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LETTER FROM THE SECRETARY-GENERAL
Honourable participants,
It is a tremendous pleasure to welcome you all to the tenth annual session of Model United
Nations Turkey (MUNTR) 2014 Conference. I am Hüseyin Kağan İmamoğlu and I have the
distinct honour of serving as the Secretary-General of MUNTR, a conference that has, for the
past decade, successfully presented its participants a unique simulation experience that strives
to achieve academic discussions of the highest quality.
Bearing in mind the perfect example that has been set for MUNTR by its previous sessions,
the Secretariat has been working relentlessly in order to create an academic setting deserving
of the successful tradition we are now leading as well as satisfying its participants with
regards to all academic-wise matters. A substantial amount of effort has been put into this
very guide, and I would like to assure all of you that this document contains all the necessary
knowledge required in order to participate in the discussions.
Before addressing the academic content of this document, I have to thank all members of the
Secretariat, and Ms. Arzum Koca, the Responsible Under-Secretary-General, and Ms. Elif
Durmuş, Academic Assistant, in particular. Without their dedication and efforts, the setting
we have been pursuing so as to attain academic excellence would be incomplete. As the
Secretariat members responsible for 1919 Germany: Cabinet Scheidemann, their devotion and
contribution to the Conference have been indispensable.
1919 Germany: Cabinet Scheidemann, will be the first time in Turkey, where a specific
cabinet will be simulated. The Secretariat has chosen to focus on the German Cabinet of 1919
in the post-World War I period, especially in order to enable its participants to indulge
themselves in history. The Cabinet will convene concurrently with the Paris Peace
Conference, a summit from which Treaty of Versailles was born. The international and
national dynamics that affected not only the Paris Peace Conference but also the Cabinet's
decision making process, hence its future; will be examined in detail in MUNTR 2014.
In case you require any further information or instruction as to the academic-wise content of
the Conference and 1919 Germany: Cabinet Scheidemann in especial, you may always
contact your Committee Directors; responsible Under-Secretary-General, Ms. Arzum Koca;
or me via [email protected].
Reiterating my sincere belief and confidence that MUNTR 2014 will be a Conference in
which not only the academic trend we have generated over the past decade, but also you will
excel; I welcome you once more.
Kind regards,
Hüseyin Kağan İmamoğlu
Secretary-General
LETTER FROM THE UNDER-SECRETARY-GENERAL
Dear participants,
My name is Arzum Koca and I am a junior at Ankara University School of Law. In this
conference I serve as the Under-Secretary-General responsible for the General Assembly First
Committee: Disarmament and International Security, and the Scheidemann Cabinet and it is
my pleasure to welcome you.
The Cabinet Scheidemann represents many firsts in MUNTR history and I am truly honoured
to be trusted by our Secretary-General Mr. Hüseyin Kağan İmamoğlu to be the responsible
Under-Secretary-General for the Cabinet. I hope that the idea of an operational German
Cabinet with an ongoing peace treaty process roots you as much as it did to us.
Before moving on I would like to thank to our academic assistant Ms. Elif Durmuş. Her
contributions to this very guide with her motivation cannot be expressed with words. Apart
from the Cabinet itself it would be true to say that this study guide would be incomplete
without her researches upon the German sources. I wish you fruitful debates in this very first
simulation.
Although they are very essential I am well aware that MUN activities do not only consist of
academics. Therefore it is my sincere wish for you to get to know other participants, make
long lasting friendships, enjoy all the social events and make many good memories.
Should you have any questions please do not hesitate to contact me via [email protected] or
your committee directors.
Regards,
Arzum KOCA
Under-Secretary-General Responsible for Cabinet Scheidemann and DISEC
Austrians
A. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
had
stockpiling;
capital
French border.viii
The explosive that would turn into the
War
Serbian
Belgrade, German patrols crossed the
I. The Great War
Great
bombard
been
the
long
spark
assassination of
in
the
was the
Archduke Franz
Ferdinand, heir to the Austro-Hungarian
throne, in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914.i
August 1 – While Germany declared war
on Russia, Italy and Belgium announced
neutrality. ix French military mobilization
was ordered.x
August 3 - Germany declared war on
France. xi UK gave order for troops to
II. Timeline of the Great War
mobilize.xii
a. 1914
August 4 – While Germany declared war
June 28 - The heir to the throne of the
on
Austro-Hungarian
Archduke
neutrality.xiii UK gave Austria-Hungary an
Franz Ferdinand and his wife Sophie,
ultimatum to stand down from hostilities
Duchess of Hohenberg, are assassinated in
and
Sarajevo.ii
comply, a state of war is declared at
Empire,
June 29 - Secretary of the Austro-
Belgium,
when
United
States
Austria-Hungary
declared
did
not
11.00pm.xiv
Hungarian Legation at Belgrade sent
August 6 - Royal Navy cruiser HMS
despatch to Vienna accusing Serbian
Amphion was sunk by German mines in
complicity in the assassination.iii
the North Sea, causing the death of 150
July 20 - Austria-Hungary sent troops to
the Serbian frontier.
July
25
-
iv
While
Serbia
ordered
mobilization of troops, Russia arranged for
troops to be stationed on Russo-Austrian
frontier.v
of war.xv
August 7 - First members of the British
Expeditionary Force (BEF) landed in
France.xvi
August 13 - The first squadrons of the
July 28 - Austria-Hungary declared war on
Serbia.vi
Royal Flying Corps arrived in France.xvii
August 20 - Brussels is evacuated as
July 29 - Germany is warned by the UK
that it cannot remain neutral.
men which were the first British casualties
vii
While
Germans occupied the city.xviii
August 25 - The Royal Flying Corps
December 16 - The German First High
claimed their first 'kill' as three aircraft
Sea fleet bombarded Hartlepool, Whitby
from the 2nd Squadron forced down a
and Scarborough, killing 137 civilians and
German reconnaissance plane.xix
proving that the British mainland was
August 26 - The Battle of Le Cateau
occurred. xx BEF suffered 7,812 casualties
and was forced to retreat.xxi
susceptible to attack.xxx
b. 1915
January 19 - In the first airborne attack on
September 6 - The First Battle of Marne
British
checked German advance at the cost of
Great Yarmouth and King's Lynn, killing
13,000
five civilians.xxxi
British,
250,000
French
and
250,000 German casualties.xxii
soil,
Zeppelins
bombed
February 18 - Blockade of UK by German
Indian
U-boats begun. xxxii In the blockade all
Expeditionary Force sailed from Bombay
vessels were considered viable targets,
to the Persian Gulf in preparation for the
including those from neutral countries.xxxiii
October
16
-
The
British
defence of Mesopotamia.xxiii
October 19 - First Battle of Ypres
occurred.xxiv
October 29 - Turkey entered the war.xxv
November 22 - Trenches were established
along the entire Western Front.xxvi
November 23 - The British entered Basra,
securing oil supplies in the Middle East
February 19 - Allied naval bombardment of
the Dardanelles and Gallipoli begun.xxxiv
March 10 - The British Offensive at Neuve
Chapelle begun. Allied losses reached to
12,800 in two days.xxxv
April 22 - Second Battle of Ypres begun.
First usage of poison gas was seen in the
attacks by Germany.xxxvi
that were needed to supply most of the
April 25 - Allies landed at Gallipoli - 70,000
Royal Navy.xxvii
British, Commonwealth and French troops
December 8 - The Battle of the Falkland
Islands occurred. xxviii A Royal navy task
force sunk three German cruisers that were
victorious at the Battle of Coronel in
November.
xxix
were under heavy fire. xxxvii On 'Y' Beach,
1,200 out of a force of 1,500 men were
casualties.xxxviii
May 2 - Austro-German offensive on
Galicia begun.xxxix
May 7 - German U-boat torpedoed British
August
liner Lusitania with the loss of American
Whitehaven, proving that UK's maritime
lives, creating a US-German diplomatic
defences could be breached by German
crisis.xl
submarines.xlix
May 23 - Italy declared war on Austria-
August 21 - The Battle of Scimitar Hill,
Hungary.xli
Gallipoli, was the final British offensive in
May 25 - The 'Shell Crisis' exposed the
failings of the British Government in
supporting front line troops.xlii
kills seven and injures 35 therefore the
British morale was shaken as Germany
demonstrated it can attack the capital at
xliii
June 4 - The Third and final Battle of
Krithia begun at Gallipoli as Allies
attempted to push inland from their beachheads. British losses amounted to 6,000
xliv
men.
A
U-boat
bombarded
the Dardanelles. l They were repelled and
lost 5,000 men.li
focused on Loos and Champagne.lii At the
Battle of Loos the British used gas for the
first time but the wind blew that over their
own troops resulting in 2632 casualties –
seven were killed.liii
September 27 - British and Canadian
regiments took Hill 70 at Loos and broke
the German line, but lack of reserves to
exploit the breach resulted in limited
success. liv The Canadians alone received
over 9,000 casualties.lv
June 21 - British troops reached the
Euphrates
-
September 25 - The Great Allied Offensive
May 31 - The first Zeppelin raid on London
will.
16
in
Mesopotamia,
and
re-
occupied Aden.xlv
October 5 - Under German pressure to open
up military rail links to Constantinople and
the Middle East, the Austro-Hungarians
June 30 - German troops used flame
stepped up their campaign against the
throwers for the first time against the
Serbians. lvi Anglo-French forced land at
British lines at Hooge, Ypres.xlvi
Salonika
August 4 - Germans annexed Warsaw.
xlvii
August 6 - Allies landed two divisions at
Suvla Bay, Gallipoli.xlviii
to
counter
allied
German
expansion in the Balkans.lvii
November 22 - Battle of Ctesiphon occurred
in 25 miles south of Baghdad. Allies
inflicted heavy casualties on the Turkish,
but were forced to retire to Kut due to lack
of supplies. lviii The Turkish soldiers gave
Homme Ridge. The German plan was to
chase and besieged the town.
lead the French dry of men and resources.
December 15 - Sir Douglas Haig replaced
Sir John French as Commander in Chief of
the British Expeditionary Force.
The battle lasted 10 months and over a
million men became casualties.
March 9 - Germany declared war on
December 20 - Allies completed the
evacuation of 83,000 troops from Suvla
Portugal, six days later, Austria followed
suit.lxvi
Bay and ANZAC Cove in Gallipoli. Not
April 5 - The Battle of Kut occurred. The
one soldier or sailor was killed in the
third and final Allied attempt to relieve Kut
withdrawal and the Turkish were unaware
failed, with 23,000 Allied casualties.
of the evacuation taking place.
lix
April 29 - Besieged garrison at Kut in
May 23 - Italy declared war on Austria-
Mesopotamia surrendered after 143 days
Hungary.lx
and 3,000 British and 6,000 Indian troops
August 4 - Germans annexed Warsaw.
c.
lxi
go into captivity.lxvii The majority of these
died of disease and starvation in prison
camps.lxviii
1916
January 4 - The Battle of Sheikh Sa'ad was
May 31 - June 1 - The Battle of Jutland
the first attempt to relieve the besieged
occurred. The German High Seas Fleet was
British in Kut, Mesopotamia.
lxii
The
forced to retire despite inflicting heavier
Turkish withdrew but the British casualties
losses on the Royal Navy (14 ships and
numbered 4,000, a situation exasperated by
6,100 men), but the German fleet remained
the poor medical facilities.lxiii
irreparably damaged for the rest of the
January 8 - Allied evacuation of Helles
marked
the
end
of
the
Gallipoli
campaign.lxiv
June 4 - The Russian Brusilov Offensive
begun on the Eastern Front. It nearly
January 24 - Introducing conscription, the
British Government passed the Military
Service Act, to become law on 25 May.
war.lxix
lxv
February 21 - The Battle of Verdun started
with a German offensive against the Mort-
crippled Austria-Hungary out of the war.lxx
June 5 - TE Lawrence aided Hussein, Grand
Sharif of Mecca, in the Arab revolt against
the Turkish in Hejaz. Lord Kitchener sailed
for Russia on board HMS Hampshire. The
ship was mined off Orkney and Kitchener
was lost along with 643 other crewmen
September 9 - The Battle of Ginchy
and general staff.
occurred. The British captured Ginchy - a
July 1 - The Battle of the Somme saw
750,000 Allied soldiers unleashed along a
25 mile front. By the end of the day nearly
post of vital strategic importance, as it
commanded a view of the whole Somme
battlefield.lxxvii
60,000 were dead, wounded or missing for
September 15 - The Battle of Flers-
very little gain. It was the worst single
Courcelette signified the start of the third
day's fighting in British military history.
lxxi
July 14 - The Battle of Bazentin Ridge
marked the end of the first Somme
Offensive.
lxxii
The British broke the
stage of the Somme Offensive.lxxviii Tanks
were used for the first time. Despite initial
benefits the Allies failed to break through
German lines.lxxix
German line but failed to deploy the
September 26 - The Battle of Thiepval
cavalry fast enough to take full advantage.
occurred.lxxx
Around 9,000 men were lost.lxxiii
November 13 - The Battle of Ancre
July 23 - The Battle of Pozières Ridge
occurred. The fourth phase of the Somme
marked the second Somme Offensive. The
Offensive was marked by the British
action to take the village cost 17,000
capturing Beaumont Hamel and St Pierre
Allied casualties, the majority of whom are
Division, taking nearly 4,000 prisoners.lxxxi
Australian.
August 26 - Under General Smuts, UK
entered the Morogoro Campaign in East
Africa. The Germans lead a deadly
guerrilla campaign, but disease killed 30
men for every one that dies in combat.lxxiv
August 28 - Italy declared war on
Germany.
lxxv
September 2 - The first Zeppelin was shot
December 7 -David Lloyd George was
elected as the British Prime Minister.
December 12 - Germany delivered Peace
Note to Allies suggesting compromise.lxxxii
December 18 - The Battle of Verdun ended.
It was the longest and costliest battle on
the Western Front.lxxxiii
d. 1917
down over UK. The Royal Flying Corps
January 31 - Germany announced the
used a new combination of explosive and
continuation of unrestricted submarine
incendiary bullets to great effect.lxxvi
warfare, hoping to starve Britain into
submission.lxxxiv
February 3 - The United States severed
April 16 - The Second Battle of Aisne begun
diplomatic relations with Germany as U-
as part of the Nivelle Offensive. Losses
lxxxv
were dreadful, triggering mutinies within
that
the French Army.xcii
Boats
threatened
Intercepted
US
messages
shipping.
revealed
Germany was provoking the Mexicans into
a war against the US.lxxxvi
February
21
Withdrawal
-
The
in Palestine. The plan consisted of nothing
Great
German
more than to throw troops against well
xciii
Eventually
they
prepared Turkish positions.
Miraumont,
Petit
eventually called off due to mounting
Miraumont, Pys and Warlencourt, falling
casualties which were around a loss of
back 25 miles to establish stronger
6,000.
evacuated
begun.
April 19 - The Second Battle of Gaza begun
Serre,
positions along the Hindenburg Line.lxxxvii
February
24
Mesopotamia,
-
Abandoning
Turkish
Kut
retreated
It was
June 7 - The Battle of Messines Ridge
in
occurred. The British took the ridge with
to
few casualties, as it was preceded by the
Baghdad.lxxxviii
detonation of 19 mines under the German
March 11 - Baghdad was taken by the
British after three days fighting.lxxxix
front lines.xciv
June 13 - Germans launched the first major
March 15 - Tsar Nicholas II abdicated as
Moscow fell to Russian Revolutionaries.
Demise of the Russian Army freed German
troops for the Western Front.xc
heavy bomber raid over Londonxcv. Bombs
dropped from 18 Gotha GV aircraft killed
162 people and injured 432.xcvi
June 25 - First US troops arrived in
March 26 - The First Battle of Gaza,
France.xcvii
Palestine occurred as the British attempted
July 16 - TE Lawrence and the Arabs
to
in
liberated Aqaba in Jordan after crossing
Mesopotamia from their homeland. They
the Nefu desert. This opened the route
failed to take the town and were forced to
north for the Arab Army and isolated the
withdraw.xci
Turkish Army in Mesopotamia.xcviii
April 6 - US declared war on Germany.
July 31 - The Third Battle of Ypres begun
Troops began to mobilize.
along a 15 mile front in Flanders. Initial
cut
off
the
Turkish
forces
April 9 - The Battle of Arras occurred.
attacks were successful as the German
forward trenches were lightly manned.
August 1 - The Battle of Lens (Hill 70)
resulted with 12,000 Allies casualties to
occurred. Canadian troops were in the
gain of a few hundred yards.ciii
vanguard of this assault. Hill 70 was only
15 feet higher than the surrounding
landscape but it dominated the battlefield.
The Canadians took the hill and held it
against five German counter attacks. Allies
lost around 9,200 men.xcix
October 30 - Reinforced with the addition of
two British divisions, a second offensive
was launched in torrential rains to capture
Passchendaele.civ The Allies held the town
for the next five days in the face of
repeated
August 20 - The Third Battle of Verdun
begun. c French progress was marked by
gaining lost territory in the earlier battles.
German
counterattacks.
shelling
and
cv
October 31 - Battle of Beersheba, Palestine
occurred. British forces took the town
October 9 - The third phase of the Ypres
capturing 1,800 Turkish troops.cvi This left
Offensive begun with British and French
the way open for the advance on
troops taking Poelcapelle. 25mm of rain
Jerusalem.cvii
fell in the next 48 hours on already
saturated
ground.
The
previous
November 7 - British captured Gaza.
drainage
November 10 - Battle of Passchendaele
systems and the battlefield turned into a
ended. After months of fighting, the
quagmire.
Allies have advanced only 5 miles, but
bombardments
smashed
the
October 12 - The British launched their
latest
assaults
at
Ypres
against
the
Passchendaele Ridge. New Zealand and
Australian divisions in the vanguard of the
have taken the high ground that dominated
the salient. Half a million men were
casualties, of which around 140,000 have
been killed.cviii
attack took terrible casualties, and were
November 20 - The Battle of Cambrai
forced back to their start lines.ci
begun. During the attack, Royal Flying
October 19 - The last airship raid on Britain
was carried out by 11 Zeppelins.cii
October 26 - The Second Battle of
Passchendaele begun with 20,000 men of
the Third and Fourth Canadian Divisions
advancing up the hills of the salient. It
Corps aircraft dropped bombs on German
anti-tank guns and strong points to clear a
path for the Allied tanks and ground
troops.cix
December 11 – Ending the Turkish rule, UK
captured Jerusalem.
second 1917 battle of the Somme ended as
e. 1918
January 16 - Riots broke out in Vienna and
Budapest
as
the
Germany called off Operation Michael.cxix
Austro-Hungarians
April 9 - The Battle of the Lys, marked by
expressed mounting dissatisfaction with
Operation Georgette, was the second
the war.cx
German Spring Offensive.cxx
March 3 - Soviet Russia concluded separate
April 22 - Allies carried out raids against the
peace at Brest-Litovsk with Germany and
harbours
her allies.cxi
Obsolete vessels were driven ashore and
March 21 - Second Battle of the Somme
marked by the German Spring Offensive,
the Kaiserschlacht. Germans
attacked
along a 50 mile front south of Arras.cxii
of
Ostend
and
Zeebrugge.
blown up in order to blockade the
entrances.
cxxi
Zeebrugge was partially
successful; the Ostend raid failed.cxxii
April 29 - The Battle of the Lys ended.
March 22 - The German Operation Michael
was a complete success. They used new
Stormtrooper assault teams to smash
Three British Divisions held off 13
German
divisions,
inflicting
crippling
loss.cxxiii
through British positions west of St
May 10 - The British launched a second raid
Quentin,
on Ostend. HMS Vindictive was this time
taking
16,000
British
prisoners.cxiii
successfully
March 23 - German assaults reached the
Somme Line.
cxiv
The greatest air battle of
scuttled
in
the
harbour
entrance. German cruisers were no longer
able to use the port.cxxiv
the war took place over the battlefield as
May 19 - The German Air Force launched
70 aircraft were involved in a single
its largest and last raid on London. Out of
combat.cxv
the 33 aircraft, 6 were lost, while 49
March 28 - The German offensive along the
River Scarpe was halted at great loss.
cxvi
civilians were killed and 177 were
wounded.cxxv
The American Expeditionary Force played
May 27 - Operation Blucher, the third
a vital role in the battle.cxvii
German Spring Offensive assaulted the
April 5 - The German Spring Offensive
halted outside Amiens as British and
Australian forces held the line. cxviii The
French army along the Aisne River. cxxvi
The French were forced back to the Marne
but held the river after being reinforced by
American troops.cxxvii
June 9 - The fourth German Offensive on
of the Hindenburg Line. Same day the
the Western Front, codenamed 'Gneisenau,'
Battle of St Quentin occurred. British and
between Noyan and Montdidier occurred.
American troops launched devastating
It failed to break the French line and ended
offensives, piercing the Hindenburg Line
four days later.cxxviii
along the Canal Du Nord and St Quentin
June 15 - The second Battle of the Piave
Canal.cxxxv
River, Italy, opened with a massive
September 30 - British and Arab troops took
offensive
Damascus, capturing 7,000 prisoners and
Army.
cxxix
by
the
Austro-Hungarian
Italian and British troops first
held and then pushed back the attackers.
Despite heavy losses, the Allies destroyed
the Austro-Hungarian Army.
marked the final phase of the German
Spring Offensive. Allied counter attacks
inflicted exceptional German casualties.cxxx
The defeat led to the cancellation of the
planned Invasion of Flanders and put the
Germans on the complete defensive.cxxxi
August 8 - The second Battle of Amiens
begun. German resistance was sporadic
and thousands surrendered. Fighting was
now defined by mobility as the lines of
trenches were breached.cxxxii
September 19 - The Battle of Samaria
the
British
offensive
October 4 - The German and Austrian peace
proposal was sent to the American
President, Woodrow Wilson, requesting an
July 15 - The second Battle of the Marne
marked
securing stability in the Middle East.cxxxvi
of
Palestine.cxxxiii
armistice.
October 8 - The Allies advanced along a 20
mile front from St Quentin to Cambrai and
drove the Germans back 3 miles, taking
Cambrai and le Cateau. Over 10,000
Germans were captured.
October 17 - British and American troops
launched attacks at the Battle of the Selle.
The British liberate Lille and Douai.
Belgians retook Ostend and reached
Zeebrugge the following day.
October 23 - The British launched a night
attack with all three of their armies, the
First, the Second and the Fourth. This time
the British advanced six miles in two days.
September 22 - The Great Allied Balkan
The British were now 20 miles behind the
Victory took place.cxxxiv
rear of the Hindenburg Line.
September 27 - The Great British Offensive
on the Cambrai Front lead to the storming
October 29 - German sailors aboard the
November 11 - Armistice Day - The
High Seas Fleet at Jade mutinied and
Armistice was signed at 5:00 am and came
refused to engage the British Fleet.
into effect at 11:00 am.
October 30 - The Turkish army surrendered
November 14 - General Von Lettow-
to the British in Mesopotamia. Turkey
Vorbeck surrendered his East African
signed an armistice with the Allies.
forces on the Chambezi River, Northern
Fighting ceased the following day.cxxxvii
Rhodesia.cxl
November 3 - At Kiel, German sailors
November 21 - The Capitulation of Rosyth
mutinied.cxxxviii Austria-Hungary signed an
occurred. Nine German battleships, five
armistice with the Allies.
battle cruisers, seven cruisers and 49
November 8 - Armistice
negotiations
between the Allies and Germany begun in
Ferdinand Foch's railway carriage Head
Quarters at Compiègne.
November 9 - Kaiser Wilhelm II abdicated
and fled to Holland. Revolution in Berlin
broke out.cxxxix
destroyers arrived off Rosyth to surrender.
Thirty nine U-Boats
surrendered off
Harwich.
December 12 - The British Cavalry crossed
the Rhine and begun the Occupation of
Cologne.
December 13 - Americans crossed the Rhine
and occupied the bridgehead at Coblenz.
Armistice was prolonged for one month
until 17th January 1919.cxli
Photograph 1: Germany Asks Peace on Wilsons 14 Pointscxlii
“I. Open covenants of peace, openly
III. Wilson Principles
The following is the Woodrow Wilson's
"Fourteen Points" Speech of 8 January
1918.
arrived at, after which there shall be no
private international understandings of
any kind but diplomacy shall proceed
always frankly and in the public view.
“Gentlemen of the Congress...
II. Absolute freedom of navigation upon
It will be our wish and purpose that the
the seas, outside territorial waters, alike in
processes of peace, when they are begun,
peace and in war, except as the seas may
shall be absolutely open and that they shall
be closed in whole or in part by
involve and permit henceforth no secret
international action for the enforcement of
understandings of any kind. The day of
international covenants.
conquest and aggrandizement is gone by;
so is also the day of secret covenants
entered into in the interest of particular
governments and likely at some unlookedfor moment to upset the peace of the
world.”cxliii
Stating their reasons of entrance to war as
the
violations
of
rights
cxliv
Wilson
continued his speech as saying that “It is
that the world be made fit and safe to live
III. The removal, so far as possible, of all
economic barriers and the establishment of
an equality of trade conditions among all
the nations consenting to the peace and
associating themselves for its maintenance.
IV. Adequate guarantees given and taken
that national armaments will be reduced to
the lowest point consistent with domestic
safety.
in; and particularly that it be made safe for
V. A free, open-minded, and absolutely
every peace-loving nation which, like our
impartial adjustment of all colonial claims,
own, wishes to live its own life, determine
based upon a strict observance of the
its own institutions, be assured of justice
principle that in determining all such
and fair dealing by the other peoples of the
questions of sovereignty the interests of the
world
selfish
populations concerned must have equal
He believed that the
weight with the equitable claims of the
as
aggression.”
against
cxlv
force
and
program of the world's peace, therefore,
government
was their program; and that program, the
determined.
only possible program, as he saw it, was
the following points:
whose
title
is
to
be
VI. The evacuation of all Russian territory
and such a settlement of all questions
affecting Russia as will secure the best and
in the matter of Alsace-Lorraine, which
freest cooperation of the other nations of
has unsettled the peace of the world for
the world in obtaining for her an
nearly fifty years, should be righted, in
unhampered
order that peace may once more be made
and
opportunity
for
determination
of
unembarrassed
the
her
independent
own
political
development and national policy and
assure her of a sincere welcome into the
society of free nations under institutions of
secure in the interest of all.
IX. A readjustment of the frontiers of Italy
should
be
effected
along
clearly
recognizable lines of nationality.
her own choosing; and, more than a
X. The peoples of Austria-Hungary, whose
welcome, assistance also of every kind that
place among the nations we wish to see
she may need and may herself desire. The
safeguarded and assured, should be
treatment accorded Russia by her sister
accorded
nations in the months to come will be the
autonomous development.
acid test of their good will, of their
comprehension
of
her
needs
as
distinguished from their own interests, and
of their intelligent and unselfish sympathy.
the
freest
opportunity
of
XI. Rumania, Serbia, and Montenegro
should be evacuated; occupied territories
restored; Serbia accorded free and secure
access to the sea; and the relations of the
VII. Belgium, the whole world will agree,
several Balkan states to one another
must be evacuated and restored, without
determined by friendly counsel along
any attempt to limit the sovereignty which
historically established lines of allegiance
she enjoys in common with all other free
and
nations. No other single act will serve as
guarantees of the political and economic
this will serve to restore confidence among
independence and territorial integrity of
the nations in the laws which they have
the several Balkan states should be entered
themselves set and determined for the
into.
government of their relations with one
another.
whole
Without this healing act the
structure
and
validity
of
international law is forever impaired.
nationality;
and
international
XII. The Turkish portions of the present
Ottoman Empire should be assured a
secure
sovereignty,
but
the
other
nationalities which are now under Turkish
VIII. All French territory should be freed
rule should be assured an undoubted
and the invaded portions restored, and the
security
wrong done to France by Prussia in 1871
unmolested opportunity of an autonomous
of
life
and
an
absolutely
development, and the Dardanelles should
“Unless
be permanently opened as a free passage
foundation no part of the structure of
to the ships and commerce of all nations
international justice can stand. The people
under international guarantees.
of the United States could act upon no
XIII. An independent Polish state should
be erected which should include the
territories inhabited by indisputably Polish
populations, which should be assured a
free and secure access to the sea, and
whose
political
independence
and
and
economic
territorial
integrity
should be guaranteed by international
covenant.
XIV. A general association of nations must
be formed under specific covenants for the
purpose of affording mutual guarantees of
political
independence
integrity
to
alike.”
great
and
and
territorial
small
states
cxlvi
this
principle be
made
its
other principle; and to the vindication of
this principle they are ready to devote their
lives, their honour, and everything that
they possess. The moral climax of this the
culminating and final war for human
liberty has come, and they are ready to put
their own strength, their own highest
purpose, their own integrity and devotion
to the test.”cl
German Chancellor, Court Hertling, (who
was appointed as German Chancellor and
served under direction of the military high
command
led
by Paul
Hindenburg and Erich
examined
the
Wilson’s
von
Ludendorff)
Doctrine.
cli
Following is the Summary of Count
Wilson stated that they “had no wish to
Hertling's Speech to the Reichstag on 24
fight Germany either with arms or with
January 1918 on the subject of Fourteen
hostile arrangements of trade if she is
Points:
willing to associate herself with us and the
other peace-loving nations of the world in
covenants of justice and law and fair
dealing.” cxlvii He explained that Germany
should accept a place of equality rather
than a place of mastery. cxlviii He said that
the above mentioned outline had the
principle of justice to all nationalities
“(1) The negotiations at Brest-Litovsk
prove ‘that we are quite ready to accept
this proposal [President Wilson's first
point,
on
no
secret
international
agreements] and declare publicity of
negotiations to be a general political
principle.’
therefore their intension was evident. cxlix
(2) There is ‘no difference of opinion’ with
He finished his speech by saying:
Mr. Wilson in respect to his second point,
on freedom of the seas; but to realize this it
(9 to 12) Mr. Wilson's points 9 to 12 touch
would be well if the fortifications at
chiefly Austria and Turkey.
Gibraltar, Malta, Aden, Hong-Kong, and
other places should be removed.
(13) ‘It may be left to Germany, AustriaHungary, and Poland to come to an
(3) The Central Powers are ‘in thorough
agreement on the future constitution’ of
accord with the removal of economic
Poland.
barriers which interfere with trade in a
superfluous
manner’
and
‘condemn
economic war.’
(4) The idea of limitation of armaments is
entirely discussable.
(5) As to colonies, ‘Mr. Wilson's principles
will encounter some difficulties in the
realm of reality,’ but the ‘reconstitution of
the world's colonial possessions’ will have
to be discussed in due time.
(14) The German Government ‘is gladly
ready, when all other pending questions
have been settled, to begin the examination
of the basis of... a bond of nations.’”clii
IV. Armistice
In general "armistice" refers to the
cessation of hostilities as a prelude to
peace negotiations, in the context of the
Great War 'the Armistice' means the
context of the agreement between the
(6) In respect to evacuation of Russian
Germans and the Allies to end the war
territory, ‘we are dealing with questions
on November 11, 1918. cliii Although it is
which concern only Russia and the four
said to be the Armistice that ended the war,
allied [Central] Powers.’
it is by no means the only armistice of the
(7) The Belgian question belongs to those
war.cliv
questions the details of which are to be
By the autumn, the German Army was no
settled by war and peace negotiations
longer
(Kriegs und Friedensverhandlungen).
moreover, with the impending revolution,
(8) The integrity of our territory [including
Alsace] offers the only possible basis of
peace discussion. The occupied parts of
able
to
continue
fighting;
Germany's political leadership petitioned
for an armistice.
clv
The armistice took
effect at 11am on 11 November.clvi
France are a valuable pawn in our hands;
While the armistice negotiations were
forcible annexation forms no part of the
taken place on 4 October 1918, the
official German policy.
Germans headed for President Wilson
since they were keen to conclude a peace
based upon his Fourteen Points.clvii Wilson
Evacuation of the German occupied lands
was also willing to conclude a peace in
on the Western Front within two weeks
accordance with his doctrine; however, his
was the requirement of the armistice. clxiii
allies raised objections. clviii
For example
Furthermore, allied forces “were to occupy
while the UK, did not want a ban on a
the left bank of the Rhine within a month,
policy of blockades; France intended on
and a neutral zone established on the right
imposing swinging reparations upon the
bank.” clxiv Additionally all territories that
'beaten' foe. clix Wilson compromised and
had been occupied by Germany were to be
details of a proposed settlement were sent
abandoned and naturally, the treaties that
to
had already been discussed with Romania
Germany
on
5
the Supreme War Council.
November
by
clx
and Russia were officially annulled (the
On 8 November a German delegation and
the person to lead the military negotiations,
Allied
Supreme
Commander Ferdinand
Russian peace treaty had been denounced
by Trotsky as annexationist in character in
particular).clxv
Foch met. clxi At the end of the military
Because Germany could not resume
negotiations, it was decided that “[s]hould
hostilities, she had to accept the terms even
the Germans have deviated in any way
though they were inevitably seen punitive
from the terms of the armistice the Allies
within Germany.clxvi
warned that a resumption of hostilities
would begin within 48 hours.”
clxii
Figure 1: Map of the Regionclxvii
“The French nevertheless viewed the terms
Primarily, because of the continued allied
of
lenient,
victories, the declining morale of the
indicating the widely contrasting views of
imperial army, the collapse of Bulgaria,
the armistice.”clxviii
and the looming devastation of Germany's
the
armistice
as
overly
other
V. Collapse of the German Empire
allies,
the
General
Staff
by
September 28, 1918, came to regard the
clxxv
The failure of the Germans in the second
struggle as hopeless.
battle of the Marne can be pointed as the
Ludendorff
first cause of the German revolution. clxix
ultimatum to Berlin demanding that the
On July 21 Ludendorff announced that the
civil government of Germany call for an
German attacks had not been successful,
immediate armistice of the Allies.clxxvi This
but
was
call arrived in Berlin in the midst of a
On the first of August the
chancellor crisis. Frantically the ministers
Kaiser declared: "We know that the hardest
asked for time, but the emphatic answer of
part lies behind us."clxxi But the continued
the military party was: "No." clxxvii Under
successes of the Allies left no doubt in the
the pressure of the army solely, the
minds of the German General Staff that
German
that
confident.
the
clxx
high
command
“the tide had turned.”
clxxii
On the
thirteenth of August the Emperor of
Austria appeared at German General
Headquarters and discussed the terrible
situation of the dual monarchy which was
in the condition of not being able to
continue the war.clxxiii
suddenly
civil
Out of fear,
dispatched
government
began
an
the
armistice negotiations.clxxviii
After the armistice a great controversy
arose in Germany regarding the roots of
the imperial military collapse and the
outbreak of the revolution. clxxix After the
armistice Scheidemann publicly attacked
Ludendorff for “prolonging the war, for
Ludendorff stated in his memoirs that after
failing to agree to a peace of justice, and
the successful English offensive on the
for leading the army like a gambler to final
eighth of August, he realized that the front
defeat.” clxxx Hugo Haase, leader of the
of his armies might be broken at any time,
Independent Socialists, stated that “Vice
furthermore after the eighteenth of July the
Chancellor von Payer surprised the party
morale of the German armies slowly but
leaders in a confidential meeting with the
surely declined, because the promised
news that the German army stood on the
German
verge of collapse and that the army leaders,
peace
clxxiv
impossible.
now
seemed
Hindenburg
and
Ludendorff,
had
requested the government to bring about
movement
an armistice without delay.”clxxxi
system.
In the summer of 1919 the German
government to combat the conservative
and monarchist propaganda and to justify
the action of the revolutionary government
in admitting its defeat by signing the
armistice, published a White Book on the
events leading to the armistice.clxxxii
for peace, the German military leaders
turned to President Wilson, with the hopes
of escaping destruction by invoking the
fourteen points. clxxxiii That they accepted
the President's conditions of peace, at
which they and the German people had
openly scoffed, reveals the desperateness
of their position. Concerning this appeal to
President Wilson, General Groener wrote:
"At any rate we did not lighten the role
which we had expected of him.”clxxxiv
Social
Democratic
into the Majority Social Democratic Party
of Germany (MSPD) and the Independent
Social Democratic Party of Germany
(USPD), put themselves at the head of the
revolution; and along with the Workers’
and Soldiers’ Councils formed throughout
players in the November revolution.clxxxvii
“On 9 November 1918, the Imperial
Chancellor, Prince Max of Baden (18671929), announced the abdication of the
Emperor. Prince Max handed over the
office of Chancellor of the Reich to
Friedrich Ebert (1871-1925), chairman of
the MSPD. On the same day, Philipp
Scheidemann
(MSPD,
1865-1939)
proclaimed the republic from a window of
the Reichstag building. A few hours later,
Liebknecht
(USPD,
1871-1919)
proclaimed the ‘Free Socialist Republic’.
Triggered by the naval mutiny at the
November
The
monarchical
parties, which had been split since 1917
Karl
VI. November Revolution
of
clxxxvi
the
the Empire, they became the key political
Being forced by military necessity to sue
beginning
against
1918,
the
revolution of November 1918 was a
This twofold proclamation of the republic
reflected the conflict that underlay the
revolution.”clxxxviii
consequence of the military defeat of the
On 9 November 1918, a nationwide
clxxxv
‘Council of People’s Representatives’ was
Within only a few days, this rebellion
formed and was ratified as the temporary
spread throughout the Empire with no
government. clxxxix It consisted of two co-
substantial resistance from the old order;
chairpersons: Friedrich Ebert (MSPD) and
therefore when the working class joined
Hugo Haase (USPD, 1863- 1919). Ebert
forces with troops, it developed into a mass
had a key role in the revolution since he
German Empire in the Great War.
was both the Chancellor of the Reich and
the premiership of Philipp Scheidemann
co-chairman of the Council of People’s
(MSPD), took office on 12 February
Representatives.cxc On 30 November 1918,
1919.”cxcvi
the Council of People’s Representatives
decided that on 19 January 1919 elections
to
a
constituent
German
National
a. Political Parties in the Government of
the Weimar Republic
Assembly would be held.cxci
1. The German Democratic Party
On 28 December 1918, the alliance
The German Democratic Party (Deutsche
between the MSPD and the USPD in the
Demokratische Partei – DDP), was the
temporary government collapsed with the
outcome
withdrawal of the USPD from the Council
Progressive
of
to
(Fortschrittliche Volkspartei – FVP) and
differences over a military operation. cxcii
the left wing of the National Liberals.cxcvii
When the troops of the MSPD government
Playing a very influential part in the
waged bloody battles with representatives
formation of Weimar Constitution, the
of the USPD and the Communist KPD, the
DDP upheld the democratic order. cxcviii
government troops being assisted by the
“The party, which drew much of its
right-wing Freikorps, the argument over
support from middle-class intellectuals and
the
small
People’s
Representatives
future
course
of
the
due
revolution
of
a
union
between
People’s
traders,
called
for
the
Party
the
strict
escalated into what became known as the
separation of church and state, the
Spartacist Revolt of January 1919.cxciii
restriction of government regulation of the
After
the
elections
of
the
National
Assembly on 19 January 1919 the path of
the
revolution
parliamentary
February,
turned
democracy.
the
towards
cxciv
National
On
6
Assembly
constituted itself in Weimar and on 11
February Friedrich Ebert is elected as the
President of the Reich.
cxcv
“The first
government of the Reich to be accountable
to Parliament, the Weimar Coalition of
Majority SPD, the Centre Party and the
German Democratic Party (DDP), under
economy and the abolition of economic
monopolies and sought a fair balance
between the interests of capital and
labour.”cxcix
2. Social Democratic Party of Germany
Despite having internal conflicts at the
time
of
Democratic
the
revolution,
Party
of
the
Social
Germany
(Sozialdemokratische Partei Deutschlands
– SPD) was committed to uphold the
system of government. cc Requesting early
elections to the National Assembly the
republic, grounded after the German
SPD entered government as part of the
Revolution and the Great War. Despite the
Weimar Coalition under the premiership of
fact that the State was now a republic, the
Philipp Scheidemann as the strongest
name “German Reich” was still more
political force in Parliament, with 39.9% of
commonly used, as well as other names of
the votes.
cci
positions
in
the
government.
The
revolutionary Council of the People’s
3. The Centre Party
Deputies (Rat der Volksbeauftragten),
The Centre Party (Zentrumspartei or
which had functioned legislatively as well
Zentrum) saw itself as the political voice of
as executively until the point of elections,
the Catholic population.
ccii
Under the
was succeeded by the National Assembly
leadership of Matthias Erzberger, the
on the legislative branch, which elected
Centre professed commitment to the
Frederich Ebert as Reichspräsident, head
republican constitution and in order to
of state, who then appointed Philipp
achieve
it
Scheidemann as Minister President on the
worked with the SPD and DDP in the
13th February 1919 to form his Cabinet.
Weimar Coalition. Besides the above
The revolution, though carrying the burden
mentioned defence of the rights of the
of the devastating Great War financially
Catholic Church and its support for the
and psychologically, had not been such a
preservation of the federal states (Länder),
significant one as the October Revolution
the Centre was characterized by a broad
of the Soviet Union. The reason for this
political platform. cciii “While its left wing
was the fact that the German Reich had
favoured the development of the welfare
already passed many phases heading to
state and international understanding, its
more democratic governance, such as
right
patriarchal
adopting the system of a constitutional
corporative system of government at home
monarchy and limiting the powers and
and a revisionist foreign policy with
functions of the Emperor in a rising
emphasis on the defence of national
magnitude.
parliamentary
wing
interests.”
advocated
democracy
a
cciv
ccv
Regarding the political
structure in 1918-19, the citizens’ opinions
and values varied regarding the Republic
B. CABINET SCHEIDEMANN
as an outcome of the revolution; although
The Weimar Republic, in accordance with
it should be pointed out that the Weimar
its
Coalition
name,
was
parliamentarian
a
semi-presidential
democratic
federal
Cabinet
forming
the
Scheidemann
constituted
of
Republic-loyal
politicians
and
parties
who
held
a
BVP - Bayerische Volkspartei - Bavarian
percentage of 76,2%. ccvi Parties such as
People’s Party (This was once a branch of
DNVP and DVP, who were sceptic, or
the Center Party but parted from it in 1919
even clearly countering the Republic,
to represent a more conservative, more
positioned themselves mid-right to right
Bavarian structure)
extremism and advocated the glory of the
German Reich and Monarchy. Despite this
opposition, the line of democracy and
parliamentarism had been continuing since
before the revolution.
Within
this
concept,
the
National
Assembly elections took place on the 19th
January 1919 with following results:ccvii
SPD
–
(Sozialdemokratische
Partei
Deutschlands) - Social-Democratic Party
of Germany (left)
-
German
National
People’s
Party
(nationalist and conservative, also liberal
and partly anti-Semitist) - 10,3%
DVP - Deutsche Volkspartei - German
People’s Party (nationalist and liberal) 4,4%
The elections of January 19th were the first
elections
in
which
proportional
representation was utilised, the voting age
was pulled from 25 to 20, urban areas were
With its two branches:
MSPD
DNVP - Deutschnationale Volkspartei -
fairly involved and women too had a right
Mehrheitssozialdemokratische
Partei Deutschlands - Majority SocialDemocratic Party of Germany - 37,9%
to vote. Foreign interpretation was partly
that the German State sought more
legitimacy for the signing of the peace
treaty, and for the responsibility to not only
Unabhaengige
last on high rankers’ shoulders. It must
Sozialdemokratische Partei Deutcshlands –
also be stated that the National Assembly
Independent Social-Democratic Party of
wished to impress the Parties of the peace
Germany - 7,6%
conference,
USPD
-
DDP - Deutsche Demokratische Partei German Democratic Party (left-liberal) –
18,5%
Zentrum - German Center Party (Together with the BVP 19,7%)
especially
the
American
President Wilson, to achieve a more fair
and humane treaty as the result of the
conference.ccviii
When, after the elections in January 19th,
the National Assembly, holding six parties
in its term, gathered for the first time in
Weimar (a revolt had been suppressed in
Berlin just days before the elections) on the
even
6th February, its first step was to elect
statements of the Assembly and the
Ebert as President. With Ebert’s appointing
“Gesetz
Scheidemann on the 13th, Scheidemann
Reichsgewalt” (Law on the provisional
immediately called together the Ministers
Reich power) had a much more unclear
that he had pondered upon to work with.
competence.
As he was proposing a coalition to the
more of a cooperation and department of
second and third Parties with the largest
labour rather than strongly specified
numbers of seats, DDP and the Centre
institutions. The ministers were though
Party, he put forward two conditions. The
completely responsible for their respective
first one was the acceptance and true
departments and their responsibility to the
loyalty to the new form of State, the
Minister
Republic. The second
the
governance systems today. The Minister
requirement to acknowledge the fact that
President in fact came to carry the role of a
the government was to head a socialist
moderator
direction, in order to satisfy the citizens
example of a chairman, and wasn’t even
who voted in significant portions to leftist
mentioned in the Law named above. His
Parties, and to achieve the best possible
competence and duties weren’t protruding
conditions for workers and other classes in
the ones of the Ministers, and it was also
the State, and also to lead the economy in
unclear who exactly run the job of
means that were in accordance with the
“governing the country” as a whole. In the
social democratic point of view. The DDP
time concerning Cabinet Scheidemann, it
accepted these conditions without any
could be simply regarded as the Cabinet
controversy, although in the Centre Party,
altogether
there were indeed votes against a coalition
Reichspraesident
with SPD.
Assembly following them. One other
one was
Even the National Assembly, with its
timing right after the Great War and amidst
revolutionary movements throughout the
country, and responsibility to compose a
constitution, upon which the following
cabinets and assemblies (Rat) should base,
had a provisional nature. The Cabinet,
more
relying
über
ccix
at
the
die
singular
vorlaeufige
The ministries formed
President
and
on
was
lower
discussion
first
leader,
place,
and
of
than
an
with
the
course
the
reason for Scheidemann’s not being able or
willing to manage matters of governing of
the State all by himself was the fragmented
nature of the Assembly with six Parties,
which had its roots in the wish to fulfil
complete
proportional
democracy
election
through
system
reservations of low percentages.
ccx
a
without
charge
I. Structure of the Cabinet
Cabinet consist of President of the
Reichsministry,
Vice-President
of
the
Reichsministry who also has the title of the
Minister of Finances and ministers for
Foreign Affairs, Internal Affairs, Labour,
Economy,
Food,
Colonies
and
Treasury,
Justice,
Defence,
Transportation,
Government,
Post,
Economic
all Reichsbehörden (Reich
of
agencies)
including
the Oberste
Heeresleitung (OHL).
The Reichsminister were
required
to
possess the confidence of the National
Assembly.
 All
decrees and executive orders of
the Reichspräsident required the countersignature
of
a Reichsminister.
Demobilization; Prussian War Minister
The Reichsminister were accountable to
and the Chef of the Navy. Minister profile
the National Assembly for the conduct of
can be found at the following pages of this
their affairs.”ccxi
document.
The consequences of a lack of confidence
to
II. Purpose of the Cabinet
Since the law that established the Cabinet
was vague its role was not very clear. But
some can be pointed out as:
 “For
the
National
Assembly
by
the
Reichminister were not underlined in law.
III. Agenda Items of the Cabinet
Although the Cabinet had various agenda
bringing government proposals to
items from security problems to social and
the National Assembly the assent of
economical policies its primary focus was
the Staatenausschuss (the
chamber
on the peace treaty.ccxii
which
states
the
individual
in
were
represented) was needed. If no consensus
C. EVENTS UNTIL TODAY
cabinet
(Please bear in mind that while below
and Staatenausschuss both versions would
explanations are based on the Federal
be submitted.
Archive of Germany ccxiii some changes
could
be
 Members
found
between
of the government had the right
to attend sessions of the National Assembly
and to speak there at any time.
 For
the
purpose
the Reichspräsident was
of
been made by the MUNTR 2014
Secretariat in order to provide the
necessary grounds for simulation.)
governance
to
regarding the timeline of the events have
appoint
a Reichsministerium which would be in
As
mentioned
above,
Cabinet
Scheidemann’s first and foremost policy
Therefore
staff assembled improperly.ccxxii This letter
long term planned domestic politics was
scandal was the straw of mutual dislike
only seemed to be possible after the
between Erzberger and the Reich Foreign
was eliminating the war.
ccxiv
conclusion of a peace agreement.
Regarding
the
negotiation
of
ccxv
that
agreement the Cabinet had two main
premises: agreement would be negotiated
and that negotiation would be based on
Wilson’s fourteen points. ccxvi Being very
strong in its position the Cabinet did not
discuss an alternative plan in the case of
failure
in
the
fulfilment
of
those
expectations.ccxvii
Minister.ccxxiii
When the French General Nudant handed
over the invitation to Versailles to the
German armistice commission it was a
shock to the Cabinet, as the Germans were
only to
"receive" the draft of the
treaty. ccxxiv When the Cabinet wanted to
send civil servants who would simply
transmit the treaty to the government,
General Foch answered by demanding that
Preparations for peace negotiations had
the delegation Germans send were to be
begun under Brockdorff-Rantzau's lead,
authorized to "negotiate the totality of the
even before the cabinet was formed. ccxviii
peace issues.". ccxxv The Cabinet finally
On March Cabinet discussed individual
decided to send the peace delegation
differences in their positions and debated
consist of Brockdorff-Rantzau (chairman),
upon the “Guidelines for the German
Landsberg, Giesberts plus non-cabinet
Peace
Negotiations”.
ccxix
(Mentioned
members Carl Melchior, a banker, Robert
Guideline can be found in Annex: 1)
Leinert,
Although there were progress upon the
constituent
debates regarding the substance of the
Landesversammlung)
negotiations, the composition of the peace
of Hanover, and Walther Schücking, an
delegation that would carry the matters
expert in international law.
was uncertain.
ccxx
president
of
the
assembly
Prussian
(Preußische
and
mayor
ccxxvi
The
While the composition
delegation arrived in Versailles on 29 April
of the delegation itself was changed
arrived in Versailles and formed a kind of
several times, even the Head of the
Cabinet Committee.ccxxvii
delegation was not fully determined until
the last moment.ccxxi
At
this
point,
although
cooperation
between the Cabinet and the delegation
On 26 April Erzberger sent a letter to
had been set previously, and the delegation
Scheidemann accusing the Reich Foreign
itself consist members of the Cabinet, they
Minister of having the delegation and their
disagreed on very high levels.
ccxxviii
Reasons for that can be listed as the lack of
bring a Soviet-resembling system. He is
oral argument at Versailles, the refusal of
quite a moderate person, seeking for
the Entente representatives to meet the
consent
delegation, personal antagonism between
representatives, also often looking for clear
ccxxix
majority in his Cabinet to take decisions.
Further disagreements took place when the
In the discussions during sessions of the
Cabinet realized the numerous individual
Cabinet, he acts much like a moderator, in
notes
the
the way he, though of course expressing
delegation.ccxxx Those notes are seen to be
his will and opinions, also sought for the
firstly sent for propagandas but later
debates to end with a last resort satisfying
changed their forms to counter-proposals
as many as possible through open-minded
absent the approval or even knowledge of
debating and compromises. ccxxxii He is a
the Cabinet.ccxxxi Therefore, after the notes
very good speaker and tries mostly to hold
between Brockdorf-Rantzau and Georges
the government together, in a rather
Clemenceau
to
unpartisan way; for the Cabinet to be able
summon its members in the delegation to
to respond to situations of urgency
Germany to settle the differences and to
emergency as effective as possible. Apart
come up with common policies and
from
counter
publicising.ccxxxiii
Erzberger and Brockdorff-Rantzau.
sent
to
the
the
proposals
Allies
Cabinet
against
from
decided
the
points
mentioned in the letter of Georges
Clemenceau that has been given as the
annex 3 of this document.
I. Philipp
Scheidemann
his
politics
people
his
and
profession
their
is
II. Bernhard Dernburg (Vice-President,
Finances) (DDP)
Son
D. MINISTER PROFILES
of
of
the
publicist
and
politician
Friedrich Dernburg who was a member of
(President)
(SPD)
Scheidemann is the President of the
Reichsministry, the Cabinet, and can also
be named by the title Prime Minister. He is
a social democrat, an effective person in
the SPD, representing the revisionarist
branch of his Party, seeking for reforms
and democracy instead of a revolution to
the National Liberal Party, he is a
politician himself and a banker. Playing a
significant role in the establishment of the
DDP, he has expertise on matters of
Colonies and their effect on the German
economy, and has published various books
and papers on the matter. He joined the
Cabinet on the 17th April 1919, later than
most of the current members; succeeding
Eugen Schiffer.ccxxxiv He and Scheidemann
completed each other with their roots in
IV. Hugo
different, yet friendly Parties, and tried to
(DDP)
succeed in holding and forming a strong
cabinet which is legitimate as well as
effective, pulling the country through the
problematic time being.
III. Ulrich
Graf
von
Brockdorff-
not belong to any Party or ideology but
was a high diplomat in profession, first
didn’t accept the post because he did not
want to work under possible pressure of
the military that had decided on the
outcomes of the war. He later accepted the
position as a diplomat such as him was
needed by the government, especially for
the negotiations of the peace treaty. He is a
person who strongly objects to any matters
authority
and
sometimes
presents a higher level of sensitivity on the
matter than effective for the favours of the
State.
He
heads
the
Delegation
at
Versailles and sometimes has problems
with Erxberger, who stands for the
authority of
the
Cabinet
above
the
Delegation, and for the Cabinet to decide
for every step that is to be taken during the
so-called “negotiations”. ccxxxv BrockdorffRantzau however expects trust and respect
in
his
abilities.
negotiating
Affairs)
Hugo Preuss, an acknowledged jurist,
politician and professor for constitutional
law in Handelshochschule Berlin (of which
and
responsible for the composing of the
Weimar Constitution in the National
The Minister for foreign affairs, who did
his
(Internal
he is also the Rektor) and is the prior
Rantzau (Foreign Affairs) (no-Party)
against
Preuß
management
Assembly. This duty has been given to him
on the 15th November 1918 by the Council
of
the
People’s
Deputies
(preceding
Cabinet Scheidemann) together with the
famous jurist Max Weber, who later left
the duty, probably based on his discontent
of the Revolution. As one of the cogrounders of DDP, he reflects a will for
social democracy and liberty for all human
rights and rights of citizenship. As a
politician, he does not prefer to bring
himself forward in politic discussions, but
was
rather
regarded
as
the
Person
responsible for the legitimacy and lawrelated matters in the Cabinet.ccxxxvi
V. Otto Landsberg (Justice) (SPD)
Otto Landsberg is another jurist in the
Cabinet, a member of SPD since 1890. A
politician and representative in different
city and state parliaments from 1903 on, he
was
responsible for
Press,
Art
and
Literature in the Council of People’s
Deputies in 1918. In the Council, he
advocated the merging of Prussia to the
Reich for more unity, but could not
achieve this. Landsberg is also in the
Delegation to Versailles and had even been
nominated
as
its
leader
during
the
discussions for the Delegation.ccxxxvii
roots in the Labour Unions, Rudolf Wissell
stands strongly for the socialising of the
new Republic, and is ready to enable this
through his instruments as Economy
Minister. In the Cabinet, he has great
the
Minister
for
Treasury, the liberal Gothein from DDP,
which forms one of the greatest debates
and controversies within the Weimar
Coalition
based
on
ideology
differences.ccxxxviii
VII. Robert Schmidt (Food) (SPD)
Robert Schmidt, whose profession was
beside politics piano-making, is a member
of the Cabinet responsible for food in the
aftermath of the greatest and only world
war in history. From 1893 to 1903 he was
the editor of the magazine Vorwaerts
(Forward) and was elected to the General
Commission of Labour Unions in 1903.
Though not as radical as Bauer and Wissel
he shows another example of the Unionrooted SPD representatives.ccxxxix
member of the SPD, who has deep roots
and is well known and respected in the
firm
Like Bauer, an SPD representative who has
with
Gustav Bauer, a “man from the folk” is a
Labour Unions throughout the country. A
VI. Rudolf Wissell (Economy) (SPD)
disagreements
VIII. Gustav Bauer (Labour) (SPD)
advocate
of
Socialism,
though
naturally respecting the democratic system
as a member of the Majority-SPD as
opposed to the Independent-SPD, he takes
part in fiery discussions concerning his coworkers and Union members, as well as
the economic and politic future of the
nation.ccxl In 1917, he grounded with some
others, People’s Union for Freedom and
Fatherland as an opposition to the rightsextremist Fatherland-Party.
IX. Gustav Noske (Defence) (SPD)
Gustav Noske, a member of SPD since
1884, has been one of the most prominent
figures in the November Revolution until
the day of the gathering of the Cabinet, and
seemingly will continue that way. In his
politic life until the Cabinet, he was also
known for his lonely stance in the debates
on the colonies, on which he did agree on
the side of his fellow SPD and Centre
representatives that money to be spent on
investments in colonies was pointless in a
situation of such urgency in the fatherland,
but he still approved of the Reich
possessing colonies, like his neighbours.
He chose his Party in the division of SPD
(as MSPD and USPD) by stating that he
along
would not pick an ideological side, and
Landsberg. Born as the son of a baker,
suppressed as representative in the Council
based on economic reasons, he was forced
of People’s Deputies responsible for Army
to quit school at a young age to work by
and Marine the Spartacus Revolt in
his father at the bakery. He was a member
January 1919 in which two prominent
of
USPD politicians lost their lives and the
encompassing within his person two major
Berlin
Cabinet
values of the German community, religion
Scheidemann. ccxli His main responsibility
and socialism in harmony. ccxliv From the
was to ensure inner security, especially
time of the Council onwards, he took the
from
posts of Reich Labour Minister, Reich
March
Revolt
the uprisings
at
in
the time of
with
the
Brockdorff-Rantzau
Catholic
Labour
Unions,
Scheidemann Cabinet. He is known to
Economy
Minister
state in 04.03.1919 that “…every person
Minister
in
with a gun in his hands to fight against the
respectively. As the Minister responsible
Republic shall be shot dead”.ccxlii
for Post in the new-born Republic, he has
X. Johannes Bell (Colonies) (Centre)
and
and
Cabinet
Reich
Mail
Scheidemann
the heavy duty to reorganize the torn
communication network in the country for
Another jurist in the Cabinet, Johannes
the stabilization of the State, in matters of
Bell from the Catholic Centre Party has
authority and legitimacy as well for the
also been present in many Prussian city,
sake of modernisation and the revival of
land and state parliaments, and has also
the nation’s infrastructure.
exercised his profession as lawyer and
notary. He published and continues to
XII. Georg Gothein (Treasure) (DDP)
publish his work on the time being,
The Minister for Treasure Georg Gothein
especially focused on trade and the
from DDP is a politician who has become
German economy in the times of war and
deeply committed to working against
revolution. He is also in the phase of
Militarism and Anti-Semitism. ccxlv Apart
taking responsibility for the nationalization
from and even before the DDP, he is an
of the German railways and carries duties
active
on transportation.
ccxliii
XI. Johannes Giesberts (Mail) (Centre)
member
ccxlvi
Union.
of
the
Free-minded
A liberal in means of economy,
he has some major controversies with the
Labour-Union-rooted Economy Minister
Johannes Giesberts is the third Cabinet
Wissel who has a strong stance for
member in the Delegation to Versailles
socialism. Amongst his professions, his
Abitur for history, his journalism career
for the signing of the peace treaty that shall
and work as an assessor can be named.
be presented to them, simply for the reason
XIII. Eduard
David
(General
Government) (SPD)ccxlvii
Eduard David, the MSPD representative
and cabinet member has been among
that the Reich would not have any better
alternative.
XIV. Matthias
Erzberger
(General
Government) (Centre)
others, a strong believer of the political
Matthias Erzberger, the Centre Party
truce in Germany during the Great War,
representative, was the person signing the
the Burgfriedenspolitik, which calls for the
Armistice
suspension of criticising of the government
ending the Great War; and is also
in its steps and decisions and simply being
responsible for the fulfilment of the articles
in war. The main reason of not only his but
of the Armistice in the Cabinet. He worked
all MSPD politicians’ belief was the
as a teacher in the Volkschulen, centres set
conviction that the Reich had joined the
up for the education of the citizens, and as
war for matters of defence and the
publicist
preference
newspaper in Stuttgart. He was also a
of
living
under
the
agreement
and
editor
catholic
than the autocracy and repression of the
movement and took part in the grounding
Czar where they would unlikely be able to
of Christian Labour Unions. ccxlviii As an
bring forwards reforms to realise social
influential politician in the Reichstag
democracy in an extended sense. Whether
before the Republic, he undertakes the role
their opinion on the righteousness of the
of foreign propaganda during the Great
war has changed, will show itself in due
War and established a German secret
course. David was elected as the first
intelligence agency for information abroad
President of the National Assembly with
to be collected. He has been one of the
374 votes from 399, but passed the
very few SPD politicians along with Karl
position
Party
Liebknecht to pose direct criticism against
representative Konstantin Fehrenbach as a
the Ottoman ally and alleged it for
result of agreements between Parties.
genocides on non-Muslims, for the belief
David’s
in
of which he also travels frequently to
Burschenschaften, in Student Fraternities
Istanbul to discuss matters with Jeune
lead by the idealism of liberal and patriotic
Turks. In the Cabinet, he stays in strong
values. In the Cabinet, he mostly speaks
opposition against the foreign minister
the
adolescence
Centre
passed
catholic
a
member
to
the
for
Compiegne,
constitutional monarchy of Germany rather
over
of
of
workers’
Brockdorff-Rantzau, the leader of the
War, is another significant commander the
Delegation, debating for the signing of a
Army of the German Reich and the
peace treaty presented to them.ccxlixccl
Republic.
XV. Walther
Reinhardt
(Prussian
Minister for War) (no-Party)
ccliii
In spite of his military
successes, his personal attachment to the
Republic is unclear. ccliv In the discussions
in the Cabinet, he presents the point of
Walther Reinhardt, the Prussian War
view of the army, though he does not have
Minister and member of the Scheidemann
a right to vote in the decisions. Especially
Cabinet possibly to become responsible for
in matters of territorial losses, he too is
the withdrawal from the East of the
very
country that was militarily won but
territorial losses over high reparations.
diplomatically lost. The famous Prussian
This causes some discussions with the
Minister is known for his abilities, as a
Delegation who would like to negotiate
commander and government officer in war
and compromise differently.
sensitive
and
does
not
prefer
strategies, and due course of discussions,
proposes the possibility of the grounding
of a new and independent East-State from
which a further German revolution shall
spread to revive and maybe reunite the
country. ccli Reinhardt has occupied many
important positions in the German and
Prussian Army, and has his signature under
many of Germany’s military successes in
the Great War. The devastation of this
successful commander at the loss of the
territories he had literally fought on and
accessed is understandable.cclii
ANNEX I: GUIDELINES FOR THE
GERMAN PEACE NEGOTIATIONScclv
I. General Principles
The opponents are expected to present a
final
draft
peace
treaty
with
the
explanation that it can only be accepted or
rejected. A presentation of a counter draft
will not be in sight. There may be a
question only to make some counterproposals.
In general the Wilson program, to which
both Germany as his opponents are bound,
XVI. Adolf von Trotha (Chef of the
Admiralty) (no-Party)
forms the basis for assessing the opponent
claims. Questions that are not specifically
Adolf von Trotha, achieving the position
mentioned in this program, but negotiated
of Counter-Admiral on the 17th December
at the peace conference must be resolved
1916 and the becoming Head of the Marine
in the spirit of the program. Here, besides
Cabinet just before the end of the Great
the question of freedom of the seas, which
has to be treated in the light of Wilson’s
Rhine, in the north the country's northern
original position, the nord-schleswigian
border) must be required. In the case of
issue and the issue of the annexation of
the secession of Alsace-Lorraine, our
German-Austria must be studied upon. To
economic interests are to be protected by
the latter question there shall only be
appropriate economic agreements in the
objection from the German side if the
country. Here, particular emphasis shall
opponents express a demand to explicitly
be placed on the utilization of potash as
prevent the connection of German Austria.
well as the fact that of our obtaining
II. Questions of Territory
 Alsace-Lorraine
The Wilson points require "compensation
of France by Prussia for the injustice
inflicted in 1871" Basically, the selfdetermination of Alsace-Lorraine, which
should be exercised through a referendum
on the freest circumstances, is to be
demanded.
minette from the country. Agreements on
navigability of the Rhine up to the location
of Basel as well as the navigation of the
river, and the water rights on it should be
sought for.
 Saar Territory
A detachment of this region from Germany
and its being positioned under a special
international regime or the demand for a
later
vote
are
unacceptable.
Where
The vote shall be carried out in all Alsace -
possible, its coal production falling into
Lorraine, at least in the German-speaking
enemy hands should also be prevented.
and areas with German ethnics. The
The French claims in this direction, which
coordination of referendum: in mixed-
is based on the destruction of the northern
language areas by town, otherwise by
French coal mines may be regulated by
circles. Voting is shall be for all persons
exchange deals of coal and coke for
over 20 years who were resident in the
minette. But such transactions shall be
country at the 1st August 1914. Before the
completed within a short number of years.
voting, the French occupation army is to
be replaced by local militia or neutral
 Rhineland , Pfalz and Rheinhessen
police force, just as French authorities by
A detachment of these areas from Germany
local or neutral authorities or combined
would be the beginning of dismemberment
authorities of both sides. In the case of the
and is therefore absolutely to be rejected.
withdrawal from the whole country the
Also, all conditions of the enemy, which
boundary of 1871 (in the east the valley of
would provide a deal for the gradual
isolation and thus lead to the subsequent
therefore unjustified, because East Prussia
detachment of these parts of the country is
may not be separated from the rest of the
to be rejected from the outset. In particular,
Reich and because the possession of Upper
it should be achieved that the customs
Silesia, which produces 22% of German
border remains on the boundary of the
coal, a vital question for Germany is and
Reich.
its connection to Poland would not be in
In the worst case, a different position could
the interest of the population.
be taken for the areas of Malmedy and
Voting shall be after the conclusion of
Montjoie. If opponents point out that the
peace and after substitution of Polish
population requires to be connected to
troops
Belgium, voting could be granted.
Coordination of voting: vote by town,
by
neutral
police
force.
decision by ⅔ majority. Eligibility to vote
 Poland
shall be concretized in accordance with the
The Wilson program provides for an
election law of the National Assembly, but
independent
Polish
state,
which
with the participation of Germans who had
encompasses
areas
inhabited
by
fled from the province on the condition of
indisputably Polish populations, which
the possession of German citizenship and
receives a free and secure access to the sea,
year of residence; any enclaves shall be
and
exchanged.
whose
political
and
economic
independence and territorial integrity will
be guaranteed by an international treaty.
The conceded free access to the sea must
not be created by a Polish Corridor to
The dispute over the territory that is to be
Danzig,
regarded as Polish in the light of these
Prussia and parts of West Prussia from the
principles should be settled only by an
Reich. The Polish interests are rather to be
impartial entity that has to rely on the vote
secured
of the people. Voting shall be limited to the
establishment of free districts in one or
province of Posen, and even there, to the
more Baltic ports, facilitation of transit
area beyond the demarcation line because
traffic, reciprocal agreements in respect of
only here there can be seen a relatively
transportation by rail, the reinforcement of
compact Polish language area; and the
Vistula and the Bug and the navigation of
greatest
these rivers.
possible
repression
of
the
demarcation line is desirable. Extension to
West Prussia and Upper Silesia would be
which
by
would
separate
economic
East
measures:
In economic terms, providence shall be
German troops and authorities is required,
taken, that we secure the purchase of the
joint
agricultural products of the province of
Presidencies shall be set up.
Posen. The opportunity of the negotiations
is to be used wisely to come up with
general trade agreements with Poland,
particularly in the areas of transit traffic.
 Demands
of
Czecho-Slovakia
and
is inhabited by indisputably Czech or
Lithuanian populations, also no claims of
have
been
raised
by
populations in these areas. A vote in these
of
territorial
concessions
values from the Reich or Prussia.
ceded territories in exchange for the
respective part of the national debt and the
debt of the Prussian government according
to the state at the time of the conclusion of
peace.
b) The right of choice and the right of
areas must therefore be rejected.
deduction of inhabitants of the ceded
 North Schleswig
territory parts.
Self-determination
of
consequences
neutral
Acquisition of one of the populations of the
None of the contested parts of the territory
parts
 General
under
a) Financial dispute over ceded public
Lithuania
detachment
committees
of
South
mixed-language
Jutland.
Uniform
coordination of voting for all these
c) Ensuring the previous imperial and
provincial officials, pensioners, widows
and orphans.
territories, namely: vote by township or
parish, the rest as stated for Poland. If a
d) Conflict with the acquiring States in
vote en bloc should be imposed on us, the
matters of national insurances.
southern limit of the voting area would be:
north of the Lister Deep, South Emmerleff,
north Hoyer, north Dahler, west north
Abel, north Söllstedt, north Königsberg,
north Wester- Hoist , north Aösleben west
Graul, Apenrader county boundary to
Flensburg Fjord, in this along the north
bank to the Baltic Sea. For determination
of
the
border:
Kugelungsverfahren.
If
so-called
withdrawal
of
e) Conflicts regarding the effects of the
assignment of ecclesiastical districts. This
scheme is first to be strived for the
evangelical churches, in the sense that the
previous
church
affiliations
remain
unaffected despite shifting of borders
borders. For Catholics, there shall be no
obstacle created for the question to be
settled later in agreement with the Holy
See. If opponents here too already require
appropriate way in the context of the
a regulation at the peace treaty, we will
League of Nations.
require on our part that the ecclesiastical
boundaries coincide with the new borders.
 Occupied German territories
In the peace treaty there are certain
assurances for the German minorities to be
expected, who come by assignment under
foreign sovereignty. To these minorities the
Immediate evacuation of the occupied
territories at the time of the peace
agreement is to be required, if necessary,
under other forms of assurances for our
payment obligations. As far as occupation
still remains, the strength of the army of
occupation and its powers are to be
defined and limited precisely. It should be
specifically
agreed
upon
that
central authorities, that appointments and
dismissals of all officials be made only by
competent German authorities, that no
interference in the political, economic and
transportation issues of the country occur
and that the German customs border
effectively
on
the
enabled, which shall be entertained in
particular by offering the right to attend
German schools and churches as well as to
access German newspapers. If possible, we
will be concentrating further on the
assumption of cultural autonomy, based on
national cadastre to be recognised.
local
authorities can correspond freely with the
remains
practise of their German culture is to be
frontier,
meaning the sole supervision shall be by
the German authorities. Exclusion of
coloured troops of the army of occupation.
IV. Question of Reparations
The basis is the Lansing note dated 5
November 1918, according to which
Germany shall be responsible for inflicted
damages caused by all its attack of the
civilian population of the Allies and their
property. It is assumed that the note refers
only to the occupied territories, and that,
therefore, Germany has only to replace the
damage that has arisen in the Germanoccupied
territories.
Type
of
compensation: Reconstruction in kind by
German entrepreneurs.
III. Protection of the National Minorities
Germany commonly advocates for the
protection of national minorities. This
protection is to be regulated in the most
Accordingly, any compensation for any
damage on enemy state property and any
damages incurred outside of occupied
territories must be refused on principle.
On the other hand, this basis carries the
consequence that we must refrain from
made on the basis of the ceasefire
asserting
agreement and the handing over of
claims
for
alternate
compensation of any kind.
German
Will we be forced to abandon this position;
appropriate counter-claims are surely to
be asserted regarding the extent of the
opposing claims. With regard to the Uboat war is then the point of view to be
defended, that it represents a legitimateV.
defence against the illegal British hunger
blockade.
Under
compensation
for
all
circumstances,
damages
must
be
rejected that have been caused by the
submarine cruiser war or on armed as well
as dimmed moving ships or ones added in
Convoys. Incidentally, as far as violation
of international law is presented as a
transport,
war
and
other
materials is to be taken into account. In
case of dispute on the amount of demands,
international
arbitration shall
decide.
Damage compensation as far as possible
by kind. Long periods are desirable.
General Economic-Politic Decisions
A. The traffic between Germany and
abroad must be restarted immediately and
in its entirety. The economic war in any
form must be eliminated.
Particularly required are:
a) Cancellation of the enemy's exceptional
laws against German.
condition for damages to be compensated,
a violation of international law must be
b) Free stay and free activity of the
determined
Germans abroad.
through
international
arbitration.
c) Lifting of the blockade. It must be
Compensation for Italy and Romania are
accurately determined whether and to
to be rejected on the grounds that both
what extent we will be dependent on any
countries have in turn attacked under
prescriptions on the supply of raw
breach of contract. Similar compensation
materials and export. Black and gray lists
for Serbia and Montenegro are to be made
must be repealed.
by the states born on the territories of the
former Austro-Hungarian Empire States
and Bulgaria.
d) In addition to the goods blockade, the
blockade of the message and passengers
must be lifted immediately; otherwise the
Opponents must demonstrate the required
re- attachment of the international traffic
sums in more comprehensive financial
will be impossible.
statements. Here, the restitution already
e) Special attention is needed on the matter
reorganization, to regulate our economy
that Germans living abroad, and the
by public service principles.
interests German companies have overseas,
be reinstated in their rights, and that
everything is done for the payment of their
rightful claims in foreign currency to be
delivered at land and place. These
In order for the opportunity to be provided
to Germany to increase its productivity
and its export in shortest terms to the
highest, is to be sought:
the
a) Basic recognition of free competition in
restoration of private rights, especially in
the procurement of raw materials: in
the field of industrial and intellectual
extreme case the ensuring of a sufficient
property and the scheduling of the debt
rate in the case of the international
matures fall under the scope of legal issues.
allocation of raw material supply.
f) We have to try everything for the
b) Open door for sales in all colonies ,
regaining of possession of our merchant
protectorates , spheres of influence , and
fleet from the 1. September 1919 on, in
any other eligible areas in Asia and Africa ,
order to be able to move her freely as
the fight against efforts to create a closed
before the war.
economic areas with inclusion of the
questions
and
the
questions
of
B. As to the future regime of general
economic relations, Wilson's points are in
order here from the outset, which require
the achievement of a free equal transport
colonies. Best possible eliminating of any
exclusive privileges of the Entente in third
countries (mainly the Balkans, Asia Minor,
Asia and Africa).
of peoples without economic barriers,
c) The maintenance of the German cable
which shall provide breakthrough. In the
connections
first place it must be achieved here that
establishing air and radio stations at home
Germany is immediately a member of the
and abroad. The question seems to be of
League of Nations.
great importance for our future export. If
Economic
self-determination
in
the
interiors.
and
the
possibility
of
our rights are threatened therein, the
internationalization
of
all
cable
connections and radio stations seems
We need to further enforce that we are
highly appropriate worth considering as a
shall be left with complete freedom in the
counterclaim.
interior,
according
to
the
political
d) Ensuring the competitiveness of German
ee) The extension of the agreements on the
trade
colonies,
in
Eastern
and
South-Eastern
European countries. Securing transit.
ff) Freedom , through special economic
For Poland, as a sales and transit country,
contracts, to continue regulating the
this question is to be definitely settled in
economic relations with countries on
relation with the assignment of the part of
further points regarding the needs of the
a territory of the province of Posen and the
respective country.
creation of the Vistula path for Poland.
e) Complete freedom, if it is needed, for us
to regulate our economic relations with
third countries by special treaties with
them.
VI. Finances
1.
Due to the long duration of the
g) If possible, as a first step, the
armistice and the increasing of difficulty of
restoration of the legal foundations of
conditions due to its extension, Germany's
economic relations as before the war with
position in relation to the time of the
short terms of the right to terminate any
adoption of the 14 points is considerably
tariff bindings contained therein. If this is
more difficult, yet Germany is prepared to
not achievable, or such contracts come in
undertake the then assumed loads.
discontinuation by notice, agreement of
MFN under precise clarification of its
circumference. Also, as far as possible the
following shall be striven for in the peace
treaty:
2. Germany must be able to pay its debts
in neutral countries and to free private
guarantors from the obligations assumed.
It must also maintain its internal debt
service because in case of a default, its
aa) The possibility of export and import
economic life would no longer function as
prohibitions , in particular to ensure the
a result of the collapse of financial
transition period,
institutions, especially the savings banks
bb) Equality with nationals,
cc) Freedom of transit,
dd) Equality or MFN shipping,
and the social insurance institutions. To
achieve this goal, Germany is ready to flex
his taxes to the utmost. Prerequisite for
this is, of course, enabling its economic
recovery.
3.
Trough disclosure of status of our
obligations at home and our balance of
payments to the outside world proof will be
given that Germany can afford not more
1. Resumption of diplomatic and consular
relations.
2.
than it has undertaken in the 14 points.
4.
VII. General Questions of Rights
Since Germany cannot afford the
necessary sums in foreign currency the
chance of restoration in nature must be
Recovery of individual treaties with
countries that are not abolished by other
provisions of the peace treaty, each party
may require new agreements on outdated
regulations within a year.
given as far as possible. For the rest a
bond would have to be granted under
3. Prompt return of all German prisoners
guarantee. The assignment of his claims
of war and civilian internees. Repatriation
against his allies in the war may come into
has
question.
completion of preliminary peace and shall
5. For the interest and principal payments
of
the
bonds
for
the
payment
of
compensation and the necessary raw
materials other particular forms of income,
such as taxes, tobacco taxes, alcohol
monopoly and traffic charges could be
pledged. But there shall be no interference
to
begin
immediately
after
the
be carried out within a short period
corresponding
to
the conditions.
All
attempts to use the prisoners forcefully to
rebuild devastated areas are absolutely
rejected. If necessary, the reconstruction
by
free-
recruited
workers,
without
distinction of nationality could be offered.
in the German administration of these
4.
duties as long as we meet our payment
worker protection, worker justice and
obligations. No Dette publique [fr =
workers' insurance, on the basis of already
Government debt]!
published by the Ministry of Labour draft.
6. A hostile control of our payment system
5. Restoration of private rights.
(such as after the Trier Treaty) may not be
granted.
a)
Incoming agreements in the field of
Repeal of the laws of war against
private rights, in particular the payment
7. Since the mutual costs of providing life
prohibitions, bans trade with the enemy,
conditions
arrangements
for
prisoners
compensate
through
supervision,
approximately, an agreement is desirable,
sequestration and liquidation of enemy
according to which these costs are – after
property
needed calculation – regarded as paid.
b) Remedy the consequences of the laws of
a)
war by a provision on the ground of
other powers in relation to the right to
complete reciprocity,
possess colonies. Therefore, in principle,
c) Approval of immediate provision of
information about enemy's assets located
under
government
supervision
or
management,
Equality between Germany and the
restitution
of
the
German
colonial
possessions is to be demanded.
b) Germany is willing to negotiate on the
assignment of individual colonies with the
d) Arbitral decision on contentious claims
Entente, but as the rightful owner.
that arose before the war or during the
c) Willingness to pledge the German
war.
colonies in whole or in part, to secure the
6.
Discussions arising from the mutual
embargo and pinch of ships and their
cargoes to be resolved on the basis of
reciprocity.
war and civilian internees, for acts to the
detriment of enemy states as well as for the
of
must not include an occupation, also the
transfer of income from the colonies to the
opponent only to be conceded in the case
that we are in default with the fulfilment of
7. Liberal amnesty for acts of prisoners of
actions
German payment obligations. The pledge
inhabitants
of
occupied
our obligations.
2.
International legal reorganization of
colonial sovereignty.
territories. Approval of the retrial in
a)
favour of the convicted during the war in
international order for the management of
Kontumazial method hostile foreigners.
all colonies to be determined. Here should
8. Reinstatement of the German mission
Germany
has
agreed
for
an
be resolved in particular,
societies in their ownership rights as well
aa) The protection of the natives against
as their authorization to practice in their
slavery, alcohol, arms trafficking, mass
former mission fields .
epidemics,
VIII. Colonies
bb) Securing freedom of economic and
A regulation according to the Wilson
cultural activities for all peoples,
program on the following basis is to be
cc) Securing peace by neutralizing and
sought:
non-proliferation.
1. Territorial issues
b) Germany is if necessary and in principle
if France and Belgium set up an equivalent
ready for the conversion of the former
troops-free zone.
sovereignty rights in such a mandatory of
the League of Nations, as long as these
new rules will apply equally to all tropical
colonies. In the forgiveness of the mandate
Germany would be rightfully reconsidered.
3.
Compensations of damages for the
German
companies
that
have
been
damaged in the German colonies during
the occupation by the enemy.
3.
The destruction of German railways
because of its strategic importance is to be
rejected, because all existing tracks are
economically necessary.
4. Creation of an international maritime
police, in which all maritime nations have
to be involved according to a particular
ratio is to be agreed upon. International
ban against armed ships on the oceans,
IX. Disarmament
apart from this the police. Maintaining the
A unilateral commitment to disarmament
of Germany must be rejected. In contrast,
means of power, which are necessary for
coastal defence.
Germany is willing to give according to
5 Regardless of the question of the
the
future
establishment of the League of Nations is
guarantees that its arms will be reduced to
the recognition of the principle utmost
the lowest agreed with the safety measure,
freedom of navigation upon the seas
provided
in
outside territorial waters, freedom of trade
particular the previous opponents and the
and news service to be demanded in peace
neighbouring states undertake the same
as in war.
Wilson
program
that
the
in
other
the
States,
guarantees. Under this condition from the
German side it shall be proposed:
The more precise definition of this
principle and the consequent regulations,
1. Most extensive disarmament on land
prohibitions and agreements is to be
with mutual and simultaneous abolishment
reserved for a particular agreement.
of compulsory military service.
2. Demolition of the fortresses on the left
bank of the Rhine may be granted, on the
other hand not the withdrawal of all troops.
Willingness to evacuate the left bank only
X. Union of Nations
Germany advocates emphatically for the
establishment of the League of Nations,
which is based upon the equality of all
nations, large and small.
International disputes the members shall,
to the extent that they cannot be solved:
1. through diplomatic negotiations,
XI. Question of Guilt
According to previous news, our opponents
will try to justify the severity of the
2. Through the mediation of third States
or
conditions imposed on us by the fact that
Germany was to blame for the outbreak of
war. The delegation in Paris must confront
3. By reports of special commissions,
this justification. It must be emphasized
be subjected to a binding arbitration,
whose sayings shall be enforced in the
farthest case by all members of the Union.
that the processes that led to the outbreak
of war, are not yet sufficiently known,
because
the
publications
of
all
governments contain only part of the truth,
The already published Paris draft contract
but the events of the last weeks before the
on the Union of Nations is to be objected,
war can not be considered alone, but must
where it differs from these principles and
be placed in the context of the development
the Wilson's original program. These are
of European policy since 1871 to allow a
in particular the following points:
judgment about the extent to which the
1. The draft provides a superior position
of the five hostile great powers; attempting
policies of individual European states has
headed for the war or not.
to differentiate between major powers and
Germany has proposed to his opponents in
other powers, so Germany must be given
vain the examination of the question of
the same rights as the other major powers;
guilt by neutral commissions and the
2.
Arbitration activities in sole interest
issues are composed unsatisfactorily, the
mediation is to be transferred on an
proposal has been rejected in the most
rugged form, since Germany's guilt had
been established. We reject this judgment
of our enemies. No one can be prosecutor
impartial body;
and judge at the same time. The German
3.
Despite the exclusive nature of the
Union,
non-members
should
government
has
itself
initiated
an
also
investigation into the causes of the war
undertake the duties of members in
and its extension; it expects the same from
situations of conflict and controversy;
the governments of the opponents and must
4. The provisions of the German colonies
are completely one-sided and unjust.
reject a discussion of the question of guilt
until the end of the investigation.
The foundations of peace, upon which
We were aghast when we read in
Germany has agreed with his opponents in
documents the demands made upon us, the
November 1918 in accordance with the
victorious violence of our enemies. The
principles of the President of the United
more deeply we penetrate into the spirit of
States
what
this treaty, the more convinced we become
obligations Germany has to pay for
of the impossibility of carrying it out. The
damages.
exactions of this treaty are more than the
of
America,
Their
ascertain
implementation
is
independent of further findings on the
question of guilt. So, we can not enter into
peace negotiations with reservations on
the question of guilt.
ANNEX
2:
PEACE
COUNT
VON
With a view to the re-establishment of the
Polish
State
we
must
renounce
indisputably German territory - nearly the
THE
whole of the Province of West Prussia,
DELEGATION
which is preponderantly German; of
BROCKDORFF-
Pomerania; Danzig, which is German to
LEADER
GERMAN
German people can bear.
OF
PARIS
the core; we must let that ancient Hanse
PEACE CONFERENCE PRESIDENT
town be transformed into a free State
GEORGES CLEMENCEAU ON THE
under Polish suzerainty.
RANTZAU'S
LETTER
TO
SUBJECT OF PEACE TERMS, MAY
1919
amputated from the body of the State,
“Mr. President:
condemned to a lingering death, and
I have the honour to transmit to you
herewith the observations of the German
delegation on the draft treaty of peace.
We came to Versailles in the expectation of
receiving a peace proposal based on the
agreed principles.
We must agree that East Prussia shall be
We were firmly
resolved to do everything in our power
with a view of fulfilling the grave
obligations which we had undertaken. We
robbed of its northern portion, including
Memel, which is purely German.
We must renounce Upper Silesia for the
benefit of Poland and Czecho-Slovakia,
although it has been in close political
connection with Germany for more than
750 years, is instinct with German life, and
forms the very foundation of industrial life
throughout East Germany.
hoped for the peace of justice which had
Preponderantly German circles (Kreise)
been promised to us.
must be ceded to Belgium, without
sufficient guarantees that the plebiscite,
which is only to take place afterward, will
determined not by their standard of life,
be independent.
The purely German
but solely by their capacity to meet the
district of the Saar must be detached from
demands of their enemies by their labour.
our empire, and the way must be paved for
The German people would thus be
its subsequent annexation to France,
condemned to perpetual slave labour.
although we owe her debts in coal only,
not in men.
In spite of the exorbitant demands, the
reconstruction of our economic life is at
For fifteen years Rhenish territory must be
the same time rendered impossible.
occupied, and after those fifteen years the
must surrender our merchant fleet. We are
Allies have power to refuse the restoration
to renounce all foreign securities. We are
of the country; in the interval the Allies
to hand over to our enemies our property
can take every measure to sever the
in all German enterprises abroad, even in
economic and moral links with the mother
the countries of our allies.
country, and finally to misrepresent the
wishes of the indigenous population.
We
Even after the conclusion of peace the
enemy States are to have the right of
Although the exaction of the cost of the
confiscating all German property.
war has been expressly renounced, yet
German trader in their countries will be
Germany, thus cut in pieces and weakened,
protected from these war measures. We
must declare herself ready in principle to
must completely renounce our colonies,
bear all the war expenses of her enemies,
and not even German missionaries shall
which would exceed many times over the
have the right to follow their calling
total amount of German State and private
therein.
assets.
No
We most thus renounce the realization of
Meanwhile her enemies' demand, in excess
all our aims in the spheres of politics,
of the agreed conditions, reparation for
economics, and ideas.
damage suffered by their civil population,
and in this connection Germany must also
go bail for her allies. The sum to be paid
is to be fixed by our enemies unilaterally,
and to admit of subsequent modification
and increase. No limit is fixed, save the
capacity of the German people for payment,
Even in internal affairs we are to give up
the right to self-determination.
international
Reparation
The
Commission
receives dictatorial powers over the whole
life of our people in economic and cultural
matters. Its authority extends far beyond
that which the empire, the German Federal
Council, and the Reichstag combined ever
sacrifices, and will go in this matter to the
possessed within the territory of the empire.
utmost limits of her capacity.
This commission has unlimited control
Counter-proposals
over the economic life of the State, of
communities, and of individuals. Further,
the entire educational and sanitary system
depends on it.
It can keep the whole
German people in mental thraldom.
In
order to increase the payments due, by the
thrall,
the
commission
can
hamper
measures for the social protection of the
German worker.
In
other
1. Germany offers to proceed with her own
disarmament in advance of all other
peoples, in order to show that she will help
to usher in the new era of the peace of
justice. She gives up universal compulsory
service and reduces her army to 100,000
men,
except
measures.
as
regards
temporary
She even renounces the
warships which her enemies are still
spheres
also
Germany's
willing to leave in her hands.
Her chief
stipulates, however, that she shall be
waterways are subjected to international
admitted forthwith as a State with equal
administration; she must construct in her
rights into the League of Nations.
territory such canals and such railways as
stipulates that a genuine League of Nations
her enemies wish; she must agree to
shall come into being, embracing all
treaties the contents of which are unknown
peoples of goodwill, even her enemies of
to her, to be concluded by her enemies with
today. The League must be inspired by a
the new States on the east, even when they
feeling of responsibility toward mankind
concern her own functions. The German
and have at its disposal a power to enforce
people are excluded from the League of
its will sufficiently strong and trusty to
Nations, to which is entrusted all work of
protect the frontiers of its members.
sovereignty is abolished.
common interest to the world.
She
She
2. In territorial questions Germany takes
Thus must a whole people sign the decree
up her position unreservedly on the ground
for its proscription, nay, its own death
of the Wilson program. She renounces her
sentence.
sovereign right in Alsace-Lorraine, but
Germany knows that she must make
sacrifices in order to attain peace.
Germany
knows
that
she
has,
by
agreement, undertaken to make these
wishes a free plebiscite to take place there.
She gives up the greater part of the
province
of
incontestably
Posen,
Polish
the
in
district
population,
together with the capital. She is prepared
budget. For the first ten years the annual
to grant to Poland, under international
payments shall not exceed 1,000,000,000
guarantees, free and secure access to the
gold marks a year. The German taxpayer
sea by ceding free ports at Danzig,
shall not be less heavily burdened than the
Konigsberg, and Memel, by an agreement
taxpayer of the most heavily burdened
regulating the navigation of the Vistula
State among those represented on the
and
Reparation
by
special
railway
conventions.
Commission.
Germany
Germany is prepared to insure the supply
presumes in this connection that she will
of coal for the economic needs of France,
not have to make any territorial sacrifices
especially from the Saar region, until such
beyond those mentioned above and that
time as the French mines are once more in
she will recover her freedom of economic
working order.
movement at home and abroad.
The preponderantly
Danish districts of Schleswig will be given
up to Denmark on the basis of a plebiscite.
Germany demands that the right of selfdetermination shall also be respected
where the interests of the Germans in
Austria and Bohemia are concerned. She
is ready to subject all her colonies to
administration by the community of the
League of Nations, if she is recognized as
its mandatory.
4. Germany is prepared to devote her
entire economic strength to the service of
the
reconstruction.
She
wishes
to
cooperate effectively in the reconstruction
of the devastated regions of Belgium and
Northern France. To make good the loss
in production of the destroyed mines of
Northern France, up to 20,000,000 tons of
coal will be delivered annually for the first
five years, and up to 80,000,000 tons for
3. Germany is prepared to make payments
the next five years. Germany will facilitate
incumbent on her in accordance with the
further deliveries of coal to France,
agreed program of peace up to a maximum
Belgium, Italy, and Luxemburg. Germany
sum of 100,000,000,000 gold marks,
is,
20,000,000,000 by May 1, 1926, and the
considerable deliveries of benzol, coal tar,
balance
and sulphate of ammonia, as well as
payments,
(80,000,000,000)
without
in
interest.
annual
These
payments shall in principle be equal to a
fixed percentage of the German Imperial
and State revenues. The annual payment
shall approximate to the former peace
moreover,
prepared
to
make
dyestuffs and medicines.
5. Finally, Germany offers to put her entire
merchant tonnage into a pool of the
world's shipping, to place at the disposal
of her enemies a part of her freight space
as part payment of reparation and to build
frame of mind for the formation of the
for them for a series of years in German
League of Nations.
yards an amount of tonnage exceeding
their demands.
These are only the most important among
the proposals which we have to make. As
6. In order to replace the river boats
regards other great sacrifices, and also as
destroyed in Belgium and Northern France,
regards the details, the delegation refers to
Germany offers river craft from her own
the accompanying memorandum and the
resources.
annex thereto.
7. Germany thinks that she sees an
The time allowed us for the preparation of
appropriate
prompt
this memorandum was so short that it was
fulfilment of her obligation to make
impossible to treat all the questions
reparations conceding participation in
exhaustively. A fruitful and illuminating
coal mines to insure deliveries of coal.
negotiation could only take place by means
method
for
the
8. Germany, in accordance with the
of oral discussion.
desires of the workers of the whole world,
This treaty of peace is to be the greatest
wishes to insure to them free and equal
achievement of its kind in all history.
rights. She wishes to insure to them in the
There is no precedent for the conduct of
Treaty of Peace the right to take their own
such comprehensive negotiations by an
decisive part in the settlement of social
exchange of written notes only.
policy and social protection.
The feeling of the peoples who have made
9. The German delegation again makes its
such immense sacrifices makes them
demand for a neutral inquiry into the
demand that their fate should be decided
responsibility for the war and culpable
by an open, unreserved exchange of ideas
acts in conduct. An impartial commission
on the principle: "Quite open covenants of
should have the right to investigate on its
peace openly arrived at, after which there
own responsibility the archives of all the
shall
belligerent countries and all the persons
understandings of any kind, but diplomacy
who took an important part in the war.
shall proceed always frankly in the public
Nothing short of confidence that the
view."
question
of
guilt
will
be
examined
dispassionately can leave the peoples
lately at war with each other in the proper
be
no
private
international
Germany is to put her signature to the
treaty laid before her and to carry it out.
Even in her need, justice for her is too
sacred a thing to allow her to stoop to
achieve conditions which she cannot
undertake to carry out.
BROCKDORFF-RANTZAU”cclvi
ANNEX
3:
GEORGES
CLEMENCEAU'S
LETTER
REPLY TO THE OBJECTIONS OF
Treaties of peace signed by the great
THE
powers have, it is true, in the history of the
DELEGATION, MAY 1919
last decades, again and again proclaimed
the right of the stronger. But each of these
OF
GERMAN
PEACE
“Sir:
treaties of peace has been a factor in
The Allied and Associated Powers have
originating and prolonging the world war.
given the most earnest consideration to the
Whenever in this war the victor has spoken
observations of the German Delegation on
to the vanquished, at Brest-Litovsk and
the conditions of peace.
Bucharest, his words were but the seeds of
future discord.
The reply protests against the peace, both
on the ground that it conflicts with the
The lofty aims which our adversaries first
terms
set before themselves in their conduct of
November 11, 1918, was signed, and that it
the war, the new era of an assured peace
is a peace of violence and not of justice.
of justice, demand a treaty instinct with a
different spirit.
upon
which
the
armistice
of
The protest of the German Delegation
shows that they utterly fail to understand
Only the cooperation of all nations, a
the position in which Germany stands
cooperation of hands and spirits, can build
today. They seem to think that Germany
up a durable peace. We are under no
has only to "make sacrifices in order to
delusions regarding the strength of the
attain peace," as if this were but the end of
hatred and bitterness which this war has
some mere struggle for territory and power.
engendered, and yet the forces which are
I
at work for a union of mankind are
stronger now than ever they were before.
The
Allied
and
Associated
Powers
therefore feel it necessary to begin their
The historic task of the Peace Conference
of Versailles is to bring about this union.
Accept, Mr. President, the expression of
my distinguished consideration.
reply by a clear statement of the judgment
passed upon the war by practically the
whole of civilized mankind.
In the view of the Allied and Associated
internal rebellion and unrest and even to
Powers the war which began on August 1,
make secret offensive preparations within
1914, was the greatest crime against
the territory of their neighbours whereby
humanity and the freedom of peoples that
they might, when the moment came, strike
any nation, calling itself civilized, has ever
them down with greater certainty and ease.
consciously committed.
They kept Europe in a ferment by threats of
For many years the rulers of Germany,
violence, and when they found that their
true to the Prussian tradition, strove for a
neighbours were resolved to resist their
position of dominance in Europe.
arrogant will they determined to assist
They
were not satisfied with that growing
prosperity
and
influence
to
which
Germany was entitled, and which all other
nations were willing to accord her, in the
society of free and equal peoples. They
required that they should be able to dictate
and tyrannize to a subservient Europe, as
they dictated and tyrannized over a
subservient Germany.
their predominance in Europe by force.
As soon as their preparations were
complete, they encouraged a subservient
ally to declare war against Serbia at fortyeight hours' notice, knowing full well that a
conflict involving the control of the
Balkans could not be localized and almost
certainly meant a general war. In order to
make doubly sure, they refused every
In order to attain their ends they used
attempt at conciliation and conference
every channel in their power through
until it was too late, and the world war was
which to educate their own subjects in the
inevitable for which they had plotted, and
doctrine
for which alone among the nations they
that
might
was
right
in
international affairs. They never ceased to
expand German armaments by land and
sea, and to propagate the falsehood that
this was necessary because Germany's
neighbours were jealous of her prosperity
and power.
They sought to sow hostility and suspicion
instead of friendship between nations.
They developed a system of espionage and
intrigue which enabled them to stir up
were fully equipped and prepared.
Germany's responsibility, however, is not
confined to having planned and started the
war. She is no less responsible for the
savage and inhuman manner in which it
was conducted.
Though Germany was herself a guarantor
of Belgium, the ruler of Germany violated,
after a solemn promise to respect it, the
neutrality of this unoffending people. Not
content with this, they deliberately carried
sufferings, because Germany saw fit to
out a series of promiscuous shootings and
gratify her lust for tyranny by resort to war.
burnings with the sole object of terrifying
the inhabitants into submission by the very
frightfulness of their action.
The Allied and Associated Powers believe
that they will be false to those who have
given their all to save the freedom of the
They were the first to use poisonous gas,
world if they consent to treat this war on
notwithstanding the appalling suffering it
any other basis than as a crime against
entailed.
humanity and right.
They began the bombing and
long distance shelling of towns for no
military object, but solely for the purpose
of reducing the morale of their opponents
by striking at their women and children.
They commenced the submarine campaign
with its piratical challenge to international
law, and its destruction of great numbers
of innocent passengers and sailors, in mid-
This attitude of the Allied and Associated
Powers was made perfectly clear to
Germany during the war by their principal
statesmen.
It was defined by President
Wilson in his speech of April 6, 1918, and
explicitly and categorically accepted by the
German people as a principle governing
the peace:
ocean, far from succour, at the mercy of
the winds and the waves, and the yet more
Let everything that we say, my fellow
ruthless submarine crews.
countrymen, everything that we henceforth
They drove thousands of men and women
and children with brutal savagery into
slavery in foreign lands.
They allowed
barbarities to be practiced against their
prisoners of war from which the most
uncivilized peoples would have recoiled.
The conduct of Germany is almost
unexampled in human history. The terrible
responsibility which lies at her doors can
be seen in the fact that not less than seven
million dead lie buried in Europe, while
more than twenty million others carry
upon them the evidence of wounds and
plan and accomplish, ring true to this
response till the majesty and might of our
concerted power shall fill the thought and
utterly defeat the force of those who flout
and misprize what we honour and hold
dear.
Germany has once more said that force,
and force alone, shall decide whether
justice and peace shall reign in the affairs
of
men,
whether
Right
as
America
conceives it or Dominion as she conceives
it shall determine the destinies of mankind.
There is, therefore, but one response
It was made clear also in an address of M.
possible from us: Force, Force to the
Clemenceau of September, 1918:
utmost, Force without stint or limit,
righteous and triumphant Force which
shall make Right the law of the world, and
cast every selfish dominion down in the
dust.
What do they (the French soldiers) want?
What do we ourselves want? To fight, to
fight victoriously and unceasingly, until the
hour when the enemy shall understand that
no compromise is possible between such
It was set forth clearly in a speech of the
crime and 'justice.' ... We only seek peace,
Prime Minister of Great UK, of December
and we wish to make it just and permanent
14, 1917:
in order that future generations may he
There is no security in any land without
certainty of punishment.
There is no
protection for life, property, or money in a
state where the criminal is more powerful
than the law.
saved from the abominations of the past.
Similarly, Signor Orlando, speaking on
October 3, 1918, declared:
We shall obtain peace when our enemies
recognize that humanity has the right and
The law of nations is no exception, and
duty
until it has been vindicated, the peace of
continuation of such causes as have
the world will always be at the mercy of
brought about this terrible slaughter; and
any
have
that the blood of millions of men calls not
assiduously taught it to believe that no
for vengeance but for the realization of
crime is wrong so long as it leads to the
those high ideals for which it has been so
aggrandizement and enrichment of the
generously shed.
nation
whose
professors
country to which they owe allegiance.
to
safeguard
itself
against
a
Nobody thinks of employing - even by way
There have been many times in the history
of legitimate retaliation - methods of brutal
of the world criminal states.
We are
violence or of overbearing domination or
dealing with one of them now. And there
of suffocation of the freedom of any people
will always be criminal states until the
- methods and policies which made the
reward of international crime becomes too
whole world rise against the Central
precarious to make it profitable, and the
Powers.
punishment of international crime becomes
too sure to make it attractive.
But nobody will contend that the moral
order can be restored simply because he
who fails in his iniquitous endeavour
German conduct of the war, must be
declares that he has renounced his aim.
handed over to a justice which has not
Questions intimately affecting the peaceful
been meted out to them at home.
life of nations, once raised, must obtain the
solution which justice requires.
That, too, is why Germany must submit for
a few years to certain special disabilities
Justice, therefore, is the only possible basis
and arrangements. Germany has ruined
for the settlement of the accounts of this
the
terrible war. Justice is what the German
machinery of neighbouring countries, not
Delegation asks for and say that Germany
during battle, but with the deliberate and
had been promised.
calculated
Justice is what Germany shall have. But it
must be justice for all.
There must be
justice for the dead and wounded and for
those who have been orphaned and
industries,
the
purpose
mines,
of
and
enabling
the
her
industries to seize their markets before
their industries could recover from the
devastation thus wantonly inflicted upon
them.
bereaved that Europe might be freed from
Germany has despoiled her neighbours of
Prussian despotism. There must be justice
everything she could make use of or carry
for the peoples who now stagger under
away.
war debts which exceed 130,000,000,000
shipping of all nations on the high seas,
that liberty might be saved. There must be
where there was no chance of rescue for
justice for those millions whose homes and
their passengers and crews.
lands,
justice that restitution should be made and
ships
and
property
German
savagery has spoliated and destroyed.
That is why the Allied and Associated
Powers have insisted as a cardinal feature
of the treaty that Germany must undertake
to make reparation to the very uttermost of
Germany has destroyed the
It is only
that these wronged peoples should be
safeguarded
for
a
time
from
the
competition of a nation whose industries
are intact and have even been fortified by
machinery stolen from occupied territories.
her power; for reparation for wrongs
If these things are hardships for Germany,
inflicted is of the essence of justice. That is
they are hardships which Germany has
why they insist that those individuals who
brought upon herself.
are most clearly responsible for German
suffer for the consequences of the war. Is
aggression and for those acts of barbarism
it to be Germany, or only the peoples she
and inhumanity which have disgraced the
has wronged?
Somebody must
Not to do justice to all concerned would
subscribed to the war loans, obeyed every
only leave the world open to fresh
order,
calamities.
government.
If
the
German
people
however
savage,
They
of
their
shared
the
themselves, or any other nation, are to be
responsibility for the policy of their
deterred from following the footsteps of
government, for at any moment, had they
Prussia, if mankind is to be lifted out of the
willed it, they could have reversed it.
belief that war for selfish ends is legitimate
to any state, if the old era is to be left
behind and nations as well as individuals
are to be brought beneath the reign of law,
even if there is to be early reconciliation
and appeasement, it will be because those
responsible for concluding the war have
had the courage to see that justice is not
Had that policy succeeded they would have
acclaimed it with the same enthusiasm with
which they welcomed the outbreak of the
war.
They cannot now pretend, having
changed their rulers after the war was lost,
that it is justice that they should escape the
consequences of their deeds.
deflected for the sake of convenient peace.
II
It is said that the German Revolution ought
The
to make a difference and that the German
therefore believe that the peace they have
people are not responsible for the policy of
proposed is fundamentally a peace of
the rulers whom they have thrown from
justice.
power.
The
Allied
Allied
and
Associated
Powers
They are no less certain that it is a peace
and
Associated
Powers
of right fulfilling the terms agreed upon at
It
the time of the armistice. There can be no
represents a great hope for peace, and for
doubt as to the intentions of the Allied and
a new European order in the future. But it
Associated Powers to base the settlement
cannot affect the settlement of the war
of Europe on the principle of freeing
itself. The German Revolution was stayed
oppressed peoples, and redrawing national
until the German armies had been defeated
boundaries
in the field, and all hope of profiting by the
accordance with the will of the peoples
war of conquest had vanished.
concerned, while giving to each facilities
recognize and welcome the change.
Throughout the war, as before the war, the
German people and their representatives
supported the war, voted the credits,
as
far
as
possible
in
for living an independent national and
economic life.
These intentions were made clear, not only
The German counter-proposals entirely
in President Wilson's address to Congress
conflict with the agreed basis of peace.
of January 8, 1918, but in "the principles
They provide that great majorities of
of settlement enunciated in his subsequent
indisputably Polish population shall be
addresses" which were the agreed basis of
kept under German rule.
the peace. A memorandum on this point is
attached to this letter.
They deny secure access to the sea to a
nation of over twenty million people,
Accordingly the Allied and Associated
whose nationals are in the majority all the
Powers
the
way to the coast, in order to maintain
reconstitution of Poland as an independent
territorial connection between East and
state with "free and secure access to the
West Prussia, whose trade has always
sea."
been mainly seaborne.
have
All
provided
"territories
for
inhabited
by
They cannot,
indubitably Polish populations" have been
therefore, be accepted by the Allied and
accorded
Associated Powers.
to
Poland.
All
territory
inhabited by German majorities, save for a
few isolated towns and for colonies
established on land recently forcibly
expropriated and situated in the midst of
indubitably Polish territory, has been left
to Germany.
At the same time, in certain cases the
German note has established a case for
rectification, which will be made; and in
view of the contention that Upper Silesia,
though inhabited by a two to one majority
of Poles (1,250,000 to 650,000, 1910
Wherever the will of the people is in doubt
German census), wishes to remain a part
a plebiscite has been provided for. The
of Germany, they are willing that the
town of Danzig is to be constituted a free
question of whether Upper Silesia should
city, so that the inhabitants will be
form part of Germany or of Poland should
autonomous and not come under Polish
be
rule and will form no part of the Polish
inhabitants themselves.
state.
Poland will be given certain
economic rights in Danzig and the city
itself has been severed from Germany
because in no other way was it possible to
provide for that "free and secure access to
the sea" which Germany has promised to
concede.
determined
by
the
vote
of
the
In regard to the Saar basin, the regime
proposed by the Allied and Associated
Powers is to continue for fifteen years.
This
arrangement
they
considered
necessary both to the general scheme for
reparation, and in order that France may
have immediate and certain compensation
traditions of the German Government and
for the wanton destruction of her northern
the use to which these colonies were put as
coal mines.
The district has been
bases from which to prey upon the
transferred not to French sovereignty, but
commerce of the world, make it impossible
to the control of the League of Nations.
for the Allied and Associated Powers to
This method has the double advantage that
it involves no annexation, while it gives
possession of the coal field to France and
return them to Germany, or to entrust to
her the responsibility for the training and
education of their inhabitants.
maintains the economic unity of the district,
For
so important to the interests of the
Associated Powers are satisfied that their
inhabitants. At the end of fifteen years the
territorial proposals are in accord both
mixed population, who in the meanwhile
with the agreed basis of peace and are
will have had control of its own local
necessary to the future peace of Europe.
affairs under the governing supervision of
They are therefore not prepared to modify
the League of Nations, will have complete
them except as indicated.
freedom to decide whether they wish union
these
reasons,
the
Allied
and
III
with Germany, union with France, or the
continuance of the regime established by
Arising out of the territorial settlement are
the treaty.
the proposals in regard to international
As to the territories which it is proposed to
transfer from Germany to Denmark and
Belgium, some of these were forcibly
seized by Prussia, and in every case the
transfer will only take place as the result of
a decision of the inhabitants themselves,
control of rivers. It is clearly in accord
with the agreed basis of the peace and the
established public law of Europe that
inland states should have secure access to
the sea along navigable rivers flowing
through their territory.
taken under conditions which will insure
The Allied and Associated Powers believe
complete freedom to vote.
that the arrangements which they propose
Finally, the Allied and Associated Powers
are satisfied that the native inhabitants of
the German colonies are strongly opposed
to being again brought under Germany's
sway, and the record of German rule, the
are vital to the free life of the new inland
states that are being established and that
they are no derogation from the rights of
the other riparian states.
If viewed
according to the discredited doctrine that
every state is engaged in a desperate
struggle
for
ascendancy
over
its
neighbours, no doubt such arrangement
may be an impediment to the artificial
strangling of a rival.
interests of the nations ravaged and
weakened by German action.
It is their desire that the passions
engendered by the war should die as soon
But if it be the ideal that nations are to
as possible, and that all nations should
cooperate in the ways of commerce and
share in the prosperity which comes from
peace, it is natural and right.
The
the honest supply of their mutual needs.
of
They wish that Germany shall enjoy this
representatives of non-riparian states on
prosperity like the rest, though much of the
these river commissions is security that the
fruit of it must necessarily go, for many
general interest will be considered. In the
years to come, in making reparation to her
application of these principles, some
neighbours for the damage she has done.
provisions
for
the
presence
modifications have however been made in
the original proposals.
number of modifications have been made
IV
in the financial and economic clauses of
The German Delegation appear to have
seriously misinterpreted the economic and
financial conditions. There is no intention
on the part of the Allied and Associated
Powers to strangle Germany or to prevent
her from taking her proper place in
international trade and commerce.
Provided that she abides by the treaty of
peace and provided also that she abandons
those aggressive and exclusive traditions
which have been apparent no less in her
business than in her political methods, the
Allied and Associated Powers intend that
Germany shall have fair treatment in the
purchase of raw materials and the sale of
goods,
In order to make their intention clear, a
subject
provisions
to
already
those
temporary
mentioned
in
the
the treaty. But the principles upon which
the treaty is drawn must stand.
V
The German Delegation have greatly
misinterpreted the reparation proposals of
the treaty.
These proposals confine the amount
payable by Germany to what is clearly
justifiable under the terms of armistice in
respect of damage caused to the civilian
population of the Allies by German
aggression. They do not provide for that
interference in the internal life of Germany
by the Reparation Commission which is
alleged.
They are designed to make the payment of
The Allied and Associated Powers have
that reparation which Germany must pay
given careful consideration to the request
as easy and convenient to both parties as
of the German Delegation that Germany
possible and they will be interpreted in
should at once be admitted to the League
that sense.
of Nations. They find themselves unable to
The Allied and Associated
Powers therefore are not prepared to
modify them.
accede to this request.
The German Revolution was postponed to
But they recognize with the German
the last moments of the war and there is as
Delegation the advantage of arriving as
yet no guarantee that it represents a
soon as possible at the fixed and definite
permanent change.
sum which shall be payable by Germany
and accepted by the Allies.
It is not
possible to fix this sum today, for the extent
of damage and the cost of repair have not
yet been ascertained.
In the present temper of international
feeling, it is impossible to expect the free
nations
of
the
world
to
sit
down
immediately in equal association with
those by whom they have been so
They are therefore willing to accord to
grievously wronged. To attempt this too
Germany all necessary and reasonable
soon would delay and not hasten that
facilities to enable her to survey the
process of appeasement which all desire.
devastated and damaged regions, and to
make proposals thereafter within four
months of the signing of the treaty for a
settlement of the claims under each of the
categories of damage for which she is
liable.
But the Allied and Associated Powers
believe that if the German people prove by
their acts that they intend to fulfil the
conditions of the peace, and that they have
abandoned
those
aggressive
and
estranging policies which caused the war,
If, within the following two months, an
and now have become a people with whom
agreement can be reached, the exact
it is possible to live in neighbourly good
liability of Germany will have been
fellowship, the memories of the past years
ascertained.
If agreement has not been
will speedily fade, and it will be possible at
reached by then, the arrangement as
an early date to complete the League of
provided in the treaty will be executed.
Nations by the admission of Germany
VI
thereto.
It is their earnest hope that this may be the
the assertions made in the German note.
case. They believe that the prospects of the
The fact that some observations have been
world depend upon the close and friendly
passed over in silence does not indicate,
cooperation of all nations in adjusting
however, that they are either admitted or
international questions and promoting the
open to discussion.
welfare and progress of mankind. But the
early entry of Germany into the League
VIII
must depend principally upon the action of
In conclusion the Allied and Associated
the German people themselves.
Powers must make it clear that this letter
and the memorandum attached constitute
VII
their last word.
In the course of its discussion of their
economic
terms,
and
elsewhere,
the
German Delegation have repeated their
denunciation of the blockade instituted by
the Allied and Associated Powers.
Blockade is and always has been a legal
and recognized method of war, and its
operation has from time to time been
adapted
to
changes
in
international
communications.
They
have
examined
the
German
observations and counter-proposals with
earnest attention and care. They have, in
consequence, made important practical
concessions, but in its principles, they
stand by the treaty.
They believe that it is not only a just
settlement of the great war, but that it
provides the basis upon which the peoples
of Europe can live together in friendship
If the Allied and Associated Powers have
and equality. At the same time it creates
imposed upon Germany a blockade of
the machinery for the peaceful adjustment
exceptional severity, which throughout
of all international problems by discussion
they have consistently sought to conform to
and consent, whereby the settlement of
the principles of international law, it is
1919, itself can be modified from time to
because of the criminal character of the
time to suit new facts and new conditions
war initiated by Germany and of the
as they arise.
barbarous methods adopted by her in
prosecuting it.
It is frankly not based upon a general
condonation of the events of 1914-1918. It
The Allied and Associated Powers have not
would not be a peace of justice if it were.
attempted to make a specific answer to all
But it represents a sincere and deliberate
attempt to establish "that reign of law,
arrangements will be made for the
based upon the consent of the governed,
immediate signature of the peace at
and sustained by the organized opinion of
Versailles.
mankind" which was the agreed basis of
the peace.
In default of such a declaration, this
communication constitutes the notification
As such the treaty in its present form must
provided for in Article II of the Convention
be accepted or rejected.
of February 16, 1919, prolonging the
The
Allied
and
Associated
Powers
therefore require a declaration from the
German Delegation within five days from
the date of this communication that they
are prepared to sign the treaty as it stands
today.
If they declare within this period that they
are prepared to sign the treaty as it stands,
armistice which was signed on November
11, 1918, and has already been prolonged
by the agreement of December 13, 1918,
and January 16, 1919. The said armistice
will then terminate, and the Allied and
Associated Powers will take such steps as
they think needful to enforce their terms.
French text signed: CLEMENCEAU.”cclvii
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lxxiii
Ibid.
lxxiv
Ibid.
lxxv
Ibid.
lxxvi
Ibid.
lxxvii
Ibid.
lxxviii
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lxxix
Ibid.
lxxx
Ibid.
lxxxi
Ibid.
lxxxii
Ibid.
lxxxiii
Ibid.
lxxxiv
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lxxxv
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lxxxvi
Ibid.
lxxxvii
Ibid.
lxxxviii
Ibid.
lxxxix
Ibid.
xc
Ibid.
xci
Ibid.
xcii
Ibid.
xciii
Ibid.
xciv
Ibid.
xcv
Ibid.
xcvi
Ibid.
xcvii
Ibid.
xcviii
Ibid.
xcix
Ibid.
c
Ibid.
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Ibid.
cii
Ibid.
ciii
Ibid.
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Ibid.
cv
Ibid.
cvi
Ibid.
cvii
Ibid.
cviii
Ibid.
cix
Ibid.
lv
cx
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cxii
Ibid.
cxiii
Ibid.
cxiv
Ibid.
cxv
Ibid.
cxvi
Ibid.
cxvii
Ibid.
cxviii
Ibid.
cxix
Ibid.
cxx
Ibid.
cxxi
Ibid.
cxxii
Ibid.
cxxiii
Ibid.
cxxiv
Ibid.
cxxv
Ibid.
cxxvi
Ibid.
cxxvii
Ibid.
cxxviii
Ibid.
cxxix
Ibid.
cxxx
Ibid.
cxxxi
Ibid.
cxxxii
Ibid.
cxxxiii
Ibid.
cxxxiv
Ibid.
cxxxv
Ibid.
cxxxvi
Ibid.
cxxxvii
Ibid.
cxxxviii
Ibid.
cxxxix
Ibid.
cxl
Ibid.
cxli
Ibid.
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cxliv
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cxlv
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cxlvi
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cxlvii
Ibid.
cxlviii
Ibid.
cxlix
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Ibid.
cliv
Ibid.
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clviii
Ibid.
clix
Ibid.
clx
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clxii
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clxiii
http://www.historyofwar.org/articles/wars_wwI.html
clxiv
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clxv
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clxvi
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clxvii
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clxviii
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clxix
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clxx
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clxxi
Lutz, R. H. 1969. Fall of the German Empire, 1914-1918. New York: Octagon Books.
clxxii
Ibid.
clxxiii
Ibid.
clxxiv
Lutz, R. H. 1968. The German Revolution, 1918-1919. New York: AMS Press.
clxxv
Ibid.
clxxvi
Lutz, R. H. 1969. Fall of the German Empire, 1914-1918. New York: Octagon Books.
clxxvii
Lutz, R. H. 1968. The German Revolution, 1918-1919. New York: AMS Press.
clxxviii
Lutz, R. H. 1969. Fall of the German Empire, 1914-1918. New York: Octagon Books.
clxxix
Ibid.
clxxx
Ibid.
clxxxi
Ibid.
clxxxii
Lutz, R. H. 1968. The German Revolution, 1918-1919. New York: AMS Press.
clxxxiii
Ibid.
clxxxiv
Ibid.
clxxxv
GERMAN BUNDESTAG. The November revolution, 1918/1919. [online] Available at:
http://www.bundestag.de/htdocs_e/artandhistory/history/factsheets/november_revolution.pdf [Accessed: 7
February 2014]
clxxxvi
Ibid.
clxxxvii
Ibid.
clxxxviii
Ibid.
clxxxix
Ibid.
cxc
Ibid.
cxci
Ibid.
cxcii
Ibid.
cxciii
Ibid.
cxciv
Ibid.
cxcv
Ibid.
cxcvi
Ibid.
cxcvii
GERMAN BUNDESTAG. The political parties in the Weimar Republic. [online] Available at:
http://www.bundestag.de/htdocs_e/artandhistory/history/factsheets/parties_weimar_republic.pdf [Accessed: 8
February 2014]
cxcviii
Ibid.
cxcix
Ibid.
cc
Ibid.
cci
Ibid.
ccii
Ibid.
cciii
Ibid.
cciv
Ibid.
ccv
Bartsch, K. and Bundestag, D. 2014. German Bundestag: The Weimar Republic (1918 - 1933). [online]
Available at: http://www.bundestag.de/htdocs_e/artandhistory/history/parliamentarism/weimar/index.html
ccvi
Bartsch, K. and Bundestag, D. 2014. German Bundestag: The Weimar Republic (1918 - 1933). [online]
Available at: http://www.bundestag.de/htdocs_e/artandhistory/history/parliamentarism/weimar/index.html
[Accessed: 16 Feb 2014].
ccvii
Nohlen, D. 2007. Elections in Europe. Oxford [u.a.]: Oxford University Press.
ccviii
Bundesarchiv.de. 2014. "Akten der Reichskanzlei. Weimarer Republik" Online "II" (1.2:). [online] Available
at: http://www.bundesarchiv.de/aktenreichskanzlei/1919-1933/00a/sch/sch1p/kap1_1/para2_2.html [Accessed:
16 Feb 2014].
ccix
Bartsch, K. and Bundestag, D. 2014. German Bundestag: The Weimar Republic (1918 - 1933). [online]
Available at: http://www.bundestag.de/htdocs_e/artandhistory/history/parliamentarism/weimar/index.html
[Accessed: 16 Feb 2014].
ccx
Das Kabinett Scheidemann - 13. Februar bis 20. Juni 1919, bearbeitet von Hagen Schulze, Boppard am
Rhein (Haraldt Boldt Verlag) 1971 (= Akten der Reichskanzlei, 1)
ccxi
Bundesarchiv.de. 2014. "Akten der Reichskanzlei. Weimarer Republik" Online"II" (1.2:). [online] Available
at: http://www.bundesarchiv.de/aktenreichskanzlei/1919-1933/0a1/sch/sch1p/kap1_1/para2_2.html [Accessed:
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ccxii
Bundesarchiv.de. 2014. "Akten der Reichskanzlei. Weimarer Republik" Online "IV" (1.4:). [online] Available
at: http://www.bundesarchiv.de/aktenreichskanzlei/1919-1933/0000/sch/sch1p/kap1_1/para2_4.html#Start
[Accessed: 10 February 2014].
ccxiii
Ibid.
ccxiv
Ibid.
ccxv
Ibid.
ccxvi
Ibid.
ccxvii
Ibid.
ccxviii
Ibid.
ccxix
Ibid.
ccxx
Ibid.
ccxxi
Ibid.
ccxxii
Ibid.
ccxxiii
Ibid.
ccxxiv
Ibid.
ccxxv
Ibid.
ccxxvi
Ibid.
ccxxvii
Ibid.
ccxxviii
Ibid.
ccxxix
Ibid.
ccxxx
Ibid.
ccxxxi
Ibid.
ccxxxii
Braun, B. 2011. Die Weimarer Reichskanzler. Düsseldorf: Droste.
ccxxxiii
Gellinek, C. 2006. Philipp Scheidemann. Münster: Waxmann.
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ccxxxv
Werner Conze: Brockdorff-Rantzau, Ulrich Karl Christian Graf. In: Neue Deutsche Biographie (NDB).
Band 2, Duncker & Humblot, Berlin 1955, ISBN 3-428-00183-4, S. 620 f.
ccxxxvi
Hedwig Hintze: Hugo Preuß. Eine historisch-politische Charakteristik, in: Die Justiz, Bd. 2 (1927), S. 223237.
ccxxxvii
Maria Keipert (Red.): Biographisches Handbuch des deutschen Auswärtigen Dienstes 1871–
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ccxxxviii
Michael Schneider: Rudolf Wissell (1869–1962). Sozialpolitische Portraits. In: Vierteljahresschrift für
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ccxxxix
Martin Schumacher, Katharina Lübbe, Wilhelm Heinz Schröder M.d.R. Die Reichstagsabgeordneten der
Weimarer Republik in der Zeit des Nationalsozialismus. Politische Verfolgung, Emigration und Ausbürgerung,
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ccxl
Rintelen, K. 1993. Ein undemokratischer Demokrat. Frankfurt am Main: P. Lang.
ccxli
Bernhard Fulda, Die Politik der »Unpolitischen«. Boulevard und Massenpresse in den zwanziger und
dreißiger Jahren, in:Frank Bösch und Norbert Frei (Hrsg.), Medialisierung und Demokratie im 20. Jahrhundert,
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ccxlii
Noske, G. 1920. Von Kiel bis Kapp. Berlin: Verlag für Politik und Wirtschaft.
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Humblot, Berlin 2003, ISBN 3-428-11202-4, S. 363
cclii
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Ibid.