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Writing Across the Curriculum 1. Acquire a copy of a job application from a local business and complete the application form. 2. Write to a student in another part of West Virginia to find out the types of jobs that are available in that area. Share this information with your classmates and then compile a composite chart with the information you and your classmates have gathered. 3. Write a journal entry explaining what job you would like after your graduation from high school or college. Exploring the Internet 1. Use a search engine to find the most recent statistics about tourism in West Virginia. new technology opportunities in West Virginia. Make a scrapbook of the articles you find. 3. Write a marketing slogan for a tourist attraction in West Virginia. 4. Make a list of the tourist attractions in your community or your county. Create an advertising brochure to encourage more tourists to visit one of those attractions. 5. Use the yellow pages in the telephone book to find examples of manufacturing industries in your community. If there are none, make a list of the service businesses in your community. Did You Know...? • When the World Rafting Championship was held Using Your Skills 1. Make a chart showing the eight categories of nonfarm workers described in the chapter. Research to find occupations other than those listed in the textbook for each category and record those occupations on the chart. 2. Clip articles from the daily newspaper that show • • on the New and Gauley rivers in West Virginia in 2001, it marked the first time that the event was held in North America. West Virginia's nationally recognized Rails to Trails project includes more than 1,000 miles of tourist trails that can be used by hikers, bikers, and equestrians. West Virginia hosts more than two hundred fairs and festivals each year. Building Skills: Distinguishing Fact from Opinion It is important for all of us to be able to tell the difference between facts and opinions. A fact can be proven by examining it against other information or by your own observations or research. For example, “West Virginia has thirty-seven state parks” is a statement of fact. You can prove it by calling the Division of Tourism or researching its website. An opinion is something a person thinks, believes, or feels is true. For example, “All tourists love to come to West Virginia” is a statement of personal opinion. Others may believe that statement, but it is still a personal opinion. Examine the following statements carefully. Then decide which of the statements are fact and which are opinion. 1. West Virginia’s whitewater rafting is the best in the world. 2. West Virginia has something for all tourists. 3. The development of tourism is good for West Virginia’s economy. 4. Every community has the potential for tourism. 5. West Virginia has more than 250 maintained public trails. 6. West Virginia is truly wild and wonderful. 7. All jobs in tourism are low paying. 8. West Virginia needs to do a better job marketing tourism. 9. West Virginia tourism attracted 21.3 million visitors in 2000. 10. West Virginia’s rural roads discourage visitors from coming to the Mountain State. Chapter Review 357 The Development of Labor Our fellow miners and workers on Paint Creek are fighting for living conditions and against the “Guard System” maintained by the coal operators of this State. . . . Organize yourselves for mutual protection. —Committee of Cabin Creek, 1912 T he struggle for better working conditions and the right to organize unions has been a long one. The rapid industrialization of a previously rural area, the types of industries, the uneven growth and distribution of population, and the individualism of both owners and workers are important factors in the labor movement in West Virginia. Labor unions evolved as workers searched for ways to work with the powerful business community and to protect themselves from discriminatory and sometimes unfair decisions. A labor union is an organization of workers formed to improve wages, benefits, and working conditions for the workers. Many groups, including shoemakers, printers, glass workers, carpenters, and ironworkers, have joined together to form national labor organizations. Businesses have often tried to break the unions, sometimes with the help of the courts. Although West Virginia workers joined a number of unions, the struggle between the United Mine Workers of America and the coal operators greatly influenced the national union movement. The mining industry has been the scene of bitter conflict, violence, and tragedy. Early Working Conditions For most West Virginians in the late 1800s and early 1900s, the workplace was a harsh and dreary place. Coal mines were the largest employers, and mine owners totally controlled their workers. Many miners worked twelve or more hours each day and received as little as 25 cents for a carload of coal. Working conditions were unsafe. 358 West Virginia: The History of an American State Above: Coal miners have probably had the greatest impact on the labor movement in West Virginia. Explosions, cave-ins, slate falls, gas-filled mines, water seepage, and small working areas were common and contributed to the hard life of West Virginia miners. Between 1890 and 1912, West Virginia had the highest rate of mine deaths in the United States. Outside the mines, conditions were little better. Miners lived in company houses, shopped at company stores, and received their pay The Development of Labor 359 Chapter Preview Terms: labor union, scrip, yellow-dog contract, lockout, blacklist, strike, depression, injunction, scab, cribbing, mechanization, martial law, ultimatum, precedent, collective bargaining, commute, New Deal, National Industrial Recovery Act,Wagner Act, workers compensation,TaftHartley Act, right-to-work law People: Knights of Labor, Uriah S. Stephens,Terrence Powderly,American Federation of Labor, Samuel Gompers, United Mine Workers of America, Mary Harris “Mother” Jones,West Virginia Federation of Labor, Henry Hatfield, John L. Lewis, Sid Hatfield, Congress of Industrial Organizations,Walter Reuther Places: Monongah, Paint Creek, Cabin Creek, Holly Grove, Matewan, Blair Mountain, Buffalo Creek in company scrip instead of U.S. currency. Scrip (tokens or paper certificates) could only be used in a company store. Companies used many tactics to control their workers’ lives. Before being hired, all miners had to sign a yellow-dog contract by which they pledged not to join a union. If the miners broke the pledge, they were automatically fired. If fired, they lost not only their jobs but also a place to live. If workers complained about conditions, they were not only fired, but their names were also placed on a blacklist. A blacklist contains the names of individuals or companies to be avoided or punished. Other mining companies would not hire “troublemakers” on this list. Sometimes companies even used a lockout to keep their workers out of the work place. Although coal mines were among the harshest workplaces, conditions for workers in the timber and steel industries were not much better. Only in workplaces where special skills were essential were the workers able to organize to improve their surroundings. Because of their unique skills, glass blowers, construction workers, ironworkers, and machinists enjoyed better lifestyles. To fight their dismal working conditions, miners realized they too needed a voice and power. Right: Mining was difficult, dangerous work. Explosions, cave-ins, slate falls, gas, and water seepage were common. 360 Chapter 18: The Development of Labor Did You Know...? First Strike Michael Owens, who discovered a way to make glass bottles by machine, was unable to find work in glass plants in Wheeling because of his involvement with unions. An individual worker had little power. But workers could join together and stop working until the employer treated them fairly. Such an action was called a strike. Strikes were the most important weapon that workers struggling to improve their working conditions had. Railroad workers led the first major strike in West Virginia. In 1873, a disastrous depression spread across the country. Factory output decreased as businesses failed. The decline in production led to a rise in unemployment. The effects of unemployment spread out like ripples in a pond. With no wages, workers could not pay rent or buy food, which in turn took more money out of circulation. Many of those who were lucky enough to keep their jobs had their wages cut. Thousands of people found themselves hungry and homeless. Because times were hard, violence often broke out. The Baltimore and Ohio Railroad had a train yard at Martinsburg in Berkeley County. In July 1877, the B&O announced a wage cut for the fourth time in seven years. Workers became angry and left their trains to go on strike. After the company hired new employees to run the trains, the strikers gathered on the tracks and refused to allow the trains to operate. 1903 WVFL formed 1902 Mother Jones first took part in strike in state 1907 Monongah mine disaster 1935 WV passed workers compensation 1939 WV passed child labor law 1912 Paint Creek strikes 1890 UMWA formed 1942 UMWA withdrew from CIO 1877 First strike in West Virginia 1860 1869 Knights of Labor formed 1880 1900 1886 AFL formed 1894 First Monday in September designated Labor Day 1920 1917 U.S. Supreme Court legalized yellow-dog contracts Figure 21 Timeline: 1860-2000 1940 1935 CIO established; Wagner Act passed 1960 1972 Buffalo Creek disaster 1980 2000 1955 AFL-CIO merger 1947 Taft-Hartley Act passed 1993 Labor-Management Positive Change Program created Early Working Conditions 361 Above: In 1877, angry B&O Railroad workers at Martinsburg organized a strike to protest the fourth cut in wages in seven years. The strike was squelched in West Virginia, but it spread nationally throughout the rail industry. When the sheriff could not control the strikers, the mayor of Martinsburg telegraphed Governor Henry Mathews for help. By law, the governor was required to protect the company’s property, and he immediately ordered the state militia to Martinsburg. The militia’s first attempt to quiet the strikers ended in gunfire and withdrawal. The head of the militia wired Mathews that many men in his unit were railroad men and that they could not be depended on to break up the strikers. The governor turned for help to President Rutherford B. Hayes, who sent two hundred infantry. This was probably the first time federal troops were used for this purpose. The troops arrived in Martinsburg on July 19, and the strike ended the next day. The strike accomplished nothing for the workers, whose wages were further reduced when they returned to their jobs. Though broken in West Virginia, the strike spread nationally. The great railroad strike of 1877 was but a small sample of the coming labor unrest in West Virginia. Early Labor Unions Labor unrest increased dramatically in the late 1800s as larger and larger companies spread industry throughout the country. If workers went on strike in one area, companies could still operate in other 362 Chapter 18: The Development of Labor Preserving Our Heritage John Henry R ailroads played an important part in the industrial development of West Virginia. However, building a railroad to serve the coalfields presented a particular problem. Decisions had to be made whether to go over, around, or through the Appalachian Mountains. In 1872, just outside Talcott in Summers County, the decision was made to tunnel through the mountains. This decision gave rise to the legend of John Henry, the steel-driving man. When digging a tunnel, rock must first be blasted out of the way. A team of three people—the driver, the shaker, and the powder monkey—performed this job. The driver used a sledgehammer to strike a steel drill held by the shaker. This drove a hole in the rock, into which the powder monkey placed the explosives used to shatter the rock. The shaker held and rotated the drill, while the driver swung in rhythm, usually accompanied by song. According to the legend, John Henry was a hard-working steel driver who, it was said, swung two hammers simultaneously, doing the work of two or more men. At some point during construction on the Chesapeake and Ohio Railroad’s Great Bend Tunnel, railroad officials brought in a steam drill to speed up work on the project. Unhappy with this addition to the workforce, John Henry allegedly challenged the steam drill to a race in an effort to prove the superiority of man over machine. The challenge was accepted, a contest was set, and wagers were made. When the contest began, the machine quickly surged ahead. John Henry, however, did not appear to worry. He calmly and steadily drove steel, and in no time he began to catch up to the machine. The contest continued throughout the day. Steam hissed from the machine. Sounds of steel on steel came from John Henry’s two 20pound hammers. As the day neared its end, the steam machine hissed, sputtered, and finally stopped. John Henry, proud and triumphant, continued to drive steel as if to flaunt his superior strength. Legend has it that the steel-driving man continued swinging his hammers until he collapsed, reportedly from exhaustion, and died. Near Talcott, the Great Bend Tunnel stands as a monument to this West Virginia folk hero. In Talcott, there is a monument to recognize the accomplishments of this “steel-driving man.” John Henry: This statue of John Henry sits atop the mountain through which the Big Bend Tunnel runs. John Henry 363 areas, which weakened the power of the strike. Workers fought back by forming nationwide labor organizations. But workers in each trade also realized that they had much in common with workers in other trades, and they began to experiment with a national federation of all labor unions. The first national federation was the Noble and Holy Order of the Knights of Labor, created in 1869. Established by Uriah S. Stephens and six other men, the organization began as a secret group to protect the jobs of its members. The union’s goal was to unite all workers regardless of race, gender, or occupation. For a period in the 1870s and 1880s, the Knights of Labor was the leading labor federation. In 1879, Terrence Powderly took over as Grand Master Workman of the Knights of Labor. Under his leadership, membership increased, and the union led a successful strike against the railroad industry. The Knights’ leadership, however, seemed confused at times about what it wanted to achieve. It was often blamed for actions it did not approve, and, by 1887, the union was losing members. A new federation of trade unions, begun in 1881, filled the vacuum left by the Knights’ decline. The American Federation of Labor (AFL), as it became known in 1886, was a loose alliance of other national unions. Workers joined their trade’s union, which in turn became an affiliate (branch) of the AFL. Samuel Gompers founded the American Federation of Labor and helped stabilize union activity in the United States. 364 Chapter 18: The Development of Labor The founder of the AFL, Samuel Gompers, helped stabilize American unionism. Many early unions had been weak and poorly financed; the first failed strike ruined them. Some of the unions even wanted workers to take over American industry. Gompers had a different vision. He was satisfied with industry remaining in the hands of private investors. He only wanted unions to be in a stronger bargaining position. Under Gompers’s guidance, unions adopted policies that enabled workers to lead successful strikes, and the AFL grew. Do You Remember? 1. What was the weapon adopted by unions to fight employers’ unjust labor practices? 2. In what industry was the first strike in West Virginia? 3. What organization did Samuel Gompers head? Unionism Comes to West Virginia Although West Virginia had local unions representing workers in many industries, much of the early conflict occurred in the largest industry —coal mining. Below: The Ehlen mines are typical of those found throughout West Virginia at the beginning of the twentieth century. In this photograph, onlookers are watching a parade. Unionism Comes to West Virginia 365 Early Mine Strikes Above: Because of their unique skills, workers in industries such as construction usually enjoyed better working conditions than those in industries such as mining. Nonunion conditions posed a threat to the good wages earned by union members. Some mines in the Kanawha Valley that had been unionized early negotiated contracts by which miners received 50 cents per ton of loaded coal. On the other hand, unorganized miners in Fayette County received only 38 cents per ton. In January 1880, the miners working near Hawks Nest, under the remnants of the Knights of Labor, went on strike. This strike suffered the same fate as other local strikes; it was broken without much difficulty by the West Virginia militia. Companies fought strikers with what the miners called the “unholy four”: (1) the state militia, which often arrested lawabiding strikers; (2) injunctions, which were orders issued by local judges prohibiting strikers from picketing; (3) the companies’ private armed guards, who intimidated strikers; and (4) scabs, people willing to work for the companies when regular workers went on strike. Because scabs were usually willing to work for lower wages than the unions were seeking, their presence in the coalfields made it difficult for workers to win their strikes and improve their working conditions. The mining companies were helped in their fight against unions by the state government. Many early West Virginia politicians had connections to mine owners or the railroads, which hauled coal for big profits; they believed unions would harm the growth of business in the state. Wealthy businessmen donated money to the campaigns of state politicians, who promised to follow policies to help company owners. Thus, the state government allowed mine owners to hire their own private armies to defeat strikes. When that was not good enough, the governor might send in the state militia to scare union members and put their leaders in jail. Early Labor Agreements The United Mine Workers of America (UMWA) was organized in 1890 in Columbus, Ohio, when the National Progressive Union of Miners and Mine Laborers merged with an affiliate of the Knights of Labor. The UMWA was especially interested in organizing West Virginia. If 366 Chapter 18: The Development of Labor the mines in the state were allowed to remain nonunion, mine owners could sell nonunion coal more cheaply, putting union miners in other states out of work. In 1901, the UMWA established District 17 at Wheeling to begin unionizing the West Virginia mines. Despite many obstacles, the UMWA won some agreements. These agreements, like the previously negotiated labor contract at the Harewood Mines in Fayette County, were often simple. The 1897 Harewood contract had only five parts and was less than a page long. According to the contract, wages would be 2.25 cents for every bushel of 11/2-inch screened coal; union workers would be returned to their old jobs; discrimination against employees because of their connections with any organizations was forbidden; interference in the mines by members of the Ku Klux Klan was prohibited; and the company was required to hire check weighmen, who would verify that the coal mined by each miner was accurately weighed. Each coal car brought out of the mine held a certain amount of coal. Sometimes, the cars were fixed so that they held more coal than the stated amount. For example, a coal car might state that it held 1,000 pounds of coal, when in reality it held 1,200 pounds. The miners, however, were only paid for 1,000 pounds. This system, known as cribbing, would be corrected by hiring honest weighmen. At the other end of the spectrum were contracts negotiated by the unions of skilled crafters. In the window glass industry, for example, the union enforced sixty-six pages of rules. The iron workers’ union had rules governing who would be hired, what each worker would be paid, how much iron the workers would make each day, and what the size of the work crew would be. These craft unions also strictly controlled who could become members. Usually, a young man could not become an apprentice to learn a craft in the iron and glass indusDid You Know...? tries unless he had a father or an Miners were also penalized if uncle already in the trade. As a reslate or rock were mixed in sult, it was especially difficult for with the coal. women and minorities to gain entrance to unions. Above: Workers in the window glass industry had some of the most complex labor contracts. Unionism Comes to West Virginia 367 The Labor Movement in the 1900s Above: Mary Harris Jones was known affectionately as “Mother” and “the miners’ angel.” Although she was petite in stature, her voice was larger than life. 368 The new century brought dramatic changes for the state’s workers. In urban areas, new industries opened up job opportunities as companies moved to the Mountain State to take advantage of the newly discovered natural resources. In places like Clarksburg and Fairmont, where oil and natural gas were found, steel and glassmaking factories appeared offering good-paying jobs. Wheeling and Huntington were adding industries, and the chemical industry was emerging on the Kanawha River. Statewide, the construction industry was booming. In 1902, the United Mine Workers took a major step forward for all unions. Earlier, mining strikes were usually local, directed against just one company. Organizing the whole state was extremely difficult. Many workers lived in isolated towns that were controlled by the coal companies. And not all miners favored the unions. For some, belonging to a union was a way to oppose the company system and to try for legal and economic gains; others feared that joining a union would lead to their being blacklisted. To carry out their plan, the UMWA called for a general strike (one involving all unionized mines) to bring about union recognition in the Pittsburgh Bed, Allegheny/Kanawha, and New River/Pocahontas fields. This time, however, the unions had a powerful weapon. Mary Harris “Mother” Jones, called “the miner’s angel,” made the first of many appearances in the coalfields to help organize the miners. Mary Harris Jones was born in Cork, Ireland, in 1830, at least according to her autobiography. More recent research indicates she may have been born as late as 1845. Jones was a teacher in Michigan and Tennessee and later operated a dressmaking shop in Chicago. When her husband and children died from yellow fever, she decided to dedicate her life to the labor movement. Although she had become a member of the UMWA in 1891, the 1902 strike was her first involvement in West Virginia. Mother Jones was an excellent public speaker who was devoted to helping the miners win their war against the companies. She may have been given the name “Mother” because she was like a stern and loving parent who stood beside the miners and suffered for their cause. When confronted with a strikebreaker or judge, she was able to control the situation with her quick, witty, and sometimes profane answers. Mother Jones was often the target of company injunctions, which she usually defied. On one occasion, she spent time in jail for her union activities. Chapter 18: The Development of Labor In the Pittsburgh Bed fields, injunctions stopped the miners’ efforts. As a result, only about 25 percent of the miners in the state actually went on strike. Although the strike was not successful statewide, the UMWA did obtain contracts in some areas that led to ten years of labor peace. Union efforts, for example, did lead to a new contract in the Kanawha fields. After the 1902 strike, coal operators stepped up efforts against the unions. They used an old common-law provision (an unwritten law based on earlier court decisions) to take away the miners’ right to organize. The operators hired private, armed guards in increasing numbers and paid off deputy sheriffs. Did You Know...? Mother Jones has been called “the greatest woman agitator of our times.” The West Virginia Federation of Labor Some local labor groups believed the state’s workers needed a greater political voice to address their concerns. To this end, a group of people met in Huntington in February 1903 and organized the West Virginia Federation of Labor (WVFL), which represented fifty-seven different crafts including the United Mine Workers of America. By 1906, the WVFL had sixty-five locals and a total membership of 6,000. The WVFL pushed for laws to protect worker rights, to provide compensation for workers injured on the job, and to stop the use of children in factories. Within a decade, the WVFL became an important force in the state’s politics. The effectiveness of the WVFL, however, was tied to the success of the United Mine Workers. Miners continued to protest against the companies’ use of private guards and the dangerous and poor working conditions they had to endure. The practice of using private guards was so common that Governor William Dawson referred to them in his message to the Legislature in 1907. Although he noted that guards were used to protect property and prevent trespassing, he also acknowledged, “Many outrages have been committed by these guards, many of whom appear to be vicious and dare-devil men who seem to add to their viciousness by bull-dozing and terrorizing people.” Little attention was given to the dangers in the mines, including the explosions and roof falls that were common causes of death and injury. That changed in December 1907 when West Virginia was the Above: In 1907, a mine explosion at Monongah in Marion County killed at least 361 men.The disaster at Monongah illustrated the need for federal safety regulations in the mines. Unionism Comes to West Virginia 369 scene of one of the worst disasters in coal mining history. At Monongah, in Marion County, 361 men were killed in an explosion. Because of the lack of employee records and the fact that miners’ sons often helped load coal, some historians believe that perhaps as many as 500 were killed. The Monongah disaster is important in mining history because it led to the first calls for federal safety regulations in the mines. In 1910, the U.S. Congress created the Bureau of Mines to improve health and safety in the industry. However, because the Bureau was not given the power to inspect and close mines, it really did little but collect statistics. During the decade following the disaster at Monongah, the UMWA joined with the WVFL in taking the first steps to pass laws to prevent future accidents. Do You Remember? 1. What role did scabs play in early strikes at the mines in West Virginia? 2. What was the purpose of check weighmen? 3. Who was Mother Jones? 4. What was the WVFL? 5. What happened at Monongah? 6. Why did the Bureau of Mines not have much power? Above: Workers in the West Virginia mines included many immigrants, such as Steve Dakla from Hungary. Did You Know...? On September 12, 1912, Mother Jones led a march of miners’ children through the streets of Charleston. 370 Changing Times The founding of the West Virginia Federation of Labor came at the end of an era. Union members in the state were almost all craftsmen, workers with special skills. But industry was changing. Companies were building larger and larger factories and replacing craftsmen with machines that required little skill to operate. This was called mechanization. At the same time, millions of immigrants were flocking to America, fleeing poverty and harsh governments in Italy, Russia, Hungary, and other parts of Europe. Many of these immigrants came without skills or money. They had to take the first jobs offered in their new country at whatever wages were available. Companies often sent agents to the major immigration ports to recruit the newcomers for the lowest-paying and least desirable jobs. In this way, immigrants arrived in West Virginia to take the worst jobs in the steel mills, coke ovens, coal mines, and chemical plants. The immigrants also competed for the new jobs being created by mechanization. Company owners felt the time was right to rid their factories of labor unions and the improved wages and working conditions the unions had brought. Chapter 18: The Development of Labor Miners Go to War For a decade after the United Mine Workers organized the mines along the Kanawha River in 1902, there was labor peace. But in April 1912, coal companies on Paint Creek in Kanawha County refused to renew the 1902 union contract. The miners went on strike, asking for a nine-hour work day and to be paid in U.S. currency rather than company scrip. The companies, in turn, evicted (forced out) the striking miners and their families from the company houses. Miners from Cabin Creek, who joined the strike, were also evicted from company housing. The miners and their families set up temporary tent colonies along roads and at Holly Grove on Paint Creek. The mining companies, worried about their property, hired a number of mine guards from the Baldwin-Felts Detective Agency. Two armed groups—the company guards and the miners—now faced each other on Paint and Cabin creeks. The fragile peace between the two groups ended on July 25, 1912, when a confrontation took place at Mucklow (now Gallagher) on Paint Creek. Before the day ended, hundreds and possibly thousands of shots had been fired and twelve miners and four guards had been killed. The fighting continued off and on until September 2, when Governor William Glasscock declared martial law (using military forces to keep order when civilian authority breaks down). At least 1,200 members of the state militia arrived and imposed curfews, took guns away from miners, and outlawed union meetings. The militia also helped the companies evict strikers from company housing and protected scabs who were arriving on special trains paid for by the companies. Miners arrested by the militia were tried not by a judge and jury but by a military commission, which sentenced hundreds of miners to jail. As the strike dragged into 1913, the miners resorted to a type of guerrilla warfare against the companies, the Baldwin-Felts guards, and the militia. Mother Jones returned to the coalfields and encouraged the miners to fight back against the guards and to defy martial law that had been imposed. In early February, the miners attacked three coal camps to prevent scabs from working the mines. One company worker was killed and several were wounded. The sheriff, his posse, and the guards tracked the miners back to the tent city at Holly Grove. Then, on February 7, Baldwin-Felts guards, Kanawha County Sheriff Bonner Hill, and coal operator Quinn Morton rode an armored train toward the miners’ camp. As the train approached Holly Grove, gunfire erupted. One man was killed, and up to sixteen other persons were wounded. Each side accused the other of firing first, but no one was ever brought to trial. On February 12, Mother Jones, eighty-three years of age and ill, was placed under house arrest in Pratt and charged with conspiracy to commit murder. A new military court tried her, along with more than Governor William Glasscock declared martial law in 1912 when confrontations between mine operators and coal miners broke out in the mines on Paint Creek. Changing Times 371 twenty others. Those who were convicted received sentences of ten to twenty years in prison. Papers across the United States carried news of the mine wars. Many who read the stories were appalled. A U.S. Senator from Indiana sponsored a resolution calling for an investigation into the use of armed guards and military tribunals. On March 4, 1913, Governor Glasscock’s term of office ended. Henry Hatfield succeeded him and inherited the responsibility for ending the violent strike that had continued for over a year. Governor Hatfield reduced the long jail terms set by the military commissions. He gave both the coal companies and the union an ultimatum to settle the strike. (An ultimatum is a final statement of terms offered by one party to another with the threat of force if the offer is not accepted.) The threat finally brought the strikers and companies together and, on May 1, 1913, they reached an agreement. Under its terms, the miners were allowed to shop at noncompany stores. They would work nine-hour days and be paid twice a month. A check weighman would be provided if the miners wanted one. Labor in the Era of World War I Henry Hatfield succeeded William Glasscock as governor. Hatfield inherited the mining strike, but he issued an ultimatum to both sides and was able to bring about an agreement that ended the strike. 372 Other unions in West Virginia faced difficult struggles to hold onto their members. In the steel industry, the skilled workers and their unions had disappeared; in the glass industry, machines had replaced most craftsmen. In mechanized factories, it was difficult to convince workers to join unions despite their harsh working conditions. No laws protected the workers’ right to join a union, and the new machines made it easy for companies to train new workers if their employees went on strike. Then, in 1917, the U.S. Supreme Court upheld a judge in Moundsville who issued an injunction making it illegal for unions to even attempt to organize workers who had signed yellow-dog contracts. The Supreme Court decision came as a result of a 1907 UMWA disagreement with the Hitchman Coal and Coke Company in Benwood, Marshall County. The company had obtained an injunction to keep the UMWA from interfering with the operation of the company’s mines. A U.S. circuit court judge set a precedent (a legal example to follow) by supporting the right of coal companies to ban their employees’ participation in organizing activities. The UMWA appealed the injunction. Ten years later, in December 1917, the U.S. Supreme Court upheld the Hitchman decision and, in so doing, legalized yellow-dog contracts. Because of such stiff opposition to unions, some workers looked for radical (extreme) alternatives. In the Clarksburg, Star City, and Kanawha County coalfields, many workers voted for the Socialist party, which wanted government to take control of industries and operate them for the benefit of all people, not just the owners. In other areas, workers joined the Industrial Workers of the World, which hoped to Chapter 18: The Development of Labor convince all industrial wage earners to take over the factories in which they worked and run them for their own benefit. In both cases, the radical alternatives arose when union efforts failed. When the United States entered World War I in 1917, industry faced new demands to provide for American troops as well as the people who remained behind. The government also wanted to maintain labor peace so as not to disrupt the war efforts. One of the best ways to maintain peace, government decided, was to encourage collective bargaining, a process where unions and companies negotiate with each other for wages and working conditions. With government support during the war, the labor movement grew rapidly. In many companies that had fought unions, workers now joined unions and won such benefits as an eight-hour workday, job security, and the right to fair and equal treatment. These unions also included women and minorities. Above: Armed guards, like these at a Farmington mine around 1920, tried to keep peace in the coalfields. The War on Labor During World War I, both the coal companies and the miners concentrated on meeting the increasing demands for fuel. When the war ended, however, businessmen decided they could increase profits by eliminating collective bargaining. In industries across the country, Changing Times 373 employers refused to renew union contracts. In the glass industry, West Virginia companies finally got rid of the craft union rules. Railroad workers fought a long, costly strike that almost destroyed their unions. One factor making it difficult for workers to keep their unions was the course of world events. A revolution in Russia and uprisings in Germany and Italy frightened Americans. Many remembered that some workers had been linked to socialism and other radical groups before the war. When unions of steelworkers, meat packers, and even police went on strike in 1919 to defend the rights they had won during the war, businessmen predicted that a revolution was coming. The West Virginia government passed laws that limited the freedom of unions and established the state police. When steelworkers tried to form a union in the northern panhandle, the governor ordered the police to chase all union organizers into Ohio. Bloody Mingo Sheriff Sid Hatfield sided with the miners in their dispute with mine owners. He was killed in 1921 on the steps of the McDowell County courthouse in Welch. 374 By 1919, the largest nonunionized coal region in the eastern United States was Logan and Mingo counties. In January 1920, John L. Lewis, who became president of the UMWA in 1919, announced a campaign to unionize the Appalachian coalfields. The mine operators in southern West Virginia were determined that their mines would not become unionized. To show their determination to remain nonunion, the coal operators in Logan County paid the county sheriff, Don Chafin, and a number of his deputies to keep union organizers out of the county. However, the miners began to think more and more about joining the union after learning that nationally the UMWA had secured a 27 percent wage increase for its members. While Logan County miners struggled for union recognition, miners in Kanawha County met to show their support. About 5,000 miners met at Marmet, near Lens Creek, and prepared to go to Logan County. Governor John Cornwell, aware of the possible danger, went to Marmet to meet with the miners and convinced most of them to return home. Less than six months later, mine owners in nearby Mingo County announced they would start operating their mines nonunion. They began evicting miners who would not leave the UMWA. The owners contacted the Baldwin-Felts Agency to send guards to not only protect the mines but also intimidate union miners. On May 19, 1920, Thomas Felts, the president of the Baldwin-Felts Agency, his two younger brothers, Albert and Lee, and ten other guards, arrived in Matewan to evict miners and their families. Chief of Police Sid Hatfield, Chapter 18: The Development of Labor with a group of miners, tried unsuccessfully to stop the guards from carrying out their objective. When the guards returned to Matewan after evicting miners from the Stone Mountain camp, union members tried to prevent them from boarding a train to Bluefield. Hatfield attempted to arrest Albert Felts outside the railroad depot for “illegally” conducting the evictions. In the confrontation that followed (known as the “Matewan Massacre”), seven guards (including Albert and Lee Felts), Mayor Caleb Testerman, and two miners were killed. Sid Hatfield, who became a hero in the eyes of the miners, was charged with the shootings. Hatfield and eighteen others were tried in Williamson, where they were acquitted of all charges. The open warfare between the miners and the mine owners eventually earned the county the title of “Bloody Mingo.” One year after the Matewan Massacre, E. F. Morgan, the new governor, declared martial law in Mingo County. The miners achieved a victory in the courts when the state Supreme Court declared that the use of martial law had been wrongly imposed. The court stated, “substitution of military [law], for civil law, in any community, is . . . deplorable and calamitous.” On August 1, 1921, Sid Hatfield found himself in court again. He and Matewan police officer Ed Chambers were charged with “shooting up” the coal tipple in Mohawk a year before. The two men were killed on the courthouse steps in Welch, in McDowell County, where they had gone to stand trial on the charges. Many believed the men were set up and their murders carefully planned. But no charges were Above: After two years of open warfare, Governor Cornwell asked that federal troops be sent to Mingo County. Changing Times 375 Above: In August 1921, angry miners organized a march to protest the murder of Sid Hatfield and conditions in the Mingo and Logan mines. Some miners hijacked a train to take them to Logan County. filed against the Baldwin-Felts gunmen who allegedly committed the crime. On August 7, to protest the murders of Hatfield and Chambers, miners held a rally at the West Virginia “pasteboard” capital. The “pasteboard” capital was a temporary frame building that housed government offices after the state Capitol burned down on January 3, 1921. Union leaders prepared the miners for a march to Mingo County to drive the Baldwin-Felts guards out of the county and to free their fellow miners. To get to Mingo County, however, the miners had to march through Logan County, crossing a ten-mile-long mountain ridge called Blair Mountain. On August 24, 1921, an army of about 3,000 miners met at Marmet, in Kanawha County. Many were veterans of World War I, and they helped organize the march in a military fashion. The miners identified themselves by wearing red bandanas around their necks. This is where the term “red neck” originated. Some of the miners traveled Did You Know...? by automobile and train, but as The “pasteboard” capital where they proceeded toward Logan, the miners demonstrated against number of marchers increased. the murder of Sid Hatfield Some carried weapons. burned on March 2, 1927. Governor Ephraim Morgan notified the militia and the state po- 376 Chapter 18: The Development of Labor lice, but he knew that neither would be able to handle the marchers. Morgan asked President Warren Harding for help. Harding sent World War I hero Henry Bandholtz to Charleston and put federal troops on alert while union, state, and federal officials tried to stop the marchers. Even Mother Jones, who was ninety-one years old at the time, tried to stop the march. She read a telegram supposedly from President Harding that asked the marchers to return to their homes. Doubting union leaders contacted the White House to learn that no such telegram had been sent. This deception only made the miners more determined to go to Logan County. Logan Sheriff Don Chafin, however, vowed “no armed mob will cross Logan County.” The sheriff gathered a force of about five hundred deputies, including mine guards, townspeople, and store owners. On August 26, the first red necks reached the town of Blair. Union leaders, who had met with Bandholtz earlier, told the miners that they could be charged with treason and persuaded them to turn back. The miners had started to disperse when news came that armed deputies had killed five miners on the night of August 27 during a raid at Sharples, across the Logan County line. Angered by this news, the miners immediately set out again and finally reached Blair Mountain where the National Guard was positioned. Between August 28 and August 30, the two forces engaged in a number of skirmishes. The miners were dug in along a mountain ridge, not far from Blair, where Below: Deputies under attack from miners on Blair Mountain return fire with rifles and a machine gun. Changing Times 377 Above: These armed deputies battled the miners on Blair Mountain. Did You Know...? Bill Blizzard was indicted two other times for his involvement at Blair Mountain. His Greenbrier County trial resulted in a hung jury. A new trial in Fayetteville was dismissed when an impartial jury could not be found. they fought off attacks. Governor Morgan continued to appeal for federal aid. President Harding ordered the miners to disperse by September 1, but they refused. The miners’ ranks increased daily as fellow miners came from Kentucky, Ohio, and northern West Virginia. Finally, on September 1, President Harding sent federal troops from Fort Thomas, Kentucky, to Charleston. Famed war hero Billy Mitchell also arrived with planes from Langley Field in Virginia. A number of the planes, however, crashed in various parts of West Virginia, including Nicholas and Raleigh counties. Two days later, the 10th U.S. Infantry and a squadron of Martin Bombers arrived in Logan County. The scene was set for a major confrontation, but many of the miners who had served in World War I refused to fight the U.S. Army because they believed it to be unpatriotic. Most of the miners surrendered on September 3, but some continued fighting until the next day. After September 4, almost all of the miners had either left Logan or surrendered to federal troops. The total number of casualties in the conflict at Blair Mountain is unknown. The only confirmed numbers were those of the defenders, who reported 3 killed and 40 wounded. Another report said at least 13 miners lost their lives. Over 1,000 people were indicted. More than 500 were brought to trial, including 325 miners who were charged with murder and 24 who were charged with treason against the state of West Virginia. The trials of the defendants, including Bill Blizzard, who some considered the leader of the march, were moved from Logan County to Charles Town in Jefferson County. Although Blizzard and other alleged leaders of the march on Logan were not convicted, several people who played a minor part in the fighting were. Governor Morgan commuted, or lessened, many of the sentences; later, Governor Howard Gore pardoned all of the miners. The events in Mingo and Logan counties hurt unions in West Virginia. Membership in the UMWA statewide fell from 45,000 in 1920 to about 1,000 in 1927. Do You Remember? 1. Name two sites where violence erupted between miners and coal operators. 2. Why was there generally peace between unions and operators during World War I? 3. Why did the government support collective bargaining in 1917? 378 Chapter 18: The Development of Labor Labor and the Depression In 1929, the worst depression in the country’s history began. Conditions for workers had been poor, but now they became worse. Factory workers and miners had little say over wages and working conditions. Many others had difficulty obtaining any job at all. The economy was so bad that some workers would do almost anything to earn their living. Unfortunately, some companies took advantage of the situation. They paid low wages and gambled with the safety and health of their employees. One such company was the Union Carbide Chemical Corporation, one of the state’s largest industrial employers. In 1930, Union Carbide began building a tunnel through Gauley Mountain to divert waters from the New River for a hydroelectric generating station for its plants in the nearby Kanawha Valley. The problem was that the rock under Gauley Mountain was almost pure silica. When breathed into a person’s lungs, silica dust causes silicosis, a fatal disease. Although both Union Carbide and the firm that was hired Below: In 1930, the Union Carbide Chemical Corporation began building a tunnel through Gauley Mountain to divert the waters of the New River to a hydroelectric generating station.The rock through which the workers had to drill was pure silica, which resulted in deaths and serious health problems from silicosis. Changing Times 379 to build the tunnel knew of the high silica content, they did not supply the workers with safety equipment. As a result, at least 476 workers died. Union Carbide never admitted responsibility for the tragedy and did nothing for the workers’ families. The New Deal Franklin Delano Roosevelt, seen here campaigning for the presidency in 1932, proposed the New Deal as a way of actively involving the federal government in the nation’s economy and hastening an end to the Great Depression. 380 By 1932, many people feared that the Great Depression, as it was called, was destroying American society. Violent confrontations between desperate workers and hard-pressed companies disrupted communities. Hate groups encouraged intolerance. Most citizens believed a change in politics was needed. In the 1932 presidential election, Americans elected Franklin Delano Roosevelt, the former governor of New York. Roosevelt surrounded himself with advisers who thought government should take a more active role in aiding the economy. The Roosevelt Administration called its programs the New Deal. New Deal aid came in the form of the National Industrial Recovery Act in 1933. This act helped eliminate competition that was so harmful to business and set standards for wages and hours that helped workers. But most importantly, the act gave workers the right to join unions and bargain collectively with their employers. Although the U.S. Supreme Court declared the law unconstitutional in 1935, the government acted again to support the workers’ right to join unions by passing the Wagner Act that same year. To further protect worker rights, other New Deal laws prevented companies from employing children, outlawed yellow-dog contracts, and set minimum standards for wages and working conditions. Gains for Unions The person who best understood the meaning of the Wagner Act was the president of the United Mine Workers, John L. Lewis. For the first time in America history, the government encouraged workers to join unions and bargain collectively with companies over wages and working conditions. Lewis sent organizers to the coalfields telling miners “your President wants you to organize.” It was just the spark the Chapter 18: The Development of Labor miners needed. Within two years, West Virginia mines were almost 100 percent union. Lewis knew that the Wagner Act also made it possible for less-skilled industrial workers in large mechanized factories to unionize. He wanted to send organizers to steel mills, auto factories, and textile plants, but the American Federation of Labor wanted to remain an organization of craft unions. Frustrated, Lewis led the most aggressive union leaders out of the AFL and formed the Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO) in 1935. Within a decade, the CIO had brought unions to the less skilled workers in the most mechanized industries, winning decent wages and job security. Also in 1935, the West Virginia Legislature ended the mine guard system and instituted workers compensation, insurance for workers who become disabled on the job or who suffer from job-related illnesses such as silicosis. In 1939, the Legislature passed a child labor law, which prevented the employment in the mines of anyone under sixteen years of age. The abuse of young people had been a very serious problem, not only because the work was dangerous but also because many young people quit school to work. In 1941, the United States again became involved in a world war. But World War II did not bring about labor peace in West Virginia as World War I had. John L. Lewis withdrew the UMWA from the CIO in 1942. In 1943, Lewis called the miners out on strike. The public was angry with the union for striking during the war, and President Roosevelt ordered the government to take control of the coal mines. Several months of bitterness followed before a contract was signed. When World War II ended, industrial prosperity spread. The unions wanted their share; as a result, 1946 saw much action by the unions. In fact, there were over 5,000 strikes nationwide in 1946 alone. Although the unions scored impressive victories, the general public resented the problems caused by strikes. They also blamed unions for increased prices. John L. Lewis again led the UMWA on strike; this time, Lewis and the union were charged with and convicted of ignoring court injunctions. Anger against union activities resulted in the passage in 1947 of the Taft-Hartley Act, which restricted the power of labor unions. Two provisions particularly upset unions. First, the law gave the president of the United States the power to stop, for eighty days, strikes that John L. Lewis was one of the founders of the Congress of Industrial Organizations. In 1942, however, he withdrew the UMWA from the CIO. In 1943, he called for a strike even though the United States was involved in World War II. Changing Times 381 endangered the health and safety of the country. Second, states were permitted to pass right-to-work laws, laws which permit workers to get and keep jobs without joining a union. Labor in the Late 1900s Above: WestVirginian Walter Reuther was a leader of the United Auto Workers Union and the American Federation of LaborCongress of Industrial Organizations (AFL-CIO). 382 In 1955, the AFL and the CIO finally reunited. The merger occurred under the guidance of Walter Reuther, a West Virginian who headed the United Auto Workers and who had been a president of the CIO. In the AFL-CIO, Reuther became a vice president. Labor had won basic civil rights for workers. Unions now turned their attention to major social issues. In the 1950s and 1960s, many union leaders were in the forefront of movements to extend civil rights to minorities. They also worked with government to ensure that assistance was available to the poor and those unable to find jobs. The West Virginia Federation of Labor helped train antipoverty and community development leaders in the Appalachian region. West Virginia workers were also leaders in the movement for occupational safety and health. In 1969, the UMWA finally forced the coal industry to compensate workers suffering from silicosis, a victory that helped lead to more protections for all workers. In 1972, one of the worst mining-related tragedies occurred at Buffalo Creek in Logan County. A number of small communities were situated on Buffalo Creek, which emptied into the Guyandotte River near the town of Man. On February 26, after days of heavy rain, a sludge pond owned by the Pittston Coal Company burst and released millions of gallons of black water. The water quickly gushed through the communities along Buffalo Creek, taking 125 lives and causing incredible damage. More than 1,000 homes were destroyed, and 4,000 people were left homeless. The disaster at Buffalo Creek led to the passage of a number of laws that changed how companies disposed of coal waste. Today a memorial at Kistler, one of the communities along Buffalo Creek, commemorates the flood and honors those who lost their lives. In 1993, a strike in the coal mines involving 17,000 miners in seven states resulted in the creation of a Labor-Management Positive Change Program. This program allows union members to take part in decision making that affects their jobs by empowering local unions to make the mines better and safer workplaces. Chapter 18: The Development of Labor Unions and Future Challenges The purpose of unions has changed from fighting for a minimum wage to maintaining a good standard of living for all workers. The basic struggle for unions in West Virginia took place in the coal mines, but every union worker has added to the growing benefits that the average worker in the state enjoys. The future for unions in this new century, however, is not as bright as it was thirty years ago. Many industries have moved overseas, eliminating union jobs. Some companies openly violate the law in their desire to operate nonunion. Also, some people believe that unions have made American business less able to compete with foreign companies. Nevertheless, many reports show that most Americans believe that unions have an important role to play in our society. They believe that workers should help determine wages and working conditions, and that unions have been key to healthy communities. Above: This restored miner’s house is located at the Beckley Exhibition Coal Mine. In a coal camp, miners rented a house according to the size of their families. Did You Know...? In 2001, 13.5 percent of wage and salary workers were union members. Do You Remember? 1. What laws passed in the 1930s ensured workers’ right to join a union? 2. Why did John L. Lewis leave the AFL? 3. What are two provisions of the Taft-Hartley Act? 4. What is a right-to-work law? Unions and Future Challenges 383 Chapter Review Summary Labor has played an important part in the history of West Virginia. Unions were first formed to protect workers from unsafe working conditions and discriminatory labor practices. In their search for recognition, unions often found themselves involved in violent confrontations. This was especially true in the coalfields. As conflicts between workers and business owners increased, the courts became involved. Injunctions were often used to try to stop strikes or control demonstrations. The injunctions, however, were often ignored, especially by miners. When peaceful attempts at regulating disputes failed, state as well as federal troops were called to maintain or restore order. Eventually the U.S. Congress passed legislation to regulate labor. The Wagner and Taft-Hartley acts are examples of such laws. After World War II, labor focused mostly on wages and benefits. Today, some question the future of labor unions, which have been accused of making American business less competitive in the global marketplace. Reviewing People, Places, and Terms Use each of the following terms in a sentence that describes the labor movement in West Virginia. 1. American Federation of Labor 2. blacklist 3. collective bargaining 4. injunction 5. labor union 6. right-to-work law 7. scab 8. scrip 9. strike 10. Taft-Hartley Act 11. United Mine Workers of America 384 12. workers compensation 13. yellow-dog contract Understanding the Facts 1. Why were unions formed? 2. Why did railroad workers strike the B&O Railroad in 1877? 3. What was the first national labor union? 4. What were the “unholy four” used by coal companies against strikers? What other support did the coal companies receive? 5. What were two common causes of death and injury in the coal mines? 6. How did mechanization affect the labor union movement? 7. What organization was formed to rival the AFL? 8. Why did the West Virginia legislature pass a child labor law? 9. What happened at Buffalo Creek? Developing Critical Thinking 1. Evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of strikes, citing examples from the chapter. 2. Should coal companies have been permitted to hire armed guards? Why or why not? 3. In 1877, President Hayes sent two hundred federal troops to end a railroad strike in Martinsburg. Should federal troops be used to put down a strike? If so, when? 4. How did labor issues change after the end of World War II? 5. Why did unions lose popularity after World War II? 6. What are some of the challenges that unions face today? Writing Across the Curriculum 1. Write a newspaper article detailing the facts of one of the events discussed in the chapter. Chapter 18: The Development of Labor 2. Write a diary entry from someone who witnessed the Matewan massacre or the Buffalo Creek disaster. Exploring the Internet 1. Go to the website of the federal government’s Bureau of Labor Statistics, www.bls.gov, to find current information on union membership in the United States. 2. Visit the AFL-CIO website, www.aflcio.org, to learn about two issues with which the union is concerned. Report on your findings to the class. 2. Interview a union member. Ask the union member what the current objectives of his or her union are. Find out whether the union member has been involved in any strikes. 3. Collect newspaper or magazine articles focusing on recent disagreements between management and labor. Did You Know...? • West Virginians suffered a great deal during the Using Your Skills 1. In 1880, miners at unionized mines received 50 cents for each ton of loaded coal while miners at nonunion mines were paid 38 cents. If a worker mined 10 tons of coal a day, how much more money would the union miner have made for fifteen days of work? • Great Depression. In 1934, the average annual income of Americans was $1,237. The average three-bedroom house cost $2,925. A new Ford could be bought for $535, and a gallon of gasoline for that Ford was $.19. Bread was $.08 a loaf and milk $.44 a gallon. Cecil Roberts from Cabin Creek in Kanawha County became president of the United Mine Workers on December 22, 1995. He was elected to the position in 1997 and re-elected in 2000. Building Skills: Reading News Articles Newspapers are a good way for citizens to keep informed on a wide range of topics. However, you must be able to distinguish a news article from an editorial. Editorials mix facts and opinions and give a newspaper’s opinions on an issue or event. A news article does not include opinions. Newspaper articles usually follow a standard format. The headline is written in large, bold type with just a few key words. Its purpose is to capture the “heart” of the story and make you want to learn more. The size of the type often indicates the story’s importance. The byline indicates who wrote the story, either an individual or a news service. The dateline includes the date and city where the story was filed. The lead is the first sentence of the article—the most important. It summarizes the main idea of the article and should tell you the five W’s: who, what, where, when, and why. The body contains a more detailed account of the basic facts. The body often contains quotations and background facts. As you read a complete article, you will generally find fewer important details. Look at any daily newspaper and select one of the major stories on the front page. Answer the following questions. 1. From reading just the headline, can you tell why the editors chose to put the article on the front page? 2. Who wrote the story and where was it filed? 3. What are the who, what, when, where, and why of the story? 4. After reading the article, do you think the headline accurately represented the information in the article? Try This! Choose an issue from the chapter on which to write a news article. Write the article first, then the headline. Ask another student to see if he or she can find the five W’s in your article. Chapter Review 385