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Chapter 19 Outline – External Troubles, Internal Threats
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I.
This chapter focuses on societies that faced internal crises while maintaining formal independence.
Four main dimensions of European imperialism confronted these societies:
1. military might and political ambitions of rival European states
2. involvement in a new world economy that radiated from Europe
3. influence of aspects of traditional European culture (e.g., language, religion, literature)
4. engagement with the culture of modernity
The External Challenge: European Industry and Empire
A. The nineteenth century was Europe’s greatest age of global expansion.
1. became the center of the world economy
2. millions of Europeans moved to regions beyond Europe
3. explorers and missionaries reached nearly everywhere
4. much of the world became part of European colonies
B. New Motives, New Means
1. the Industrial Revolution fueled much of Europe’s expansion
a. demand for raw materials and agricultural products
b. need for markets to sell European products
c. European capitalists often invested money abroad
d. foreign markets kept workers within Europe employed
2. growth of mass nationalism in Europe made imperialism broadly popular
a. Italy and Germany unified by 1871
b. colonies were a status symbol
3. industrial-age developments made overseas expansion possible
a. steamships
b. underwater telegraph
c. quinine
d. breech-loading rifles and machine guns
C. New Perceptions of the “Other”
1. in the past, Europeans had largely defined others in religious terms
a. but had also adopted many foreign ideas and techniques
b. mingled more freely with Asian and African elites
c. had even seen technologically simple peoples at times as “noble savages”
2. the industrial age promoted a secular arrogance among Europeans
a. was sometimes combined with a sense of religious superiority
b. Europeans increasingly despised other cultures
c. African societies lost status
i. earlier: were regarded as nations, their leaders as kings
ii. nineteenth century: became tribes led by chiefs in European eyes
d. new kind of racism, expressed in terms of modern science
i. scientific “proof” of some peoples’ inferiority
ii. creation of a hierarchy of races
iii. view of race as determining intelligence, moral development, and destiny
iv. view that inferior peoples threatened Europeans with their diseases
3. sense of responsibility to the “weaker races”
a. duty to civilize them
b. bringing them education, health care, Christianity, good government, etc., was
regarded as “progress” and “civilization”
4. social Darwinism: an effort to apply Darwin’s evolutionary theory to human history
a. regarded as inevitable that the “unfit” races should be displaced or destroyed
II.
Reversal of Fortune: China’s Century of Crisis
A. In 1793, the Chinese emperor Qianlong rebuffed Britain’s request that China rescind or loosen
restrictions on trade.
1. Chinese authorities had controlled and limited European activities for centuries
2. by 1912, Chinese empire had collapsed, became a weak junior member in Europeandominated world
B. The Crisis Within
1. China was, to a large degree, the victim of its own success
a. population had grown from about 100 million in 1685 to some 430 million in 1853
b. but China didn’t have an accompanying Industrial Revolution
c. growing pressure on the land, impoverishment, starvation
2. Chinese bureaucracy did not keep pace with growing population
a. by 1800, county magistrates had to deal with four times as many people as in 1400
b. central state gradually lost control of provincial officials and gentry
i. corruption became endemic
ii. harsh treatment of peasants
3. bandit gangs and peasant rebellions became common
a. charismatic figures preached a millenarian message
4. culmination of China’s internal crisis: the Taiping Uprising
a. affected much of China 1850–1864
b. leader Hong Xiuquan (1814–1864) proclaimed himself the younger brother of Jesus,
sent to establish a “heavenly kingdom of great peace”
c. called for radical equality
d. even planned to industrialize China
e. Taiping forces established their capital at Nanjing (1853)
f. rebellion was crushed by 1864
i. rebellion was not suppressed by imperial military forces
ii. provincial landowners mobilized their own armies
5. resolution of the Taiping rebellion consolidated the power of the
provincial gentry even more
a. intense conservatism, so China’s problems weren’t resolved
b. the massive civil war had seriously weakened the Chinese economy
c. 20 million–30 million people died in the rebellion
C. Western Pressures
1. the Opium Wars show the transformation of China’s relationship with Europe
a. opium had been used on a small scale in China for centuries
b. British began to sell large quantities of Indian opium in China
c. Chinese authorities recognized the dangers of opium addiction, tried to stop the trade
d. European merchants bribed officials to smuggle opium in
e. China suffered a specie drain from large quantities of silver spent on opium
f. 1836: the emperor decided to suppress the trade
i. Commissioner Lin Zexu campaigned against opium use
ii. seized and destroyed over three million pounds of opium from Western
traders, expelled them from China
2. the British responded with the first Opium War (1839–1842)
a. forced Chinese to accept free trade and “proper” relations among countries
b. Treaty of Nanjing (1842):
i. China agreed to pay a $21 million indemnity
ii. China ceded Hong Kong
iii. five ports were opened to trade
iv. tariffs fixed at a low rate
v. foreigners received the right to live in China under their own laws
3. second Opium War (1856–1858)
a. Europeans vandalized the imperial Summer Palace
b. more treaty ports were opened to foreigners
c. China was opened to foreign missionaries
d. Western powers were given the right to patrol some of China’s interior waterways
4. China was also defeated by the French (1885) and Japanese (1895)
5. Qing dynasty was deeply weakened at a time when China needed a strong government to
deal with modernization
6. “unequal treaties” inhibited China’s industrialization
D. The Failure of Conservative Modernization
1. the Chinese government tried to act against problems
a. policy of “self-strengthening” in 1860s and 1870s
b. application of traditional Confucian principles, along with very limited borrowing
from the West
c. efforts to improve examination system
d. restoration of rural social and economic order
e. establishment of some modern arsenals and shipyards, some study of other languages
and sciences
f. foundation of a few industrial factories
2. conservative leaders feared that development would harm the landlord class
3. Boxer Rebellion (1900): militia organizations killed many Europeans
and Chinese Christians, besieged foreign embassies in Beijing
a. Western powers and Japan occupied Beijing to crush the revolt
b. imposed massive reparation payments on China
4. growing number of educated Chinese became disillusioned with the Qing dynasty
a. organizations to examine the situation and propose reforms
b. growing drive for a truly unified nation in which more people took part in public life
c. Chinese nationalism was against both foreign imperialists and the foreign Qing
dynasty
5. the government agreed to some reforms in the early twentieth century, but not enough—
the imperial order collapsed in 1911
III.
The Ottoman Empire and the West in the Nineteenth Century
A. Both China and the Ottoman Empire:
1. had felt that they did not need to learn from the West
2. avoided direct colonial rule, but were diminished
3. attempted “defensive modernization”
4. suffered a split in society between modernists and those holding traditional values
B. “The Sick Man of Europe”
1.1750: the Ottoman Empire was still strong, at center of the Islamic world; by 1900, was
known as “the sick man of Europe”
2.region by region, Islamic world fell under Christian rule, and the Ottomans couldn’t prevent
it
a. Ottomans lost territory to Russia, Britain, Austria, and France
b. Napoleon’s 1798 invasion of Egypt was especially devastating
c. Greece, Serbia, Bulgaria, and Rumania attained independence
3. central Ottoman state had weakened
a. provincial authorities and local warlords gained more power, limited the
government’s ability to raise money
b. the Janissaries had become militarily ineffective
4. the economy was hit hard by Western developments
a. Europeans achieved direct access to Asia
b. cheap European manufactured goods harmed Ottoman artisans
c. foreign merchants won immunity from Ottoman laws and taxes
i.
foreign consuls granted the same privileges to hundreds of thousands of
Ottoman citizens (especially Jews, Greeks, and Armenians)
d. government came to rely on foreign loans to finance economic development efforts
i. by 1882, much of the Ottoman revenue system was controlled by foreigners
ii. British occupied Egypt
5. had reached a state of dependency on Europe
C. Reform
1. Ottomans attempted ambitious reforms, going considerably further than the Chinese
a. didn’t have an internal crisis on the scale of China
b. did not have to deal with explosive population growth
c. rulers were Turkic and Muslim, not like foreign Qing
2. late eighteenth century: Selim III tried to establish new military and administrative structures
a. sent ambassadors to study European methods
b. imported European advisers
c. established technical schools
3. after 1839: more far-reaching measures (Tanzimat, or “reorganization”) emerged
a. beginning of an extensive process of industrialization and modernization
b. acceptance of the principle that all citizens are equal before the law
i. challenged the Islamic character of the state
ii. more Christians attained high office
c. tide of secular legislation and secular schools
D. Identity
1. Selim III’s modest reforms stirred up so much hostility among the ulama and Janissaries that
he was deposed in 1807
2. movements of Islamic renewal outside of the Ottoman Empire presented another model for
dealing with Europe
a. Sumatra: Islamic renewal became a war of resistance against the Dutch (early 19th c.)
b. Muslim leaders in Chechnya and Dagestan organized jihads against Russian intrusion
c. Muslim-based resistance movement against the French invasion of Algeria (1830)
d. such movements had little impact within the Ottoman Empire
3. supporters of reform saw the Ottoman Empire as a secular state
a. reform created a new class of writers, etc.—the “Young Ottomans”
b. urged creation of a constitutional regime
c. Islamic modernism: accepted Western technology and science but not its materialism
4. Sultan Abd al-Hamid II (r. 1876–1909) accepted a new constitution in 1876 that limited the
sultan’s authority
a. almost immediately suspended it
b. turned to decisive autocracy in the face of a Russian invasion
i. continued many educational, economic, and technical reforms
ii.
reactivated claim that the Ottoman sultans were also caliphs and spoke for
the whole Islamic world
iii. restored the prestige of the ulama
iv. reintroduced distinction between Muslim and non-Muslim subjects
5. opposition coalesced around the “Young Turks” (military and civilian elites)
a. advocated a militantly secular public life
b. shift to thinking in terms of a Turkish national state
6. after 1900, growing efforts to define a Turkish national character
7. military coup (1908) gave the Young Turks real power
a. antagonized non-Turkic peoples in the Ottoman Empire
b. stimulated Arab and other nationalisms
c. the Ottoman Empire completely disintegrated after World War I
E. Outcomes: Comparing China and the Ottoman Empire
1. by 1900, both China and the Ottoman Empire were “semicolonies”
2. both gave rise to a new nationalist conception of society
3. China: the imperial system collapsed in 1911
a. followed by a vast revolution
b. creation of a Communist regime by 1949, within the same territory
4. Ottoman Empire: the empire collapsed following World War I
a. a new, much smaller nation-state was created in the Turkish heartland
5. Chinese revolutionaries rejected Confucian culture much more than Turkish leaders rejected
Islam
IV.
The Japanese Difference: The Rise of a New East Asian Power
A. Japan was forced to open up to more “normal” relations with the world by U.S. Commodore
Matthew Perry in 1853.
1. 1853–1900: radical transformation of Japanese society
2. Japan became powerful, modern, united, industrialized
3. Japan created its own East Asian empire
B. The Tokugawa Background
1. Tokugawa shoguns had ruled since about 1600
a. main task was preventing civil war among rival feudal lords(the daimyo)
b. Japan enjoyed internal peace from 1600 to 1850
c. daimyo were strictly regulated but retained considerable autonomy
d. Japan wasn’t unified by a single law, currency, or central authority that reached to the
local level
e. hierarchical society: samurai at the top, then peasants, artisans, and merchants at the
bottom
2. considerable change in Japan in the Tokugawa period
a. samurai evolved into a bureaucratic/administrative class
b. great economic growth, commercialization, and urban development
c. by 1750, Japan was perhaps the most urbanized country
i. 10 percent of population lived in cities or towns
ii. Edo (Tokyo) had a million residents
d. high literacy rates (40 percent of males, 15 percent of females)
e. change made it impossible for the shogunate to freeze society
i. some samurai turned to commerce
ii. many merchants prospered
iii. many peasants moved to cities, despite edicts
3. corruption was widespread
a. uprisings of the poor, both rural and urban
C. American Intrusion and the Meiji Restoration
1. U.S. sent Commodore Perry in 1853 to demand better treatment for castaways, right to
refuel and buy provisions, and the opening of trade ports
a. the shogun gave in to Perry’s demands
2. the shogun’s spinelessness triggered a civil war
3. in 1868, a group of young samurai from the south took over
a. they claimed to be restoring the 15-year-old emperor Meiji to power
b. aimed to save Japan from the foreigners by transformation of Japanese society rather
than by resistance
4. the West wasn’t as interested in Japan as it was in China
D. Modernization Japanese Style
1. first task was creating national unity
a. attacked power and privileges of the daimyo and the samurai
b. dismantled the Confucian-based social order
c. almost all Japanese became legally equal
2. widespread interest in many aspects of the West, from science to hairstyles
a. official missions were sent to the West
b. hundreds of students studied abroad
c. translation of Western books into Japanese
3. eventually settled down to more selective borrowing from the West
a. combined foreign and Japanese elements, e.g., in the 1889 constitution
4. feminism and Christianity made little progress
5. Shinto was raised to the level of a state cult
6. state-guided industrialization program
a. established model factories, opened mines, built railroads, created postal, telegraph,
and banking systems
b. many state enterprises were then sold to private investors
c. accomplished modernization without acquiring foreign debt
7. society paid a heavy price
a. many peasant families were impoverished
b. countryside suffered infanticide, sale of daughters, and famine
c. early urban workers received harsh treatment
d. efforts to organize unions were repressed
i. nascent labor movement was crushed by end of 1901
ii.
authorities emphasized theme of service to the state and ideas of the
enterprise as a family
E. Japan and the World
1. by the early twentieth century, Western powers readjusted treaties in Japan’s favor
a. Anglo-Japanese Treaty of 1902 recognized Japan as an equal
2. Japanese empire building
a. wars against China (1894–1895) and Russia (1904–1905)
b. gained colonial control of Taiwan and Korea, won a foothold in Manchuria
3. Japan’s rise was widely admired
4. Japan’s colonial policies were at least as brutal as European ones