plants can develop from one
single cell.
22. Cells in repeatedly divide to make more cells for growth and repair and for
reproduction.
23. Groups of cells work together to perform specialized functions in multi cellular
organisms. These include red blood cells which carry oxygen to all cells of the body,
muscle cells, which allow movement of the organism and nerve cells which transmit
electrical signals between the brain and the rest of the body.
24. In multi cellular organisms, new cells needed for growth and repair come from the
division of existing cells.
70
Part II. The target concepts of the content domain of cell division for grade 10 biology
textbook and syllabus include:
1. Types of cell divisions: Mitosis and Meiosis
2. Chromosomes and genes
The propositional knowledge statements of the above target concepts are:
1. Cell division is the process where a single living cell splits to become two or more
distinct new cells.
2. Cell division has three main functions the reproduction of an entire unicellular
organism, the growth and repair of tissues in multi cellular animals and the formation
of gametes or eggs and sperm for sexual reproduction in multi cellular animals.
3. The growth of a fertilized embryo is accomplished through the division and
differentiation of cells and while some cells such as skin cells divide almost
continuously after birth other highly specialized cells such as some neurons do not and
cannot be replaced after disease or injury.
4. Cell division results in the formation of two nearly identical cells from a single
original cell.
5. Individual cells grow by creating new complex molecules that make up the cells‟
structures using molecules from food that enter the cells.
6. In multi cellular organisms both an increase in individual cell mass and an increase in
cell number cause the organism of which they are part to increase in size and mass.
7. The successive duplication of cells explains how multi cellular organisms can develop
from a single cell.
8. Cell cycle focuses on mechanisms that regulate the timing and frequency of DNA
duplication and cell division. Cell cycle is defined as the period between successive
divisions of a cell occur through a series of changes identified as prophase, metaphase,
anaphase and telophase.
9. Cell cycle is the sequence of events by which a cell duplicates its genome synthesizes
the other constituents of the cell and eventually divides into two daughter cells.
10. The cell cycle or cell division cycle is the series of events in a eukaryotic cell between
one cell division and the next. Thus, it is the process by which a single cell fertilized
71
egg develops into a mature organism and the process by which hair, skin, blood cells
and some internal organs are renewed.
11. The two forms of cell division mitosis and meiosis are the biological mechanism by
which the principles of heredity and evolutionary theory are realized.
12. Mitosis is simple cell division that creates two daughter cells that are genetically
identical to the original parent cell.
13. Mitosis begins with replication of the DNA within the cell to form two copies of each
chromosome. Once two copies are present the cell splits to become two new cells by
cytokinesis or formation of a fissure.
14. Mitosis occurs in most cells and is the major form of cell division.
15. Meiosis is the production of daughter cells having half the amount of genetic material
as the original parent cell. Such daughter cells are said to be haploid.
16. Meiosis occurs in human sperm and egg production in which four haploid sex cells are
produced from a single parent precursor cell.
17. In both mitosis and meiosis of nucleated cells shuffling of chromosomes
creates genetic variation in the new daughter cells. These important shuffling
processes are known as independent assortment and random segregation of
chromosomes.
18. Cell division is a very important process in all living organisms. During the division of
a cell DNA replication and cell growth also take place. All these processes that means
cell division, DNA replication and cell growth hence, have to take place in a
coordinated way to ensure correct division and formation of progeny cells containing
intact genomes.
19. Chromosomes are organized structures of DNA and proteins which contains many
genes regulatory elements and other nucleotide sequences.
20. A gene is the basic physical and functional unit of heredity.
21. Genes are made up of DNA act as instructions to make molecules called proteins.
22. Genes carry the information that determines your traits which are features or
characteristics that are passed on to you or inherited from your parents.
72
7.8. Appendix VIII. Response of Students for Interview Questions
Categories of students‟ response
Items Correctly Answered
Partially Answered Wrong Answered
1
-Cell is the basic -cells are so small -Cells are small
building block of all that their details microscopic
living things.
can be seen only organisms.
Cell is a structural and with a microscope
functional unit of life. Cells vary in size,
shape
and
specialized
functions.
2
-Cell theory is the -The cell is the -Cell theory is
theory
says
that unit of structure, that study about
everything that is alive physiology
and plant cell and
is made up of cells. organization
in animal cells.
Cell theory says that living things.
all things start with
cells as their basis.
Cells a rises from
existing cells.
3
___________
4
__________
-These
larger
building
blocks,
made up of atoms,
combine in very
specific ways to
form a cell.
-Eukaryotic cells
have a nucleus
while Prokaryotic
cells
don't
Eukaryotic cells
include
animal
cells
Prokaryotic cells
are mainly bacteria
73
Misconception
-Organisms
contain Cells are
building block of
body.
___________
-Cells are the
smallest and most
fundamental
building block of
materials.
-Cells and atoms
are the same
because both of
them
contain
nucleus.
-Prokaryotic cells
are multi-cellular
always
and
eukaryotic cells
are
often
unicellular.
-Both eukaryotic
and prokaryotic
cells are whether
or not the cell
carries out cell
division.
5
6
7
8
9
10
-Both
plant
and
animal cells have the
nucleus, mitochondria,
ribosome‟s, vacuoles
and Golgi-bodies and
endoplasmic
reticulum.
But plant cells possess
cellulose cell wall but
not animal cell, plant
cells
have
large
vacuole compared to
the animal cells.
-Cell division is the
process by which a
parent cell divides into
two or more daughter
cells
-Plant cells are
larger
than
animal cells.
Plant cells have
chloroplasts
unlike
animal
cells
Plant cells have a
cell wall unlike
animal cells.
-Chromosomes are a
thread like linear
strand of DNA and
associated proteins in
the
nucleus
of
eukaryotic cells and
circular strand of
DNA in bacteria that
carries the genes.
-Prophase
-Chromosomes are
organized
structures of DNA
and proteins that
are
found
in
organism.
-DNA
replication
occurs whenever cells
need to replicate.
Before a cell can
divide it needs another
copy of its genome for
the second cell that
will be produced.
-The inter-phase of
cell cycle has 3 stages:
G1, S, and G2 phase.
The replication of the
DNA occurs during
the S phase.
-When DNA is
damaged and one
strand
of
the
damaged area is ___________
replicated after the
damage
is
removed.
_________
___________
-Inter phase
-Animal
cells
have a cell wall
and
cell
membrane, plant
cell only have
cell membrane
____________
-Cell division is
when two parent
cells divide into
two cells and are
able to fully
function
and
different from the
normal cells.
Chromosomes are
the complex of
DNA and protein
found inside the
nuclei
of eukaryotic
cells.
-Cell division is
the process of
cells
separation
into many cells.
-Inter phase
______________
-Both
chromosomes and
chromatin are the
same.
___________
-Anaphase
__________
74
11
12
13
-Yes. Because the
process
of
cells
Growth, Maintenance
and Repair
-Both are forms of cell
division. It takes one
cell and makes it into
multiple cells, allow
for replication.
But mitosis takes
place within somatic
cells but Meiosis takes
place within gamete
cells, in mitosis.
-New cells are created
by cell division. This
is beneficial for the
organism
because
cells do die and need
to be replaced.
14
-Yes, a cell can die in
many ways through
infection, poisoning,
overheating or lack of
oxygen
15
-During cell division
nuclei separating; but
they never show the
mitochondria,
endoplasmic
reticulum, or other
organelles replicating
in the process.
-Cells in tissues
die and need to be
replaced.
Tissues may be
damaged and new
cells repair that
damage.
-Mitosis is asexual
and
it‟s
just
duplication of one
set
of
chromosomes.
Meiosis is sexual
reproduction and it
involves two sets
of chromosomes.
-No. An organism
does not make
new cells.
-Cell division,
The cell would
physically
be
unable to survive
as a consequence
The organism will
be dying
-May
damage
surrounding cells.
But
there
is
another, tidier way
to go programmed
self destruction, or
apoptosis.
-Cells
use
organelles, such as
the endoplasmic
reticulum and P
granules,
as
vectors for the
segregation
of
information.
-The bodies are -If the cells are
not making new dying
the
cells.
organism will be
dying but the cells
are not replaced.
75
__________
-Mitosis
or
meiosis is the
process of living
cells go through a
series of stages.
-Mitosis
and
meiosis
are
function in an
opposite
and
contrasting
manner.
-No
-Yes, but the cells
are dying during
the organism die.
-Nothing
happened
to
organelles during
cell division.
-The organelles,
such
as
mitochondria and
chloroplasts,
dissolve
and
vanish during cell
division and then
are reformed.
16
_________
-Chromosomes are
condensed
into
compact forms for
handling. Since the
chromosomes are
replicated before
going into either
meiosis or mitosis.
76
-During meiosis
Sister chromatids
are pulled to the
opposite
poles
and one diploid
cell has become
two diploid cells.
-In both case the
chromosomes act
the same thing
and the same
action.
The
chromosome
number is doubled
in the Prophase of
mitosis
and
halved in the
Anaphase
of
mitosis.
7.9. Appendix IX. Response of Students for Open-ended Questionnaires
Items
1
Correctly
Answered
-Cells are structural
and functional unit of
life.
-Cells are so small
that their details can
be seen only with a
microscope.
2
-cells are the basic
unit of life but atoms
are building blocks
of
everything
including cells.
3
-Our body made up
of a billion of cells
and they are not the
same for example,
there are nerve cells,
muscle cells, blood
cells etc.
4
- Both have DNA as
their
genetic
material, membrane
bound and have
ribosomes.
- eukaryotes have a
nucleus,
while
prokaryotes do not
Categories of students‟ response
Meaningless
Wrong
Answered
Answered
-cells are a process -living things can
that gives our body be made of just
in many important one cell.
things.
-cells
are
-cells are personal microscopic
functions
that organism.
contain unicellular
and multi cellular
cells.
-cells are the unit - Cell is a tissue
function but atoms and
atom
is
are the smallest we indivisible.
can‟t see by eyes.
-all
matters
including cells made
up of atoms.
-cells are made up -cells are made up
of smaller parts of one or more
including
the cells and they are
nucleus
not the same.
-animal cells and -they are single
plant cells.
cells and multi
-I have a billion of cells but not the
cells they are not the same.
same.
-prokaryotic
cells
are bacteria.
-Eukaryotic
cells
have a nucleus
while Prokaryotic
cells don't have.
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- The difference
between
Prokaryotic cells
and Eukaryotic
cells
are
the
presence
and
absence
of
ribosomes.
Misconception
-Cells are the
building blocks
of body.
-Cells
and
atoms are the
same because
both of them
contain nucleus.
-we are made up
of a billion of
cells but all are
the same cells.
-Both
eukaryotic and
prokaryotic
cells
are
whether or not
the cell carries
out
cell
division.
5
-controls
and
regulates
the
activities inside the
cell.
-Nucleus contains the
cell's
hereditary
information (DNA).
-Nucleus
controls….
- Nucleus center of
metabolism.
- Nucleus regulates
the body.
- absorb water
from surrounding
air
- gives off oxygen
and taken in
carbon dioxide.
6
-animal cells do not
have a cell wall or
chloroplasts but plant
cells do.
-Animal cells are
round and irregular
in shape while plant
cells have fixed
rectangular shapes.
-For cells are in
obtaining oxygen it
needs for respiration.
-Plant cells have
rigid……………
-have cellulose in
cell wall.
-Cells smaller in
size.
-Animal
cells
have rigid cell
walls unlike plant
cells.
-Animal
cells _____
larger in size than
plant cells.
7
8
9
10
11
-The
rate
of
diffusion depends
on factors.
-Cells require a
constant supply of
energy to generate
-From the chemical -Food by using
bond energy in food carbon dioxide.
molecules.
-Fuel
for
our
mitochondria.
-Manufacturing their
food
by
photosynthesis.
-All green plants are
producing their own
food.
-For
reproduction
and growth and
repair damaged cells.
-Yes. Because the
process
of
cells
Growth,
-Cell uses the
energy it releases
in respiration.
-Cell
releases
energy
in
respiration.
-Animal
cells
make their own
fuel
molecules
rather than plant
cell.
-Plants get their -from their parts
food.
means from leaf.
- Photosynthesis of -plants get their
plants.
food from living
-food
very thing.
important.
-The process of -The process that
mitosis.
cells go through
-The nucleus splits in
order
to
and DNA
develop.
-The mother cell
splits into parts
-Cells in tissues -No. An organism
die….
does not make
-Need
to
be new cells.
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- Nucleus holds
all the materials
needed to make
every cell in the
body.
-Nucleus center
of holds all the
supplies needed
to make in the
body.
-For cells are in
conserving
energy.
-By production
their own food
the process of
metabolism.
____
-For the process
of
cells
multiplication
into many cells.
-The organism
will be dying
but the cells are
12 •
Maintenance
and
Repair
-Meiosis produces
daughter cells that
have one half the
numbers of
chromosomes.
-Mitosis is asexual
and
it‟s
just
duplication of one set
of chromosomes.
13
-Filamentous bodies
which are typically
present
in
the
nucleus and which
become
visible
during cell division.
14
-Yes.
-All cells contain the
same DNA.
- But is that not
every gene that is
encoded by the DNA
is expressed in every
cell.
15
-Genes are packaged
in bundles called
chromosomes
-A gene is a distinct
portion of a cell‟s
DNA.
-DNA carries the
genetic information
in the body‟s cells.
replaced
not replaced.
- Meiosis organisms
to reproduce
-Meiosis
is
reproduction two of
chromosomes.
- Mitosis takes place
within
-Mitosis
and
meiosis
are
function in an
opposite
and
contrasting
manner.
-Meiosis occurs
in
the
reproductive
cell
-units of heredity
Chromosomes are -Chromosomes
-is made up of really made
up
of and chromatids
long chains
chromotid.
are essentially
the same thing.
- Chromosomes
are formed as a
result
of
shrinkage and
thickening
of
spindle fibers.
-No
-Yes
-The cells become
specialized…
-b/c cells express a
set of bone…..
-Mitosis is sexual
reproduction.
-Meiosis
is
asexual
reproduction
-No
-All cells contain
the
different
DNA.
- Because cells
are concerned all
of these tissues
etc
have
a
function.
- Chromosomes are - DNAis coded
thread ……
instructions for
- Chromosome is making
long chain.
everything
the
-Genes are heredity body.
-DNA
double - Chromosomes
structures.
are chains of
chemical building
blocks.
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-No
- Because if our
cells are the
same. Cells
contain the
same DNA.
____