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Operant Conditioning I. Operant Conditioning A. Basic premise : behavior that is rewarded is more likely to be repeated; that which is not rewarded is not 1. History: began with Thorndyke (1898) B. Basic Phenomena: 1. Generalization and Discrimination a. Generalization b. Discrimination 2. Shaping: successive approximations are reinforced until the desired behavior is obtained a. This is main process of training pets 3. Chaining: chain together a series of rewarded behaviors to produce complex behaviors 4. Superstitious behavior (AKA Adventitious Learning): we seem to be prepared to think that our actions have consequences 5. Gradient of Reinforcement: Strength of reinforcement is inversely proportional to Time between Response and reinforcement C. Schedules of reinforcement (Rxfx) 1. Continuous vs partial rxfx a. Effects: 1. Continuous is fastest to teach; but behavior extinguishes most quickly 2. Partial is more resistant to extinction b. The best overall teaching method may be to switch from continuous to partial: Stretching the schedule of rxfx 2. Four types of partial rxfx schedules a. Interval schedules: reward given for first response that occurs after a certain length of time 1. Fixed Interval (FI): interval is always same between rxfx 2. Variable Interval (VI): interval length varies b. Ratio Schedules: reward given for the first response that occurs after a certain number of unrewarded responses have preceded it 1. Fixed ratio (FR): Ratio always same 2. Variable ratio (VR): Ratio varies c. Synopsis of Schedules 1. variable rxfx = smooth rates of responding 2. fixed rxfx = "scalloping" D. Types of reinforcers 1. Positive Rxfx: REWARD!!! 2. Negative Rxfx: Termination of an aversive condition. NOT PUNISHMENT! 3. Punishment: Presentation of an aversive condition 4. NOTE: 1. positive and negative rxfx are used to increase a desirable behavior 2. punishment is used to decrease an undesirable behavior II. Avoidance learning (Phobias) as combination of CC and OC A. CC: Generalization & Extinction in Simple Phobias B. OC: Avoiding the dogs is reinforcing; negative rxfx Memory I. Overview & misconceptions II. Ways to conceptualize memory A. Structural categorizations 1. By length of time material stays in memory a. Sensory Store b. Short-Term Memory c. Long-Term Memory 2. By type of information a. Episodic b. Semantic systems c. Procedural d. Alternatively 1. Explicit 2. Implicit B. Stage of processing 1. Encoding 2. Storage 3. Retrieval III. Memory systems based upon time material stays in memory A. Sensory Store: iconic, echoic B. Short-Term Memory (STM) 1. Interference & Maintenance rehearsal 2. Serial position effects C. Long term Memory (LTM): 1. Only a subset of information that makes it to STM actually gets transferred into LTM 2. Interference a. Retroactive interference b. Proactive interference IV. By type of information A. Episodic: memory for events 1. Disrupted in amnesia 2. Types: a. Full b. Partial 3. Head injury will also disrupt B. Semantic: Not forgotten in amnesias C. Procedural 1. Learn a skill; resilient to forgetting 2. Preserved in many forms of amnesia 3. Example D. Alternatively, explicit, implicit; 1. Incidental vs intentional learning 2. Dissociation of Explicit and Implicit Memory in Amnesia E. Perceptual Vs. Conceptual V. Stage of processing A. Encoding: getting information into memory 1. What is encoded 2. Contextual cues 3. Mood/state dependent memory is result of contextual cues B. Storage 1. ECT 2. Malleability over time: storage is vulnerable C. Retrieval 1. Cues aid retrieval 2. Recognition is easier than recall because cues are already provided VI. A few assorted concepts A. Anterograde vs retrograde amnesia B. Improving memory 1. Method of loci 2. Mnemonics