Download Imperial Russia – Government and People

National 4/5 History:
Red Flag: Lenin and the Russian Revolution, 1894-1921
Imperial Russia – Government and People
Page | 1
The Russian Empire in 1894
Land and Climate
The Russian Empire was vast; it spanned two continents and was so big you could fit the
British Isle into Russia ninety times.
However, despite its large size most of the land was useless because of the climate.
High mountains to the south stopped warm air from spreading into Russia keeping the
temperatures low and arts of Russia were covered in huge pine forests. This meant that
there was only a little land (5%) which could be used for farming.
The cold climate affected Russia’s industry as well as farming. This is because it was
difficult to transport goods across Russia as the rivers froze making it difficult for
ships to get through. The trans-Siberian railway was built after 1890 and helped to
improve communications with the eastern regions of Russia, but no national roads
stretched right across the country.
This map shows the size of Russia in 1914. It is
curved to match the curve of the earth
National 4/5 History:
Red Flag: Lenin and the Russian Revolution, 1894-1921
People
In 1894 the Russian Empire was ruled by a Tsar or Emperor called Nicholas II. Around
125 million people lived in the Russian Empire. Not everyone was Russian. The table
Page | 2 below, which has been taken from the 1897 census, shows the different Nationalities
who lived in the Russian Empire.
Russians
Ukrainians
Poles
Byelorussians
Jews
Kirghiz
Tartars
Finns
Germans
Lithuanians
Letts
Georgians
Armenians
Romanians
Caucasians
Iranians
Other Asiatic peoples
Mongols
Others
55,650,000
22,400,000
7,900,000
5,900,000
5,000,000
4,000,000
3,700,000
2,500,000
1,800,000
1,650,000
1,400,000
1,350,000
1,150,000
1,110,000
1,000,000
1,000,000
5,750,000
500,000
200,000
Having so many nationalities living together caused some problems. There were many
different languages so it could be difficult for people from different nationalities to
communicate. Some nationalities had distinct cultures and customs which could
potentially clash.
Complete Questions 1-3 on Page 7
National 4/5 History:
Red Flag: Lenin and the Russian Revolution, 1894-1921
The Tsarist Government
Page | 3
Tsar Nicholas II was an autocrat which means he does not have to
share power with a parliament. This meant Tsar Nicholas II could
pass any law or change taxes (in short, do anything he liked) without
consulting anyone. The Tsar was extremely powerful but he was not
a very good leader. To help Nicholas run the huge Russian Empire he
relied on the three “pillars” which supported his position: the
bureaucracy, the army and the church.
There were many civil servants in the Russian bureaucracy like
government ministers, teachers and inspectors whose job it was to ensure that the
country ran smoothly. Corruption was common in the bureaucracy with officials being
bribed by people so they could get what they want. The Tsar’s secret police the
Okhrana who ensured people followed the rules of Tsar’s regime and exiled opponents
was part of this bureaucracy.
The army was the second pillar which supported the Tsar. People outside
Russia referred to the Russian army as “Steamroller” because the huge
population made it the biggest in the world. Officers who were in
charged came from the nobility while the ordinary soldiers came from
the peasantry. Despite its large size the army was not very efficient as
it lacked essential equipment and training. This meant that even though
it was the biggest army in the world, it was not the strongest.
The Russian Orthodox Church was the official church of the Empire.
The Tsar was the head of this church and the priests told the people of Russia that
the Tsar was appointed by God to rule over them. This helped ensure the people
respected Nicholas’ reign and did not rebel. The Church actively persecuted people of
other religions under a programme of Russification which tried to make every person in
the Empire follow the faith of the Russian Orthodox Church. The Jews in
Complete Questions 4-6 on Page 7
National 4/5 History:
Red Flag: Lenin and the Russian Revolution, 1894-1921
particular suffered under Russification by a series of pogroms (planned campaign
against a group of people which are planned by the government).
Page | 4
Tsar Nicholas
The Autocrat
Bureaucracy
Army
Government
“Steamroller”
ministers
Teachers
Officials
Inspectors
Noble Officers
Russian
Orthodox
Church
Tsar appointed
Peasant soldiers
by God
Poorly equipped
Wealthy
Under trained
Persecute other
The Okhrana
religions (Jews)
Russian Society
Not only was Russia divided by the number of nationalities, it was also deeply divided
socially. The nobility were the wealthiest people in Russia who owned most of the land
and therefore controlled the peasants who worked the land. Nobles made up less than
2% of the population and the peasants made up 80%. This means the vast majority of
the people in Russia were uneducated and lived in poverty.
The peasants were given land to farm from the Mir (village commune) which was paid
for each year for forty-nine years and only then did the peasants actually own the land.
The size of the land given depended on the size of the family, as population increased
the plots of land grew smaller and smaller which made it difficult for the peasants to
support their families. As it became more difficult to sustain families on small plots of
land, many peasants went to the cities to work in the factories. Nearly a million people
went to the capital of Russia St. Petersburg to search for work. Life in the towns was
National 4/5 History:
Red Flag: Lenin and the Russian Revolution, 1894-1921
just as difficult as in the country as conditions were poor and wages were low and if you
complained you could easily be replaced. Trade Unions were illegal making it difficult
for improvements to be made.
Page | 5 Rapid industrialisation created a new class of factory owners and bankers called the
Capitalists who earned their riches from Russia’s industry. Another, very small middle
class was emerging which included doctors and lawyers who were educated and knew
about democratic ideas from Western Europe.
Tsar
Bureaucracy
Church
Army
Nobility
Industrial (Factory) workers
Peasants
Agricultural (Farm) workers
Complete Questions 7-8 on Page 7
National 4/5 History:
Red Flag: Lenin and the Russian Revolution, 1894-1921
Agriculture and Industry
We know that the cold climate made it difficult to grow crops and sustain the people of
Page | 6 the Russian Empire. Despite this, Russia’s economy was largely based on agriculture
(farming) and it relied on the peasants working hard to get a harvest from the little
suitable land there was. This meant the Tsar had to keep the peasants on his side.
From 1880 the Tsars had begun to encourage more industries to develop in Russia so
they could compete with the European powers Germany and Britain. The result of this
was rapid growth of cites in European (Western) Russia. For example the capital of
Russia, St Petersburg grew from 900,000 to 1.5 million between 1880-1900. To pay for
this industrialization Russia relied on investment from European countries like France,
Belgium, Germany and Great Britain. As well as using Western money to pay for the
growth of industry, Russia also used Western technicians and engineers so that Russia
would have the best designs and would get maximum profit.
Peasants saw the opportunities available to work in the cities and moved in to work in
the factories. In the cities overcrowded living conditions, low pay, twelve hour shifts,
accidents in the work place created a tense atmosphere with very discontent workers.
Workers’ diet consisted of black bread, cabbage soup and porridge and they were
forced to live in cramped cheap lodgings with no privacy.
With more people living in cities and working closely together sharing their problems,
it was feared that these ideas could grow and could result in revolution. Ideas like
democracy threatened the Tsar’s power and control over his Empire; it was for
discussing such ideas that the Okhrana arrested people.
Complete Questions 9-10 on Page 7
National 4/5 History:
Red Flag: Lenin and the Russian Revolution, 1894-1921
Tasks
Page | 7
Answer the following questions in your jotter in full sentences.
1. Describe the problems Russia’s climate caused in terms of farming and industry
2. If the total population of the Russian Empire was 125 million people, how many
people in the Empire were NOT Russian? (Use the table on page 2)
3. What problems would the people of Russia face with so many different
nationalities living together?
4. What is an autocrat?
5. Name and describe the function of each of the 3 “pillars” which supported Tsar
Nicholas.
6. Russification was designed to unite all people in the Russian Empire under the
Russian Orthodox Church. Why do you think this was so important?
7. Why did some peasants move to the cities? Was life any better there?
8. Source A is from a book written in 1905 by Father Geogrei Gapon a priest in St
Petersburg.
They receive miserable wages and generally live in an overcrowded state...
the normal working day is eleven and a half hours of work, exclusive of
meal times...I often watch crowds of poorly clad and emaciated (very
thin) figures of men and girls returning from the mills.
a) Is source A a primary or secondary source?
b) Who wrote the source? Are they likely to be biased?
c) What information about conditions for factory workers can we find in this
source?
9. Why was Russia so keen to industrialize in the late 19th century? How did they
achieve this?
10. How did the middle class and workers threaten the Tsar’s control of the
Russian Empire?
National 4/5 History:
Red Flag: Lenin and the Russian Revolution, 1894-1921
The 1905 Revolution
War against Japan
Page | 8 In 1904 Russia went to war with Japan over Korea and Manchuria. Tsar Nicholas
thought Russia would win the war quickly and that this would make him more popular
with the people. From the beginning of
the war Russia suffered defeat after
defeat and this weakened his position.
The war had caused conditions for the
working people to get worse as food
supplies to the cities stopped and
factories ran out of materials and
were forced to close. The result was
angry, hungry and unemployed workers
out on the streets were they could
share their anger.
Bloody Sunday
As conditions became worse for the Russian people more began to demand a change. On
Sunday 22nd January 1905 a crowd of 200,000 workers led by a priest called Father
Gapon marched through St Petersburg to the Winter Palace. This was a peaceful
protest with the workers dressed in their best clothes, carrying a petition addressed
to the Tsar. The petition asked for better working and living conditions, a shorter
working day, an end to the war with Japan and other reforms. When they reached the
palace the guards opened
fire killing 96 people and
National 4/5 History:
Red Flag: Lenin and the Russian Revolution, 1894-1921
wounding 333 (approx). The massacre became known as “Bloody Sunday” and as news of
the events spread riots and strikes erupted.
Page | 9
Causes of
the 1905
revolution
The 1905 Revolution
Complete Questions 1-2 on page 11
In June 1905 the crew of the Potemkin
battleship mutinied. This showed that
Tsar Nicholas could not trust his military
to stay loyal to him. Furthermore after
National 4/5 History:
Red Flag: Lenin and the Russian Revolution, 1894-1921
Bloody Sunday the peasants in the countryside rebelled against their landlords and nonRussians in the Empire declared their independence. By September the situation had
gotten worse and a general strike began with shops, factories, railways, hospitals and
Page | 10
schools closing.
To help run the cities in the chaos of the strike, Soviets were
established and they soon gained the respect of the workers.
The October Manifesto
Tsar Nicholas was forced to address the problems of his people. In October he issued
document which said Russia would have an elected government called the Duma to help
run the country. This document became known as the October Manifesto and it was
important as it promised the Russian people basic freedoms (e.g. freedom of speech
and to form political parties) and the opportunity to elect representatives to the Duma.
By December Tsar Nicholas had gone back on his word and arrested members of the St
Petersburg Soviet along with sending the army to Moscow to crush its Soviet. To fully
end the revolution thugs known as the “Black Hundreds” organised massacres of
revolutionaries which the police and army did not prevent.
When the Duma met for the first time in May Tsar Nicholas issued a set of
Fundamental Laws. The first law stated “To the Emperor of all the Russias belongs the
supreme autocratic power”. This meant that although the Duma existed, Nicholas was
still the one with the power and as such little had changed for the Russian people.
Complete Questions 3-5 on page 11
Tasks
Answer the following questions in your jotter in full sentences.
1. Why did the war with Japan make the Tsar unpopular?
2. Do you think the decision to open fire on protestors during Bloody Sunday a
sensible one?
National 4/5 History:
Red Flag: Lenin and the Russian Revolution, 1894-1921
3. Create a timeline of the events of the 1905 Revolution
4. What did the October Manifesto promise?
Page | 11
5. How successful was the 1905 Revolution?
6. How fully does Source A describe the reasons for the 1905 Revolution?
(6)
Source A is an extract from the petition that Father George Gapon hoped to
present to Nicholas II on 22nd January, 1905.
We workers, our children, our wives and our old, helpless parents have
come, Lord, to seek truth and protection from you. We are impoverished
and oppressed, unbearable work is imposed on us, we are despised and not
recognized as human beings. We are treated as slaves, who must bear
their fate and be silent. We have suffered terrible things, but we are
pressed ever deeper into the abyss of poverty, ignorance and lack of
rights.
Remember!
To answer this question you must:
Make a judgment on how fully the source explains/ describes the historical
event
Provide 3 points from the source in your own words
Provide 4 pieces of recalled knowledge
You can only get 2 marks if you do not make a judgment
Aftermath of 1905 Revolution
The Dumas
The Fundamental laws had made it clear that Tsar Nicholas controlled the Duma.
The first Duma met in May 1906 and was dominated by Liberals but had 200
peasant representatives. It only lasted seventy-five days before Tsar Nicholas
surrounded it with troops and broke it up. The second Duma was elected in 1907and
contained liberals, social Revolutionaries and Social Democrats. It liked even less by
Nicholas and was broken up after three months. Nicholas changed the voting system
National 4/5 History:
Red Flag: Lenin and the Russian Revolution, 1894-1921
and the 1907 which resulted in the final Duma lasting five years as it was mainly
made up of conservatives who did not threaten Nicholas’ power greatly.
Stolypin’s Reforms
Page | 12
In 1906 Nicholas appointed a new Prime Minister, Peter Stolypin, to make sure
there were no further outbreaks of revolution. Stolypin clamped down on terrorism
by arresting and executing revolutionaries to the extent that Russian’s gave the
gallows the nickname “Stolypin’s necktie”.
To control the peasants Stolypin introduced land reform like abolishing redemption
payments for the peasants and the Mirs. The idea was hard working peasants would
own their own farms so increase production. This would make them rich and they
would want peace. By 1914 over two million peasants owned their land. Industrial
reform under Stolypin increased production of
coal, iron, steel and cotton. However only the
richer peasants (Kulaks) could afford to buy
enough land to support their family and Russia’s
industrial input was still behind that of other
Cartoon showing the idea of “carrot and stick”
European countries
Stolypin’s policies can be described as “carrot and stick” as it is both harsh and fair
and designed to keep people placated by reform and scared to rebel.
Complete Questions 1-2 on page 15
Opponents of the Tsar
Constitutional Democrats (Kadets)
The most moderate party was the Constitutional
Democrats (Kadets for short). They were a middle
class party that wanted political reform.
In
Meeting of the Kadets
National 4/5 History:
Red Flag: Lenin and the Russian Revolution, 1894-1921
particular they w anted the Duma to be given greater power at the expense of the
Tsar. Because their support came from the better off section of the population they
rejected violence in favour of peaceful protest.
Page | 13 Social Revolutionaries
The largest opposition group was the Social Revolutionaries. They had the support of
the peasants because they demanded more land for those that worked the land, and
they wanted that land to come from those who owned it and grew rich from the sweat
of the peasants. They had developed the use of terror as a political weapon and still
employed it when necessary.
Social Democrats
The smallest opposition group was the most radical, the Social
Democrats.
They were a Socialist party that wanted the
wealth of the few to be redistributed amongst the povertystricken masses of Russia. They followed the teaching of the
German Communist thinker, Karl Marx who believed that
history was the story of class struggle.
Karl Marx in 1875
In the late 19th
century, according to Marx, the classes contesting for power
were the Bourgeoisie (middle class) and the Proletariat
(working class). Revolution, Marx taught, was inevitable because of the behaviour of
the middle class Capitalists (those with money to invest). They exploited their workers
mercilessly. This was bound to make them revolt. The tasks of the Party were to
prepare for the revolution and to educate the workers so that they could take part in
it. Once the revolution occurred, the Means of Production (factories, mines, land, and
banks) would be taken over by the state and run for the benefit of the people. There
would be no more rich and poor; everyone would be equal.
Bolsheviks and Mensheviks
National 4/5 History:
Red Flag: Lenin and the Russian Revolution, 1894-1921
Most Social Democrat leaders lived abroad because they risked arrest by the Okhrana
for their views. The Party had split in two in 1903 at a Party Congress in London and
had remained split ever since. One wing of
Page | 14
the party, the Bolsheviks (the majority)
was led by Vladimir Ulyanov, son of a school
inspector, better known as Lenin.
The
other wing was called the Mensheviks
(minority).
Lenin had wanted the party
kept small and secret, with only dedicated
Marxists allowed to join.
In that way it
A painting of Lenin
would be hard to infiltrate by the Okhrana, easier to control and its political views
could be kept pure and uncorrupted. The Mensheviks disagreed. They wanted a mass
party to compete for votes at elections. They also wanted to campaign for reforms
now and not just wait like the Bolsheviks for the revolution which might be decades
away. Since 1903, despite their name, the Menshevik group had grown to considerable
size, while the Bolsheviks had remained as Lenin wanted them, a small tightly knit group
under his authoritarian leadership.
Complete Questions 3-5 on page 15
Tasks
1. How successful were the Dumas in introducing democracy?
2. Describe Stolypin’s time as Prime Minister.
Remember!
To answer the question you must:
DESCRIBE a historical event
You need to make at least 5 relevant points which describe the event
National 4/5 History:
Red Flag: Lenin and the Russian Revolution, 1894-1921
3. Create a table which shows the differences and similarities between the different
opponents to the Tsar.
Page | 15
Include information on:

Tactics (e.g. use of violence)

Beliefs

Supporters

Famous members
4. Why did Karl Marx think revolution was inevitable?
5. a) What does the word “Bolshevik” mean?
b) What does the word “Menshevik” mean?
c) In 1903 which group had the largest membership and why?
Russia and the First World War
Russia Goes to War
In 1914 Nicholas II made his greatest mistake: he took
Russia into the First World War to honour a promise made
to the small Slav state of Serbia years earlier that Russia
would come to her aid if she was threatened by AustriaHungary. In June of that year a Serb terrorist had killed
the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne. Austria-Hungary
accused the Serb government of complicity in the
Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir
to Austro-Hungarian throne
National 4/5 History:
Red Flag: Lenin and the Russian Revolution, 1894-1921
assassination and, after getting a promise of support from her ally Germany, declared
war on Serbia in late July.
Nicholas II, hoping that military success would restore his regime's popularity, ordered
Page | 16 his armies to begin mobilisation.
When he rejected a German demand to cease
mobilisation, that country declared war on Russia. Like most countries in that summer
of 1914, Russia was swept by a huge wave of patriotic fervour, and young men
clamoured to enlist in their hundreds of thousands. The Tsar must have thought that
at last the country was united behind him.
Campaigns of 1914
The early campaigns on the Eastern Front set the pattern for the rest of the war.
Despite numerical superiority, the Russians were crushed by German forces in East
Prussia at Tannenberg and the Masurian Lakes in September 1914. Better equipment,
better training and better generalship gave the Germans a decisive edge in battles
against Russia's poorly equipped hordes.
Further south in Galicia the Russians did
better against Germany's weak ally, Austria-Hungary. Many of her soldiers were Slavs,
only too keen to desert to their Russian brothers. The morale of the Austro-Hungarian
armies never recovered from the defeats they suffered at the hands of the Russians
in 1914.
Campaigns of 1915-16
The Germans and Austrians made a major push on the Eastern Front throughout the
summer of 1915. The result was a catastrophic defeat for Russia. Her armies were
pushed back 300 miles all along the front and lost 2,500,000 men in the process as well
as a great deal of fertile land and industrial resources.
This grave setback also
created a refugee problem in the cities as millions fled the advancing Central Powers
armies. One consequence was the
Tsar's decision, despite his having
no military experience, to take
personal command of his armies at
Tsar Nicholas rallying the troops with a religious icon
National 4/5 History:
Red Flag: Lenin and the Russian Revolution, 1894-1921
the front. If the defeats continued he would take the blame.
However 1916 saw a Russian revival, though predictably it was at the expense of the
Austro-Hungarian army.
General Brusilov prepared a well-planned offensive which
Page | 17 regained some of the ground lost the previous year, though at the cost of another
million casualties. In part this revival was due to the production of more weapons as
Russia's industry adapted to wartime measures. Unfortunately this came too late. By
the start of 1917 it is estimated that of the 15 million men conscripted into the armed
forces since 1914, one half were either killed, wounded or missing and an increasing
proportion of the missing were in fact deserters who saw no point in continuing a war
already lost. Russia's long-suffering soldiers had reached the limit of their endurance
by the winter of 1916-17. War-weariness ran like a contagious virus through the army.
The desire for peace, any peace, became overwhelming.
Complete Questions 1-6 on page 18
Tasks
1. Why did Russia go to war in 1914?
2. Explain the term “patriotic fervour”. Use a dictionary to look up the meaning.
3. Why was Russia suffering defeat even though it had a larger army?
4. Was Tsar Nicholas’ decision to take personal command of the army a wise
one?
Explain your answer.
5. Why did the soldiers want peace by the winter of 1916-1917?
6. Evaluate the usefulness of Source A as evidence of the Russian army during
WW1.
Source A is by Arthur Ransome who made several visits to the Eastern Front in
1916 and 1917.
National 4/5 History:
Red Flag: Lenin and the Russian Revolution, 1894-1921
I saw a great deal of that long-drawn out front and of the men who, ill-armed,
ill-supplied, were holding it against an enemy who, even in his anxiety to fight
was no greater than the Russian's, was infinitely better equipped. I came back
Page | 18
to Petrograd full of admiration for the Russian soldiers who were holding the
front without enough weapons to go round.
Origin
Purpose
Content
Recall
Russia and the First World War– Problems at Home
Supply Problems
The First World War was a total war in which civilians at home were affected by
military events too. In Russia, as in other countries, prices, especially of food and fuel,
rose faster than wages. This was caused mainly by the fact that the army had taken
over most of the railway network in order to supply its troops. This left too few trains
to carry supplies to the cities. Throughout the war there was no real shortage of food
in Russia, but most of the food could not get into the cities. So the people went hungry
while much of the harvest rotted in railway sidings. This problem was aggravated by
the refugees from the conquered territories. Another effect of their arrival was to
increase overcrowding in Russia's already overcrowded cities.
National 4/5 History:
Red Flag: Lenin and the Russian Revolution, 1894-1921
By 1916 unemployment was increasing, which was unusual in wartime.
This too was
linked to the transport problem. Not enough fuel was available for the factories and so
some shut down, while others laid workers off. This was very hard for families to bear
Page | 19
at a time of steadily rising prices. The shortage of fuel made the winters even harder
to bear than usual. In Petrograd in the winter of
1916-17, with both food and fuel in short supply and
expensive, frustration mounted, as did the wish to
end the war. However those in high places seemed
oblivious to the gathering storm.
Alexandra and Rasputin
The Tsar had left his German wife, Alexandra, to take charge of government meetings
when he went to the front in 1915. This was a disastrous mistake. She had never been
popular with the people, who saw her as an aloof and arrogant foreigner. With the
outbreak of war, there were even some who accused her of being a German spy.
To make matters worse Alexandra had fallen under the
influence of a so-called holy man and miracle worker,
Gregory Rasputin. Her only son, Alexei, the heir to the
throne, suffered from the rare blood disease, haemophilia.
This meant that his blood did not clot when he was cut or
bruised. There was no cure for this ailment. Rasputin had
appeared in 1904 at St Petersburg and, on being
introduced to the royal family, seemed to be able to
shorten the length and decrease the severity of the
disease's attacks.
From then on Alexandra, who was a
carrier of the disease, like her grandmother Queen
National 4/5 History:
Red Flag: Lenin and the Russian Revolution, 1894-1921
Victoria, was sure that Rasputin had been sent by God. She trusted him implicitly, and
refused to believe the police reports that his behaviour outside the royal palace was
anything but saintly.
Page | 20 By 1915-16 many people believed that Rasputin exerted great influence over
government appointments because Alexandra consulted him and deferred to his views.
All of this had a dreadful effect on the reputation of the royal family: some even
claimed that Alexandra and Rasputin were lovers. The people of Russia found it more
and more difficult to feel any loyalty to the Romanov dynasty.
In December 1916 a group of Russian nobles killed Rasputin in the hope that his death
would revive the fortunes of the royal family. But his death made no difference. The
winter of 1916-17 was even fiercer than usual.
Breaking point had been reached:
although it did not realise it, the Romanov dynasty had reached the end of the line.
Complete Questions 1-4 on page 21
Tasks
1. How did the First World War affect the Russian people?
2. Why was leaving the Tsarina in charge of governing Russia a mistake?
3. Explain why the Romanov dynasty was approaching the end of its reign
in 1917.
4. How fully does Source A describe the impact of the First World War
on the Russian people?
National 4/5 History:
Red Flag: Lenin and the Russian Revolution, 1894-1921
Source A is by Louise Bryant, from her book Six Months in Russia
(1918)
One of the things that strikes coldness to one's heart are the long
Page | 21
lines of scantily clad people standing in the bitter cold waiting to
buy bread, milk, sugar or tobacco. From four o'clock in the morning
they begin to stand there.
Remember!
To answer this question you must:
Make a judgment on how fully the source explains/ describes the historical
event
Provide 3 points from the source in your own words
Provide 4 pieces of recalled knowledge
You can only get 2 marks if you do not make a judgment
The (February) March Revolution 1917
The Overthrow of the Tsar
It started with bread riots in Petrograd. Demonstrations and strikes followed. Within
days the city was paralysed, but Alexandra refused to take the disturbances seriously.
Members of the Duma informed the Tsar who was still at the front, that the situation
was grave. They asked him to make concessions towards democratic government. Out
National 4/5 History:
Red Flag: Lenin and the Russian Revolution, 1894-1921
of touch and in any case unwilling to compromise, Nicholas rejected these proposals.
His wife advised him to stand firm.
Troops sent out into the streets to crush
protesters, instead befriended them. Some even shot their officers. It was clear to
Page | 22
all but the blind that the government had lost control. The army would not rescue him
as it had done in 1905: the war had seen to that. The Duma, afraid that control of
events would pass to more radical groups, asserted itself and declared that it was
transforming itself into a Provisional Government. The generals informed the Tsar
that they could not guarantee the loyalty of their troops. As if in a daze, Nicholas
recognised the game was up. On 1st March the Tsar’s train was diverted to Pskov 160km
away from Petrograd. The next day Duma politicians’ and generals persuaded Nicholas
that he had to choice but to abdicate.
Provisional Government and Soviet
But there was to be no simple transfer of power from the Tsar to the Provisional
Government.
Government
The
was
Provisional
faced
almost
immediately with a potential rival:
the Petrograd Soviet. Soviet is the
Russian word for a council and this
council was brought into existence
by those very radical elements that
the members of the Duma feared so much.
Whereas the Duma, and hence the
Provisional Government, had a moderate middle class outlook, the Soviet reflected
Social Revolutionary, Menshevik and to a lesser extent Bolshevik views. It also claimed
to be more representative of the Russian people insofar as its members were elected
by workers and soldiers. Every factory and army regiment in the city had a delegate in
the Soviet, while the members of the Duma had been elected by a limited number of
voters as long ago as 1912.The Soviet was suspicious of the Provisional Government
from the start. It feared that it would not deliver what the people wanted: peace with
Germany, an end to the shortages and genuine democratic government.
For the
National 4/5 History:
Red Flag: Lenin and the Russian Revolution, 1894-1921
meantime, however, the Soviet was prepared, in the interests of stable government, to
give the provisional Government time to see what it could do. Nevertheless it took
precautions. One of its first measures was to introduce Soviet Order No 1. This was
Page | 23
an instruction to the soldiers of the Petrograd garrison that they were to obey the
Soviet if ever there was a disagreement between it and the Provisional Government.
Events took an even more serious turn for the Provisional Government when radicals all
over the country quickly copied what had happened in Petrograd and set up their own
Soviets. Soon there were hundreds of them, and they all looked to the Petrograd
Soviet for guidance and leadership. It was clear that the Provisional Government would
find it very difficult to rule Russia without the consent of the Soviets.
Complete Question 1 on page 26
The Provisional Government in Power
The War Continues
Like most new governments, the Provisional Government was popular at the start and its
early reforms were welcomed. It opened the prisons and freed the Tsar's political
prisoners.
newspapers.
It closed down the hated Okhrana.
And it ended censorship of the
National 4/5 History:
Red Flag: Lenin and the Russian Revolution, 1894-1921
However, its other policies were received with less
enthusiasm.
The Provisional Government made it clear
that it intended to keep Russia in the war. This turned
out to be a terrible mistake, but its reasons made some
Page | 24
sense in early 1917. In April the USA entered the war on
the Allies' side. Victory was now all but certain if Russia
could just hang on. Moreover there was some hope that
the troops' morale would improve now that the Tsar was
WW1 USA propaganda poster
gone. There was also concern that if Russia made peace
the Allies would cut off their subsidies. Despite all this, the people wanted peace, and
with the Tsar gone, they expected to get it sooner rather than later. Any government
that failed to make peace would not last long.
No Land Reform
The
new
government
also
promised
land
reform, but did nothing about it claiming that
the peasants would have to wait until proper
elections had been held to set up a truly
democratic government. This too made sense,
but it was not what the peasants wanted to
hear. Their expectations had also been raised
by the overthrow of the Tsar and they soon
Map showing the Eastern Front of WW1
became disillusioned when their early hopes failed to materialise.
During 1917
desertions from the largely peasant army increased to epidemic proportions because
men wanted to get home to claim their share of the new land they believed would be
made available. This of course made it more difficult for the government to keep an
effective army in the field
National 4/5 History:
Red Flag: Lenin and the Russian Revolution, 1894-1921
Growing Criticism
Even its liberalising policies backfired on the
Provisional Government. From out of the prisons,
Page | 25
and from abroad, poured thousands of radicals
who now, like the press, had the freedom to say
what they wanted. What they wanted was more
than the Provisional Government would give them.
Soon the government was being criticised from
all sides.
Complete Question 2 on page 26
Tasks
1. Read Sources A and B and answer the following questions
a) Who are the authors of the sources?
b) Is it likely that the authors will agree on how serious the situation in
Petrograd was in March 1917? Explain your answer.
National 4/5 History:
Red Flag: Lenin and the Russian Revolution, 1894-1921
c) What do the sources agree on?
d) What do the sources disagree on?
Page | 26
e) Whose opinion do you agree with? Explain your answer
Source A is from a letter written by the Tsarina to Nicholas II (26thMarch,
1917)
The whole trouble comes from these idlers, well-dressed people, wounded
soldiers, high-school girls, etc. who are inciting others. Lily spoke to some cabdrivers to find out things. They told her that the students came to them and
told them if they appeared in the streets in the morning, they should be shot to
death. What corrupt minds! Of course the cabdrivers and the motormen are now
on strike. But they say that it is all different from 1905, because they all
worship you and only want bread.
Source B is part of a speech made by Alexander Kerensky, in the Duma (13th
March, 1917)
There are people who assert that the Ministers are at fault. Not so. The
country now realizes that the Ministers are but fleeting shadows. The country
can clearly see who sends them here. To prevent a catastrophe the Tsar himself
must be removed, by force if there is no other way.
2. Explain why many Russians were still discontent after the abdication of the
Tsar
(6)
Lenin and the Bolsheviks
Lenin Returns to Russia
One of its fiercest critics was the leader of the Bolsheviks. Lenin had been in Zurich
when the revolution occurred. He wanted to return at once. Germany provided him
National 4/5 History:
Red Flag: Lenin and the Russian Revolution, 1894-1921
with money and a train, despite being at war with Russia. The reason was that Lenin
had made clear his opposition to the war as early as 1914. If he gained power in Russia,
he would make peace and Germany would have to fight on only one front. In April Lenin
Page | 27
arrived in Petrograd via Germany, Sweden and Finland. Up to this point the Bolshevik
leaders in Russia had gone along with the Soviet's policy of co-operation with the
Provisional Government. Lenin changed all that in one speech, later encapsulated in his
April Theses. The Bolsheviks, he declared, wanted an immediate end to the war, a
government takeover of factories and banks, the handing over of land to the peasants,
the transformation of the Soviets into the real government of Russia and no cooperation of any sort with the Provisional Government. Lenin also made it clear that
the Bolshevik Party, despite its small size, intended to seize power in order to make
Russia into the world's first Communist state.
Lenin's Aims
Moreover Lenin took steps to turn this dream into a reality. He galvanised the party
instructing its members to get themselves elected to the soviets since that was where
the real power in Russia lay. The party that controlled the
soviets controlled Russia.
He set up a Bolshevik private
army, the Red Guards which would, when ready, topple the
middle class Provisional Government which had no real
interest in the working class. He made sure that the Party
boosted its support through the use of simple but effective
slogans such as "All Power to the Soviets" and "Peace, Land, Bread". He continued to
accept financial help from the Germans and used it unashamedly to further undermine
morale in the army. More than anything else Lenin gave the Bolsheviks purpose and
direction.
He recognised that the Provisional Government was weak and that the
opportunity existed for a determined group to overthrow it and grab the reins of
history.
National 4/5 History:
Red Flag: Lenin and the Russian Revolution, 1894-1921
Complete Question 1 and 2 on page 30
Page | 28
Attacks on the Provisional Government
The July Days
Some Bolshevik supporters thought that their rendezvous with destiny had come in
early July. Alexander Kerensky, who had emerged as the regime's most dynamic leader
had, as Minister of War, launched a new offensive after months of inaction. It was an
embarrassing fiasco which proved, if proof were needed, that the Russian soldier was
no longer prepared to sacrifice himself for a lost cause. Thousands of disaffected
soldiers poured into the capital and joined in anti-government demonstrations. There
were
cries
for
the
Bolsheviks to throw their
support
behind
these
protests and turn them
into an uprising.
disagreed:
Lenin
he knew that
the Bolsheviks were not
strong enough yet and the
government was not weak
enough yet for success to be assured. However he could not desert the people for
they would never forgive him. The Bolsheviks backed the rebellion.
But Lenin was right. It was too soon. Kerensky used loyal regiments to sweep the
streets clear of protesters. It was all over very quickly, the July Days rising was
smashed. Then came the reckoning. The Provisional Government banned the Bolshevik
Party and arrested all its leaders, except for Lenin who escaped in disguise to Finland
and remained there until October. Bolshevik newspapers were closed down and the
National 4/5 History:
Red Flag: Lenin and the Russian Revolution, 1894-1921
Party headquarters were ransacked where evidence was found and of course published,
which proved Lenin's links with Germany.
It looked as if the miscalculation of
supporting the July Days had destroyed any hopes the Bolsheviks had of gaining power.
Page | 29
The Kornilov Uprising
However fate came to the rescue of the Bolsheviks in the unlikely
shape of General Kornilov, the reactionary Commander-in-Chief.
Like many professional soldiers he was appalled at the collapse of
discipline in the army typified by the enormous desertion rate. He
blamed the Soviets and the Bolsheviks for undermining army
morale and he wanted the Provisional Government, which he
Kerensky
thought too soft by half, to give him extra powers to restore
discipline and hang "traitors" like Lenin. In September there was a showdown between
Kornilov and Kerensky, who was now Prime Minister. Kerensky rejected the general's
demands fearing that he might use his new powers to overthrow
the government and set up a right-wing dictatorship or possibly
even restore the Tsar. Kornilov immediately decided to do just
that. He began to march on Petrograd, accompanied by his most
loyal troops including his notorious Cossack bodyguard, the Savage
Division. Kerensky called on all parties to rally to the defence of
the government.
The Soviet responded by ordering railway
workers to block the tracks. The Bolsheviks reacted too. The
Kornilov
Red Guards were mobilised and sent off to stop the general's advance.
In reality
however, there was little need for fighting. Kornilov's men had no stomach for killing
Russians. They began to desert, and Kornilov's march petered out long before it got
near the capital. Kornilov himself fled south to avoid arrest.
Once again the Provisional Government had been saved. But this time the praise went
not to Kerensky but to the Bolsheviks. Their Red Guards were given much of the credit
National 4/5 History:
Red Flag: Lenin and the Russian Revolution, 1894-1921
for turning back Kornilov's troops. Support for the Party, so low after the July Days,
now soared, and this was reflected in the large numbers of Bolsheviks elected to key
positions in the Soviets. Lenin sensed that the time to strike was imminent.
Page | 30
Complete Questions 3 and 4
Tasks
1. What were Lenin’s aims and how did he plan to make them happen?
2. “Lenin’s return and April Theses was the turning point for the revolution” How
far do you agree with this statement? Explain your answer.
3. What were the “July Days”?
4. Why did the Kornilov uprising fail?
The (October) November Revolution
Petrograd Seized
By October 1917 the Bolsheviks had gained control of the Petrograd and Moscow
Soviets.
The
Provisional
popularity
was
at
rock
Government's
bottom.
Its
persistent failure to introduce land reforms
National 4/5 History:
Red Flag: Lenin and the Russian Revolution, 1894-1921
and to end the war had alienated it from the mass of the people. Although others in
the Party were more cautious, Lenin decided that it was now or never. The planning for
the takeover was put in the hands of a former Menshevik, Leon Trotsky.
Page | 31 On the night of the 6 / 7 November the Red Guards went into action. The main bridges
across the River Neva were seized as were the telegraph Office, the State Bank, the
Post Office and the railway stations. The soldiers in the Peter and Paul Fortress in the
heart of the city were pro-Bolshevik, as were the sailors of the Kronstadt naval base
who sent the cruiser Aurora to the city to assist the revolution.
The Fall of the Winter Palace
By morning most of the city was in Bolshevik hands. There had been little opposition.
During the day the Winter Palace, the headquarters of the Provisional Government was
gradually surrounded. Kerensky had left the city earlier in an unsuccessful bid to rally
support. He never returned and ended up spending the rest of his life in exile in the
Complete Questions 1 and 2
USA. In the evening the Aurora fired a couple of shots at the Winter Palace, which was
defended by a few officer cadets and a women's battalion.
The Red Guards then
moved in. Again there was virtually no resistance. By the morning of 8 November
Petrograd was firmly in the hands of the Bolsheviks. Lenin declared that the revolution
was an accomplished fact. It remained to be seen, however, if the Bolsheviks could
extend their authority throughout the whole country. Petrograd may have fallen to
them with surprising ease, but it would be much more difficult to bring the entire
country under their control
Tasks
Source A is from Year One of the Russian Revolution by Victor Serge (1930)
In the last days of September the Central Committee of the Bolsheviks (Lenin,
Trotsky, Stalin etc.) met in Petrograd, in the apartment of Sukhanov. Even the
principle of the insurrection was in dispute. Kamenev and Zinoviev …stated their
view that the insurrection might perhaps itself be successful, but that it would be
almost impossible to maintain power afterwards owing to the economic pressures
National 4/5 History:
Red Flag: Lenin and the Russian Revolution, 1894-1921
and crisis in the food supply. The majority voted for the insurrection, and actually
fixed the date for 15 October.
*Insurrection = violent uprising against government or authority
Page | 32
1. Evaluate the usefulness of Source A as evidence of the October/November
revolution.
(6)
2. Compare Sources B and C overall and in detail.
(4)
National 4/5 History:
Red Flag: Lenin and the Russian Revolution, 1894-1921
Lenin in Power
Page | 33
Communist Reforms
Communist theory declared that a new socialist government would need to start its rule
with a period of dictatorship in order to force reluctant capitalists to accept its
radical changes. This was known as the Dictatorship of the Proletariat. However this
was only to last a short time. Once socialism was in place true democracy would be
established. Lenin spent his first weeks
in power issuing a series of decrees,
some of which were designed to fulfil
promises he had made earlier, while
others were meant to secure the
Bolsheviks' control of Russia. The early
decrees granted land to the peasants,
handed the factories over to the
workers, set up the eight hour working day, introduced unemployment and sickness
benefit, established equality between men and women and, most important of all,
announced the new government's intention to make peace at the first opportunity.
Communist Dictatorship
More ominously, another set of decrees introduced press censorship, banned all nonsocialist political parties, and created a secret police force known as the Cheka. At the
same time the long awaited elections which the Provisional Government had promised
were scheduled for December.
Lenin let them go ahead anticipating a Communist
victory. Unfortunately the Social Revolutionaries won most seats, with the Communists
a poor second. The Constituent Assembly, so-called because its original task had been
to devise a new constitution or set of rules for governing Russia now that she was a
National 4/5 History:
Red Flag: Lenin and the Russian Revolution, 1894-1921
democratic state, met for one day before being closed down by Red Guards. Lenin had
no intention of making the same mistake as the Provisional Government in tolerating a
rival for power.
Page | 34
The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk
Lenin needed to consolidate the Communists position. Closing down the Constituent
Assembly was one step in that direction. Making peace with Germany was another.
Talks began almost immediately, but dragged on longer than expected because German
demands were so severe.
When negotiations broke
down, the German armies in Russia began to advance
again. This forced the Communists to make peace on
German terms. Peace was signed at the Treaty of
Brest-Litovsk in March 1918.
Russian losses were
huge: the Ukraine, the Baltic States, Finland and
Poland. These were some of the richest areas of the country which meant that Russia
was deprived of much of her farmland, industry, population and transport network. She
also had to pay 6 billion German marks to Germany.
Some of the Russian negotiators, including Trotsky, were so incensed by the German
demands that they wanted to restart the war. Lenin prevailed upon them to accept the
harsh terms because he knew that the Communists must have peace, even this brutal
peace, if they were to stand a realistic chance of holding on to power. Both the Tsar
and the Provisional Government had fallen precisely
because they had kept Russia in the war.
Complete Questions 1-5 on page 35
National 4/5 History:
Red Flag: Lenin and the Russian Revolution, 1894-1921
Tasks
Page | 35
1. What improvements were made to the lives of the Russian people when Lenin
came into power?
2. Why did the introduction of the Cheka and the closure of the Constituent
Assembly seem like a step backwards?
3. a) Summarise the terms of the Treaty of Brest Litovsk.
b) Which term do you think was worst for Russia?
4. Why was it important that Lenin ended the war?
5. Source A is from soldier Herbert Sulzbach’s, diary entry (3rd March, 1918)
The final peace treaty has been signed with Russia. Our conditions are hard and
severe, but our quite exceptional victories entitle us to demand these, since our
troops are nearly in Petersburg, and further over on the southern front, Kiev has
been occupied, while in the last week we have captured the following men and items
of equipment: 6,800 officers, 54,000 men, 2,400 guns, 5,000 machine-guns, 8,000
railway trucks, 8,000 locomotives, 128,000 rifles and 2 million rounds of artillery
ammunition. Yes, there is still some justice left, and the state which was first to
start mass murder in 1914 has now, with all its missions, been finally overthrown.
a) What country do you think the author is from? Explain your answer
b) What is the “justice” that the author refers to?
c) Who does the author blame for the start of the war?
National 4/5 History:
Red Flag: Lenin and the Russian Revolution, 1894-1921
The Civil War
Page | 36
The Whites
As the election for the Constituent Assembly had shown, there were still many non
communists in Russia, some of them implacably hostile to Lenin and his party. Within
weeks of the November Revolution it was clear that controlling Petrograd did not mean
controlling Russia. The Communists were going to have to fight to establish themselves
as the unchallenged rulers of the country.
The anti-communists groups (known collectively as Whites) were a motley collection who
often hated each other as much as they hated the
communists (or Reds as they became known in the
Civil War). There were unashamed monarchists who
wanted
the
Tsar
back,
there
were
Social
Revolutionaries angry at having the Constituent
Assembly closed down, there were nationalists who
wanted to break free of Russian control, there were
army officers bitter at Russia's surrender to
Germany, there were former
members of
the
Provisional Government determined to reverse the
November Revolution, and there were Mensheviks who
Civil War Poster
were disillusioned with the totalitarian aspects of
Communist rule.
The Whites began setting up their rival governments on the peripheries of Russia:
Siberia (Admiral Kolchak), the Caucasus (General Deniken), the Baltic (General
Yudenitch) and the far north (General Miller) while the Communists controlled the
region round Moscow and Petrograd.
National 4/5 History:
Red Flag: Lenin and the Russian Revolution, 1894-1921
Complete Question 1 on page 40
Page | 37
Foreign Involvement
The situation was further
complicated by the existence
or arrival of foreign armies in
Russia during the war.
Czech
Legion,
originally
from
The
recruited
Austrian
prisoners to fight against the
Central Powers and numbering
50,000, seized control of the
Trans-Siberian
railway
in
1918 in order to travel to
Vladivostok in the Far East
from where they eventually
embarked for the Western
Front.
Russia
was
also
involved in the Russo-Polish
War. In 1920 the new Polish
state
attacked
the
Reds
hoping to win territory from
them. The Poles were driven back after early successes. However the Reds were
halted themselves at Warsaw, after which the war petered out.
There were also the Foreign Armies of Intervention: mainly French, British, American
and Japanese troops sent to Russia in 1918 - 19 to help the Whites because they
wanted to keep Russia in the First World War, and to try to make sure that the vast
supplies of military equipment sent by them to Russia did not fall into the hands of the
National 4/5 History:
Red Flag: Lenin and the Russian Revolution, 1894-1921
Reds. These forces, although small in number, exerted control over large areas in the
Arctic, the Black Sea region, the Far East and round the Caspian Sea where they
cooperated with the local Whites.
Page | 38 Why the Whites Lost
On the map the Communist area looked small in 1918 compared to the vast regions
where the Whites ruled. But appearances were deceptive. Because of their political
differences, the Whites failed to coordinate their attacks on the Reds. If they had
launched simultaneous offensives from different directions, they might have won the
war.
Furthermore the regions controlled by the Whites had little in the way of
economic or industrial resources.
They depended too much on supplies from their
foreign allies. This weakness became crucial when the foreign forces were withdrawn
after the end of the First World War and the Whites were left to their own devices.
The Whites also found it difficult to recruit soldiers, especially among the peasants
who feared that a White victory would lead to the loss of the land they had just
acquired.
Moreover White rule in many areas was characterised by brutality and
oppression which alienated many people.
Why the Reds Won
The Reds on the other hand had some
powerful advantages.
They controlled the
important industrial regions round Moscow
and Petrograd, so military supplies were
always available. Most of Russia's population
too was in their area and many of them,
Trotsky making a speech to his soldiers
especially
in
the
cities
Communist supporters.
controlled the rail network.
This was very important.
were
already
The Reds also
The Russian railway system
centred on Moscow, with lines radiating out from that city in all directions. This made
Complete Question 2 on page 40
National 4/5 History:
Red Flag: Lenin and the Russian Revolution, 1894-1921
it relatively easy for the Communists to switch troops from east to west or north to
south if necessary to beat back White offensives or reinforce their own attacks.
The
Page | 39
Communists
had
another
advantage: they were better led.
Lenin had a talent for recognising
ability in others. He gave Trotsky,
who had organised the November
Revolution, the task of creating
the Red Army and making it into a
force capable of defeating the Whites. Trotsky lived up to Lenin's expectation of him.
The civil war was his finest hour, and to him goes much of the credit for the eventual
Red victory. As War Commissar, Trotsky needed experienced officers for his new
army.
Against advice from some party members, he conscripted 50,000 ex-tsarist
officers into the Red Army.
To guarantee their loyalty, he appointed reliable
Communists as Political Commissars to each regiment.
General conscription was
implemented too so that by 1920 the Red Army numbered 5 million men. This made it
vastly superior to all the White armies combined. Trotsky also reversed the casual
attitudes to military discipline which had eaten away the morale of the old Russian
army. Severe punishments were introduced for disobedience.
The Cheka was employed to execute deserters and to make sure that attacks were
pushed home with determination. Throughout the whole period of the war Trotsky was
always on the move.
He had a special armoured train kitted out as a mobile
headquarters. In it he travelled from one danger spot to another. Not only did he
often bring much needed reinforcements and supplies
to hard pressed troops, he also encouraged them to
fight on by his inspiring oratory and by his personal
involvement at the front.
By 1921 the Reds had won the war.
They had
defeated all the White attacks in a series of decisive
National 4/5 History:
Red Flag: Lenin and the Russian Revolution, 1894-1921
battles in 1919-20 and the foreign armies had gone home. It had been, like most civil
wars, a particularly brutal conflict. Both sides had committed unspeakable atrocities
and no-one will ever know how many died. The Reds won because of their superior
Page | 40
discipline and morale, because of their geographical situation, because of the inability
or unwillingness of the Whites to cooperate with each other and because of Trotsky's
leadership.
Almost unnoticed during the maelstrom of war, the former Tsar and his family had
been executed in July 1918 at Ekaterinburg in Siberia where the Reds had held taken
them prisoner. They had been shot because, at that time, the Whites were advancing
on the city and the Reds were afraid the royal family might fall into their hands and
become a rallying point for the White cause.
Few Russians noticed or cared about what had happened to the royal family. After
seven years of almost continuous war, Russia was in a dreadful state. Lenin's task now
was to restore her shattered industry and agriculture and try to convince the people
that all the sacrifices they had been asked to make had been worthwhile.
Complete Questions 3 and 4
Tasks
1. Why was there a Civil War in Russia?
2. Describe the weaknesses of the Whites in the Civil War
(5)
3. How fully does Source C explain the reasons why the Reds were victorious in the
Civil War?
(6)
National 4/5 History:
Red Flag: Lenin and the Russian Revolution, 1894-1921
4. Why had the Tsar and his family been murdered?
War Communism
Page | 41
The Aims of War Communism
Communists' fundamental belief was that it was wrong that wealth should create
inequalities between people. The basic reason for inequality was private ownership of
the Means of Production.
If people could be stopped from owning and buying
possessions, they would become truly equal. Therefore it was the duty of a Communist
government to enforce equality and this would be done by bringing the Means of
Production under the control of the state.
The set of policies known as War Communism, introduced during the Civil War, was an
attempt to transform the Russia into a genuine socialist state, though it was also an
effort to mobilise Russia's human and economic resources in order to win the war.
The Effects of War Communism
Insofar as they helped the Communists to win the civil war, these measures were a
success. But in the medium term they caused serious problems. Workers' committees
in factories often had no experience of management and many of them quickly ran into
trouble so that production fell and soon there were severe shortages in the shops.
This combined with the ban on private trading only led to a Black Market appearing,
which was of course entirely against Communist principles. Most serious of all was the
effect
War
agriculture.
Communism
Since
the
had
on
price
the
government set for their produce was
very low, the peasants began to produce
less.
When the Cheka and Red Army
were
sent
into
the
countryside
to
requisition food, the peasants fought
National 4/5 History:
Red Flag: Lenin and the Russian Revolution, 1894-1921
back. They also destroyed their harvests and killed their livestock rather than see
them stolen. The result was predictable: famine. Probably more people died of hunger
during the civil war than due to the fighting.
Page | 42 The Red Terror
These problems led to a hardening of attitudes inside the government: disobedience
was not to be tolerated.
The earliest decrees issued by Lenin had shown that he
intended to establish a totalitarian regime where dissenting voices were not heard.
This aspect of his rule grew worse during the civil war and it is known as the Red
Terror. There were mass executions of Whites by the Cheka. Socialist parties such as
the Social Revolutionaries and Mensheviks were banned, leaving only the Communist
Party legal. Concentration camps were set up and soon filled by thousands of people
the state judged unreliable or hostile. Soon a fully fledged police state had come into
being. In some ways this was inevitable. Communists believed that Marx's writings had
given them the answer to mankind's problems. All other 'solutions' were wrong and so
people advocating them had to be stopped for the good of everyone.
Tasks
Complete Questions 3 and 4
1. What was War Communism meant to achieve?
2. What problems did War Communism cause?
3. Describe the Red Terror.
(5)
4. Evaluate the usefulness of Source A as evidence of the effects of War
Communism
Source A is by B. Williams from his book The Russian Revolution 1917-21, 1987
“By the end of 1920 the proletariat, the class the revolution was all about, had
shrunk to only half its pre-revolutionary size. Petrograd lost 60 per cent of its
workforce by April 1918 and one million people had left the city by that June. In
Russia as a whole the urban proletariat decreased from 3.6 million in January 1917
to 1.4 million two years later. Starving and unemployed workers left the towns to
National 4/5 History:
Red Flag: Lenin and the Russian Revolution, 1894-1921
return to the villages, to join the Red Army, or to enter the ever-growing ranks of
the bureaucracy.
The New Economic Policy
Page | 43
The Need for Change
Lenin had always been a realist. By 1921 he could see that War Communism was no
longer working.
However, many high ranking Communists did not want it changed
because that would mean admitting that Communism had failed and that Marx had been
wrong.
Then in March of that year the sailors at the Kronstadt naval base near Petrograd, who
had been loyal Communists for many years, rose in rebellion. Their main grievance was
that it was time, with the war won, for the government to relax its harsh dictatorship
and give the people some reward for their sacrifices. They wanted the concentration
camps closed, free trade unions set up, free speech, uncensored newspapers and the
legalising of different political parties.
They felt betrayed by the direction the
revolution had been allowed to take. The great promises of a better, fairer world had
not materialised.
Lenin did not hesitate. The Red Army was sent in to crush the rebels. Once again
Lenin showed his ruthless streak when opposed. In fierce fighting the sailors were
defeated. Those who were not killed were sent to the camps.
N. E. P: Return to Capitalism?
Nevertheless Lenin used this incident to persuade his fellow Communists that some
changes were necessary or there would be more trouble.
These changes, however
would not be political, the dictatorship would remain, but economic. The New Economic
Policy was designed to get the economy moving again by reintroducing some elements of
capitalism.
National 4/5 History:
Red Flag: Lenin and the Russian Revolution, 1894-1921
The reforms allowed peasants to sell their surplus food for profit and if they increased
food production they would pay less tax. Also factories with fewer that 20 employees
would be handed back to their owners. However key industries of coal, electricity,
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railways, steel and oil were kept under state control.
By 1925 there were signs that these reforms were working. Production figures were
rising again and food shortages were only a memory. The peasants had been given the
incentive they needed to get back to work and the workers in small factories were
producing goods which filled the shelves in the shops. However Lenin did not live to see
these improvements.
He had suffered a serious stroke in 1922.
Although he
recovered, this was followed by a second from which he did not recover fully. Finally in
January 1924 a third stroke killed him.
He was only 53 years of age.
Tasks
1. How fully does Source A explain the demands of the Kronstadt Sailors?
Source A is part of an official statement from the Kronstadt sailors.
“After carrying out the October Revolution, the working classes hoped for
freedom. But the result has been greater slavery. The bayonets, bullets and
harsh commands of the Cheka – these are what the working man of Soviet Russia
has won. The glorious emblem of the workers’ state – the hammer and sickle –
has been replaced by the Communist authorities with the bayonet and the
barred window. Here in Kronstadt we are making a third revolution which will
free the workers and the Soviets from the Communists”.
2. What was the NEP supposed to achieve?
3. How successful was the NEP?
(6)
National 4/5 History:
Red Flag: Lenin and the Russian Revolution, 1894-1921
Lenin's Achievements
Page | 45 It is difficult to exaggerate the contribution Lenin made to the success of the
Communist Party in Russia. Without Lenin at its head, the Party would never have won
control of the country. He was one of the few men in the 20th Century who have
almost singlehandedly changed the shape of history. His rock-like self-discipline and
patience kept the party together in the long years of exile before 1917 when it must
have seemed that their chance would never come. After the Tsar fell Lenin, despite
being the leader of a very small party, knew what he wanted and pressed on regardless
of setbacks. He was ready to use anyone to help him and he stopped at nothing to
achieve his goal. His ruthless single mindedness kept the party united and made it
strong enough not just to seize power, but to hold on to it in the years that followed. It
is easy to understand why, after Lenin's death, Petrograd was renamed Leningrad and
why his body was embalmed and put on display in a specially built mausoleum in Red
Square in Moscow. It was the least the Party could do to acknowledge its debt to him.
Discussion Question
Had the events of 1894-1921 improved life greatly for the Russian people?
Use this question to help you frame your own revision notes.
You might like to:

Briefly explain each the causes of each key event

Describe what happened during each key event

Comment on the consequences each key event had on the Russian people
You could record this information in
different ways…
National 4/5 History:
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Fish bone diagram
Red Flag: Lenin and the Russian Revolution, 1894-1921