Download 2 - MechFamily

Dr Ali Jawarneh
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Hashemite University
1
Objectives
• Introduce the concept of energy and define its various
forms.
• Discuss the nature of internal energy.
gy
• Discuss the three mechanisms of heat transfer:
conduction, convection, and radiation.
• Define the concept of work, including electrical work
and several forms of mechanical work.
• Introduce the first law of thermodynamics, energy
balances, and mechanisms of energy transfer to or
from a system
system.
• Define energy conversion efficiencies.
• Discuss the implications of energy conversion on
the environment.
2
3
2–1 INTRODUCTION
• The conservation of energy principle,
principle or
Energy cannot be created or destroyed
during a process; it can only change from
one form to another.
- The only energy interaction involved is the
electrical energy crossing the system
boundary and entering the room. The
conservation of energy
gy requires
q
the energy
gy
content of the room to increase by an amount
equal to the amount of the electrical energy
drawn by the refrigerator
refrigerator.The
The refrigerator or
its motor does not store this energy Therefore,
this energy must now be in the room air, and
it will manifest itself as a rise in the air
temperature.
4
2–2 FORMS OF ENERGY
• Energy can exist in numerous forms such as
thermal, mechanical, kinetic, potential,
electric, magnetic, chemical, and nuclear,
and their sum constitutes the total energy E of
a system.
• The total energy of a system on a unit mass basis
is denoted by e and is expressed as
E
e=
(kJ/kg)
m
(2-1)
5
• The total energy has two forms :
(1) The
Th macroscopic
i forms
f
off energy are those
th
a
system possesses as a whole with respect to some
outside reference frame
frame, such as kinetic and potential
energies.
(2) The microscopic forms of energy are those related
to the molecular structure of a system and the
degree of the molecular activity, and they are
independent of outside reference frames. The sum of
all the microscopic forms of energy is called the
i t
internal
l energy off a system
t andd is
i denoted
d t d by
b U.
U
6
• The macroscopic energy of a system is related to motion
and the influence of some external effects such as gravity,
magnetism, electricity, and surface tension.
- The energy that a system possesses as a result of its motion
relative to some reference frame is called kinetic energy
((KE).
) When all p
parts of a system
y
move with the same
velocity, the kinetic energy is expressed as:
V2
KE = m
(kJ)
2
(2 2)
(2-2)
or, on a unit mass basis,
V2
ke =
(kJ/kg)
2
(2-3)
7
- The energy that a system possesses as a result of its
elevation in a gravitational field is called potential
energy (PE)
PE = m g z (kJ)
(2-4)
or, on a unit
i mass basis,
b i
pe = g z
(kJ/kg)
(2-5)
- In the absence of the magnetic
magnetic, electric,
electric and surface
tension effects the total energy of a system consists of
the kinetic,, potential,
p
, and internal energies
g and is
expressed as:
V2
+ mgz (kJ) (2-6)
E = U + KE + PE = U + m
or, on a unit mass basis,
2
V2
e = u + ke + pe = u +
+ gz (kJ/kg)
2
(2-7)
8
• Stationar
Stationary ssystem
stem is
i a system
t whose
h
velocity
l it andd
elevation of the center of gravity remain constant
during a process
process. The change in the total energy E of
a stationary system is identical to the change in its
internal energy U.
ΔKE = 0
ΔPE = 0
ΔEsystem
= ΔU
y
9
™ Control volumes:
•
- Volume flow rate V which is the volume of a fluid
flowing through a cross section per unit time.
•
V = Ac Vavg (m3 /s)
•
- Mass flow rate m : the amount of mass flowing
through a cross section per unit time.
•
m = ρ Ac Vavg (kg/s)
(2-8)
Ac :cross sectional area of flow
Vavg: is the average flow velocity normal to Ac
ƒ The energy flow rate associated with a fluid
•
•
E=me
or
(kJ/s or kW)
(2-9)
E=me
10
Some Physical Insight to Internal Energy
11
• Internal energy may be viewed as the sum of the kinetic
and p
potential energies
g of the molecules.
• The kinetic energy of the molecules is called sensible heat.
• The internal energy is also associated with various binding
forces between the molecules of a substance, between the
atoms within a molecule, and between the particles within
an atom and its nucleus.
nucleus
• An atom consists of neutrons and positively charged protons
bound together
g
by
y very
y strong
g nuclear forces in the nucleus,,
and negatively charged electrons orbiting around it.
• The internal energy associated with the phase of a system is
called
ll d latent
l t t heat.
h t
• The internal energy associated with the atomic bonds in a
molecule is called chemical ((or bond)) energy.
gy
• The internal energy associated with the bonds within the 12
nucleus of the atom itself is called nuclear energy.
™The forms of energy (total energy) of a system, can be
contained or stored in a system, and thus can be viewed as
the static forms of energy. The forms of energy not stored in
a system can be viewed as the dynamic forms of energy or as
energy interactions
interactions.
™The dynamic forms of energy are recognized at the system
boundary as they cross it, and they represent the energy
gained or lost by a system during a process.
™The only two forms of energy interactions associated with a
closed system are heat transfer and work
work.
™A control volume can exchange energy via mass transfer,
heat transfer and work.
™we frequently refer to the sensible and latent forms of
internal energy as heat, and we talk about heat content of
bodies In thermodynamics
bodies.
thermodynamics, however
however, we usually refer to
those forms of energy as thermal energy to prevent any
13
confusion with heat transfer.
™Distinction between the macroscopic kinetic energy of
an object as a whole and the microscopic kinetic energies
of its molecules that constitute the sensible internal
energy
gy of the object.
j
™ The kinetic energy of an object is an organized form of
energy associated with the orderly motion of all molecules
i one direction
in
di i in
i a straight
i h pathh
or around an axis. In contrast,
the kinetic energies of the
molecules are completely
random and highly disorganized.
14
™The major application area of thermodynamics is the
conversion of disorganized energy (heat) into
organized energy (work).
™The organized energy can be converted to disorganized
energy completely, but only a fraction of disorganized
energy can be converted to organized energy by specially
built devices called heat engines (like car engines and
power plants).
l t)
™A similar argument can be given for the macroscopic
potential energy of an object as a whole and the
microscopic
p p
potential energies
g of the molecules.
15
Mechanical Energy
• The
h mechanical
h i l energy can be
b defined
d fi d as the
h form
f
off
energy that can be converted to mechanical work
completely and directly by an ideal mechanical device
such as an ideal turbine.
P V2
emech = +
+ gz
ρ 2
(2 10)
(2-10)
P/ρ :the flow energy,
gy
V2/2 :the kinetic energy, and
gz :the potential energy of the fluid
•
•
•
P V2
Emech = m emech = m( +
+ gz)
ρ 2
(2-11)
16
• The mechanical energy change of a fluid during
incompressible ( ρ = constant) flow becomes
P2 − P1 V22 − V12
Δemech =
+
+ g(z 2 − z1 ) (kJ / kg)
ρ
2
(2-12)
P2 − P1 V22 − V12
Δ Emech = m Δemech = m(
+
+ g(z 2 − z1 )) (kW) ((2-13))
ρ
2
•
•
•
• In the absence of any losses
losses, the mechanical energy
change represents the mechanical work supplied to the
fluid (if Δemech
ec > 0 ) or
extracted from the fluid (if Δemech < 0 ).
17
o E system= E microscopic{molecules}+ E macroscopic{object as a whole}
o E microscopic{molecules}= U = Internal Energy =
[sensible(KE)+PE+latent(phase)+chemical+nuclear
ibl ( )
l
( h ) h i l
l ]
gy ((heat)=
) sensible ((KE)+latent(phase)
)
(p
)
oThermal energy
In general, internal energy consists of sensible, latent, chemical, and nuclear energies.
However, in the absence of any chemical or nuclear reactions, the chemical and nuclear
energies can be disregarded and the internal energy can be considered to consist of only
sensible and latent energies that can be transferred to or from a system as heat whenever
there is a temperature difference
across the system boundary.
o E macroscopic{object
p { j as a whole}}=
[KE+PE+electrical+magnetic+surface tenstion]
P/ρ :the flow energy,
o Mechanical Energy:
2
•
•
•
P V2
Emech = m emech = m( +
+ gz)
ρ 2
V /2 :the
th kinetic
ki ti energy, andd
gz :the potential energy of the fluid
18
EXAMPLE: Consider a river flowing toward a
l k att an average velocity
lake
l it off 3 m/s
/ att a rate
t off
500 m3/s at a location 90 m above the lake
surface.
f
D
Determine
t
i the
th total
t t l mechanical
h i l energy
of the river water per unit mass and the power
generation
ti potential
t ti l off the
th entire
ti river
i
att that
th t
location
19
SOLUTION:
20
2–3 ENERGY TRANSFER BY HEAT
• Energy can cross the boundary of a closed system in
two distinct forms: heat and work
• Heat
H t is
i defined
d fi d as the
th form
f
off energy
that is transferred between two systems
( a system
(or
t andd its
it surroundings)
di ) by
b
virtue of a temperature difference
• Heat is energy
energ in
transition. It is
recognized
i d only
l as
it crosses the
boundary of a system.
21
• A process during which there is no heat transfer is called
an adiabatic process.
process
• There are two ways a process can be adiabatic: Either the
system is well insulated so that only a negligible amount
of heat can pass through the boundary, or both the system
and the surroundings are at the same temperature and
therefore there is no driving force (temperature
difference) for heat transfer.
22
• heat transfer Q, kJ (1 Btu=1.0551 kJ)
• Heat
H t transfer
t
f per unit
it mass
Q
q=
m
(kJ / kg)
(2-14)
•
• Heat transfer rate Q , kJ/s or kW
•
• When Q varies with time, the amount of heat transfer
d i a process is
during
i
t2
•
Q = ∫ Q dt
•
(kJ)
(2 15)
(2-15)
t1
• When Q remains constant during a process, this
•
relation
l i reduces
d
to
Q = Q Δt (kJ) (2-16)
23
™ Heat is transferred by three mechanisms:
1- Conduction is the transfer of energy from the more
energetic particles of a substance to the adjacent less
energetic ones as a result of interaction between particles.
2- Convection is the transfer of energy between a solid
surface and the adjacent fluid that is in motion, and
involves the combined effects of conduction and fluid
motion.
i
3- Radiation is the transfer of energy due to the emission of
electromagnetic waves (or photons).
photons)
24
2–4 ENERGY TRANSFER BY WORK
• Work (W), kJ: is
i the
h energy transfer
f associated
i d with
iha
force acting through a distance.
• The work done per unit mass of a system is denoted by w
and is expressed as:
W
(kJ / kg) (2-17)
w=
m
• The work• done per unit time is called power and is
denoted W kJ/s, or kW.
25
• Heat and work are directional quantities, and thus the
complete description of a heat or work interaction
requires the specification of both the magnitude and
direction.
• One way of doing that is to adopt a sign convention. heat
transfer to a system and work done by a system are
positive
iti
• Another way is to use the subscripts in and out to
indicate direction
26
™Heat and work are energy transfer mechanisms
between a system and its surroundings,
surroundings and there are
many similarities between them:
1 Both are recognized at the boundaries of a system as
1.
they cross the boundaries. That is, both heat and work
are boundaryy pphenomena.
2. Systems possess energy, but not heat or work.
3. Both are associated with a pprocess,, not a state. Unlike
properties, heat or work has no meaning at a state.
g
depend
p
4. Both are ppath functions ((i.e.,, their magnitudes
on the path followed during a process as well as the
end states).
27
• Path functions have inexact differentials designated by
the symbol δ . Therefore
Therefore, a differential amount of heat or
work is represented by δ Q or δ W, respectively, instead
of dQ or dW. Simply, W & Q are not properties and
systems do not possess W or Q at a state.
• Properties are point functions (i.e., they depend on the
state
t t only,
l andd nott on how
h a system
t reaches
h that
th t state),
t t )
and they have exact differentials designated by the
symbol
y
d.
• Example 2
∫ dV = V -V
2
1
= ΔV
1
2
∫ δW = W
12
(not ΔW)
1
28
Electrical Work
• Electrons
l
can cross the
h system boundary
b
d
to do
d electrical
l i l
work on the system. In an electric field, electrons in a
wire move under the effect of electromotive forces,
forces doing
work.
•
(2-18)
• Electrical p
power: We = V I ( W)
• In general, both V and I vary with time, and the electrical
work (We ) done during a time interval Δ t is expressed as
2
We = ∫ V I dt
(kJ)
(2-19)
1
• When both V and I remain constant
We = V I Δt (kJ)
(2-20)
(2
20)
29
2–5 MECHANICAL FORMS OF WORK
(
)
• Constant force
f
F W = F s (kJ) (2-21)
• The force F is not constant,
2
W = ∫ F ds (kJ)
1
(2-22)
Shaft Work
ƒ Torque
q T: T= F r
ƒ Shaft work: Wsh = 2π n T (kJ) (2-25)
n:: revolutions
evo ut o s
•
•
ƒ Shaft power: Wsh = 2π n T (kW) (2-26)
•
per unit time.
n : the number of revolutions p
30
Spring Work
• When
h the
h length
l
h off the
h spring
i changes
h
by
b a differential
diff
i l
amount dx under the influence of a force F, the work done
is
(2-27)
δWspring = F dx
• For linear elastic springs, the displacement x is
proportional
p
p
to the force applied
pp
F =kx
(2-28)
1
Wspring = k (x22 − x12 )
2
(KJ)
(2-29)
• x1 and x2 are the initial and the final displacements of the
spring,
spring
31
Work Done on Elastic Solid Bars
• Solids
lid are often
f modeled
d l d as linear
li
springs
i
because
b
under
d
the action of a force they contract or elongate, and when
the force is lifted,
lifted they return to their original lengths,
lengths like
a spring. This is true as long as the force is in the elastic
range, that is, not large enough to cause permanent
(plastic) deformations.
• normal stress σn = F/A
• Work associated with the
• expansion or contraction of an elastic solid bar
2
2
1
1
Welastic = ∫ F dx = ∫ σn Adx (KJ)
(2-30)
A: is the cross-sectional area of the bar.
32
Work Associated with the Stretching of a Liquid Film
• surface tension σs (N/m):
( / ) The
h pulling
lli effect
ff on the
h liquid
li id
molecules at an interface caused by the attractive forces of
molecules per unit length.
length
• The force is used to overcome the microscopic forces
between molecules at the liquid–air
q
interfaces is:
F = 2b σs
• Therefore, the work associated
with the stretching of a film is
called surface tension work.
2
Wsurface = ∫ σs dA (kJ)
(2-31)
1
where dA = 2b dx
33
EXAMPLE: Determine the work required to deflect
a linear spring with a spring constant of 70 kN/m
by 20 cm from its rest position.
ANSWER:
34
EXAMPLE: The engine of a 1500-kg automobile has a
power rating of 75 kW.
kW Determine the time required to
accelerate this car from rest to a speed of 100 km/h at full
power on a level road. Is your answer realistic?
ANSWER:
35
2–6 THE FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
• The
Th first
fi law
l off thermodynamics,
h
d
i also
l known
k
as the
h
conservation of energy principle.
• The first law of thermodynamics states that energy can
be neither created nor destroyed during a process; it
can onlyy change
g forms.
36
37
Energy Balance
(Total energy entering the system) - (Total energy
leaving the system) = (Change in the total energy
of the system)
Ein − Eout = ΔEsystem
ΔEsystem
Energy
gy Change
g of a System,
y
y
Energy change = Energy at final state - Energy at
initial state
ΔEsystem = Efinal − Einitial = E2 − E1 (2-32)
38
• In the absence of electric, magnetic, and surface tension
effects (i.e.,
(i e for simple compressible systems),
systems) the change
in the total energy of a system during a process is:
ΔE = ΔU + ΔKE + ΔPE
(2-33)
(2
33)
ΔU = m(u2 − u1 )
1
ΔKE = m(V22 − V12 )
2
ΔPE = mg(z 2 − z1 )
u1 and u2 : Specific internal energies can be
determined directly from the property tables or
thermodynamic property relations.
• for stationary systems
39
Mechanisms of Energy Transfer, E in and E out
• Energy can be
b transferred
f
d to or ffrom a system in
i three
h
forms heat, work, and mass flow. Energy interactions
are recognized at the system boundary as they cross it
it,
and they represent the energy gained or lost by a system
during a process.
• The only two forms of energy interactions associated with
a fixed mass or closed system are heat transfer and work.
(1) Heat Transfer,
f Q.
Q Heat transfer
f to a system ((heat gain)
i )
increases the energy of the molecules and thus the
internal energy of the system,
system and heat transfer from a
system (heat loss) decreases it since the energy
transferred out as heat comes from the energy of the
molecules of the system.
40
(2) Work Transfer, W. A rising piston, a rotating shaft,
and an electrical wire crossing the system boundaries are
all associated with work interactions.
- Work transfer to a system
y
((i.e.,, work done on a system
y
)
increases the energy of the system, and work transfer
from a system (i.e., work done by the system) decreases
it since
i
the
th energy transferred
t
f
d outt as workk comes from
f
the
th
energy contained in the system.
- Car engines and hydraulic,
hydraulic steam,
steam or gas turbines produce
work while compressors, pumps, and mixers consume
work.
41
(3) Mass Flow, m.
When mass enters a system,
system the energy of the system
increases because mass carries energy with it (in fact,
mass is energy).
gy) Likewise,, when some mass leaves the
system, the energy contained within the system decreases
because the leaving mass takes out some energy with it.
42
• The energy balance can be written more explicitly as
Ein − Eout = (Qin − Qout ) + ( Win − Wout ) + (Emass,in − Emass,out ) = ΔEsystem
(2-34)
• Energy balance for any system undergoing any kind of
process can be expressed more compactly as
(2-35)
(2
35)
Eini − Eout = ΔEsystem (kJ)
Net energy transfer Change in internal, kinetic,
by heat, work, and mass potential etc.. energies
or, in
i the
th rate
t fform, as
•
•
Ein − Eout = dEsystem / dt
Rate of net energy transfer
by heat, work, and mass
(kW)
(2-36)
Rate of change in internal,
kinetic, potential etc..
energies
g
43
• For constant rates, the total quantities during a time
interval Δt are related to the quantities per unit time as
•
•
Q = Q Δt, W = W Δt, and ΔE = (dE / dt) Δt (kJ) (2-37)
• The energy balance (Eq
(Eq.2-35)
2 35) can be expressed on a per
unit mass basis as
ein − eout = Δesystem (kJ / kg)
(2 38)
(2-38)
• For a closed system undergoing a cycle, the initial and
final states are identical:
ΔEsystem = E2 − E1 = 0
Eini − Eoutt = 0 or Eini = Eoutt
•
•
Wnet,out = Qnet,in or Wnet,out = Qnet,in
(2 40)
(2-40)
44
EXAMPLE: Water is being heated in a closed pan on
top of a range while being stirred by a paddle wheel.
wheel
During the process, 30 kJ of heat is transferred to the
water,, and 5 kJ of heat is lost to the surroundingg air.
The paddle-wheel work amounts to 500 N · m.
Determine the final energy of the system if its initial
energy is 10 kJ.
SOLUTION:
Ein − Eout = ΔEsystem (kJ)
Qin + Wsh, in − Qout = ΔU = U2 − U1
30kJ + 0.5 kJ − 5 kJ = U2 − 10kJ
U2 = 35.5 kJ
45
EXAMPLE: The driving force for fluid flow is the
pressure difference,
difference and a pump operates by
raising the pressure of a fluid (by converting the
mechanical shaft work to flow energy).
gy) A gasoline
g
pump is measured to consume 5.2 kW of electric
power when operating. If the pressure differential
between the outlet and inlet of the pump is
measured to be 5 kPa and the changes in velocity
and elevation are negligible,
negligible determine the
maximum possible volume flow rate of gasoline.
46
•
Solution:
•
0.0 ((steady)
y)
•
•
•
•
P V2
Emech = m emech = m( +
+ gz)
ρ 2
•
•
Ein = Eout
Ein − Eout = dEsystem / dt
•
•
•
•
•
Win + m(Pv)1 = m(Pv)2 ⇒ Win = m(P2 − P1 )v = V ΔP
•
•
Win 5.2
V=
=
= 1.04 m3 / s
ΔP
5
47
2–7 ENERGY CONVERSION EFFICIENCIES
• Effi
Efficiency
i
i di t how
indicates
h well
ll an energy conversion
i or
transfer process is accomplished.
• Performance or efficiency,
efficiency in general,
general can be expressed
Desired output
Performane=
Required output
(2-41)
(2
41)
• The efficiency of a water heater:
energy delivered to the house by hot water
η waterheater =
energy supplied to the water heater
48
• The heating value of the fuel (HV): amount of heat
released when a unit amount of fuel at room temperature
is completely burned and the combustion products are
cooled to the room temperature.
Q Amount of heat released during combustion
η combustion
=
b ti =
HV
Heating value of the fuel burned
(2-42)
49
™ Most fuels contain hydrogen, which forms water when
burned, and the heating value of a fuel will be different,
depending on whether the water in combustion products is
in the liquid or vapor form.
™ The heating value is called the lower heating value, or
(LHV), when the water leaves as a vapor, and the higher
heating value,
value or (HHV),
(HHV) when the water in the
combustion gases is completely condensed and thus the
heat of vaporization is also recovered.
™ The difference between these two heating values is equal to
the product of the amount of water and the enthalpy of
vaporization of water at room temperature
temperature.
where m is the mass of H2O in the products per unit mass of fuel
and h fg is the enthalpy of vaporization of water at the specified
temperature.
For example, the lower and higher heating values of gasoline
are 44,000 kJ/kg and 47,300 kJ/kg, respectively.
50
51
• Power Plant:
Q
η combustion =
HV
•
η Thermal =
Wshaft
•
Q
net shaft work output of the turbine
=
heat input to the working fluid
•
η generator =
Wnet,electrical
•
Wnet,shaft
electrical power output
=
mechanicalpower input
•
η overall = η combustionη thermalη generator =
Wnet,electrical
•
HHV x mnet
(2 43)
(2-43)
52
• The efficiency Conversion of electrical energy to
light
energy convertedto light
η conversion of electricity to light =
electrical energy consumed
• The efficiency of
a cooking
ki appliance
li
53
Efficiencies of Mechanical and Electrical Devices
• Th
The transfer
t
f off mechanical
h i l energy is
i usually
ll accomplished
li h d
by a rotating shaft, and thus mechanical work is often
referred to as shaft work.
• A pump or a fan receives shaft work (usually from an
electric motor) and transfers it to the fluid as mechanical
energy (less frictional losses).
• A turbine converts the mechanical energy of a fluid to
shaft
h ft work.
k
• The mechanical efficiency of a device or process is:
Emech,loss
Mechanical energy output Emech,out
(2-44)
=
= 1−
η mech =
Mechanical energy input
Emech,in
Emech,in
54
55
• In fluid systems, we are usually interested in increasing
the pressure,
pressure velocity,
velocity and/or elevation of a fluid.
fluid
This is done by supplying mechanical energy to the
fluid byy a p
pump,
p, a fan,, or a compressor
p
((we will
refer to all of them as pumps)
g
• Or we are interested in the reverse pprocess of extracting
mechanical energy from a fluid by a turbine and
producing mechanical power in the form of a rotating
shaft that
h can ddrive
i a generator or any other
h rotary
device.
• The
Th degree
d
off perfection
f ti off the
th conversion
i process
between the mechanical work supplied or extracted and
the mechanical energy of the fluid is expressed by the
pump efficiency and turbine efficiency
56
• Pump efficiency
•
η pump =
•
Mechanicalenergy increase of the fluid Δ Emech,fluid Wpump,u
= •
= •
Mechanicalenergy input
Wshaft, in
Wpump
(2-45)
•
Useful pumping power ( Wpump,u )
•
•
•
•
Wpump,u = Δ Emech,fluid = Emech,out − Emech, in
• Turbine efficiency
•
Mechanical energy output
=
η tubine =
Mechanical decrease of the fluid
•
•
•
W shaft ,out
•
Δ E mech, fluid
•
=
W turbine
•
W turbine,e
(2-46)
•
W turbine, e = Δ E mech, fluid = E mech,in − E mech,out
which is equivalent to the mechanical power
extracted from the fluid by the turbine
57
• Motor efficiency
•
Mechanicalpower output Wshaft,out
η motor =
= •
Electrical power input
Welect, in
(2-47)
• Generator efficiency
•
Electrical power output
Welect,out
η generator =
= •
Mechanical power input
Wshaft
h ft, in
i
(2-48)
58
• A pump is usually packaged together with its motor, and
a turbine with its generator.
generator Therefore,
Therefore we are usually
interested in the combined or overall efficiency of
pump–motor
p
p
and turbine–generator
g
combinations:
•
η pump− motor = η pumpη motor =
W pump,u
•
•
=
Δ E mech, fluid
•
W elect,in
W elect,in
•
η turbine− gen = η turbineη generator =
W elect,out
•
W turbine,e
(2-49)
•
=
W elect,out
•
Δ E mech, fluid
(2-50)
™η=0.0% corresponds to the conversion of the entire
mechanical or electric energy input to thermal energy,
and the device in this case functions like a resistance heater.
™η=100 %corresponds to the case of perfect conversion
with no friction or other irreversibilities,
irreversibilities and thus no
conversion of mechanical or electric energy to thermal
energy.
59
EXAMPLE: An oil pump is drawing 35 kW of
electric power while pumping oil with ρ = 860
kg/m3 at a rate of 0.1 m3/s. The inlet and outlet
diameters of the p
pipe
p are 8 cm and 12 cm,,
respectively. If the pressure rise of oil in the pump
is measured to be 400 kPa and the motor
efficiency is 90 percent, determine the mechanical
efficiency of the pump,
and the overall efficiency.
60
SOLUTION:
Assumptions:
i
(1)
( ) The
h flow
fl is
i steady
d andd incompressible.
i
ibl
(2) The elevation difference across the pump is negligible.
•
•
•
V22
V12
Δ Emech, fluid = m(emech,out − emech, in ) = m[(Pv)2 +
− (Pv)1 − ]
2
2
•
V22 − V12
= V [(P2 − P1 ) + ρ
]
2
•
V1 =
•
•
•
•
V
V
0.1
V
V
0.1
=
=
= 19.9 m / s and V2 =
=
=
= 8.84 m / s
π
π
A1 π 2 π
A
2
D1
(0.08)2
D22
(0.12)2
4
4
4
4
•
•
Wpump,u = Δ Emech,fluid = 26.3 kW
•
Wpump,shaft = ηmotor Welectric = (0.9)(35) = 31.5 kW
•
ηpump =
Wpump,u
•
Wpump,shaft
=
26.3
= 0.836 = 83.6%
31.5
η pump−motor = η pumpη motor = 0.836x 0.9 = 0.75 = 75%
61
2–8 ENERGY AND ENVIRONMENT
• The
h conversion
i off energy from
f
one form
f
to another
h often
f
affects the environment and the air we breathe in many
ways and thus the study of energy is not complete
ways,
without considering its impact on the environment
hydrocarbons (HC), nitrogen
oxides (NOx),
) and carbon
monoxide (CO)
62
• Fossil fuels such as coal, oil, and natural gas
• Pollutants emitted during the combustion of fossil fuels
are responsible for smog, acid rain, and global warming
and climate change.
g
• The environmental pollution threat to vegetation, wild
life, and human health (i.e Asthma, Cancer), etc….
• Some compounds are added to liquid fuels for various
reasons (such as MTBE to raise the octane number of
the fuel and also to oxygenate the fuel in winter months
to reduce urban smog).
• The new cars were required to have catalytic converters
in their exhaust systems to reduce HC and CO emissions.
• The removal of lead from gasoline to permit the use of
catalytic converters led to a significan reduction in toxic
63
lead emissions.
• Methyl tert-butyl ether, also known as methyl tertiary
butyl
y ether and MTBE, is a chemical compound
p
with
molecular formula C5H12O. MTBE is a volatile,
flammable and colorless liquid that is immiscible, yet
reasonably soluble in water
water.
• The octane rating is a measure of the autoignition
resistance of gasoline or petrol and other fuels used in
spark-ignition internal combustion engines. It is a
measure of anti-detonation of a gasoline or fuel.
• Octane number is the number which gives the percentage,
by volume, of iso-octane in a mixture of iso-octane and
normal heptane,
heptane that would have the same anti
anti-knocking
knocking
capacity as the fuel which is under consideration. For
example,
p , ggasoline with the same knocking
g characteristics
as a mixture of 90% iso-octane and 10% heptane would
64
have an octane rating of 90.
Ozone and Smog
Smog is made up mostly of:
1- Ground-level ozone (O 3)
Th harmful
The
h
f l ground-level
d l l ozone
should not be confused with the useful
ozone layer
l
high
hi h in
i the
th stratosphere
t t h that
th t
protects the earth from the sun’s
harmful ultraviolet rays.
rays
2- Chemicals, including carbon monoxide (CO) which is a
colorless odorless,
colorless,
odorless poisonous gas
gas.
3- Particulate matter such as soot and dust
4- Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) such as benzene
benzene,
butane, and other hydrocarbons.
65
Acid Rain
9 The sulfur in the fuel reacts with
oxygen to form sulfur dioxide (SO2)
9 Volcanic eruptions and hot springs also
release sulfur oxides
(the cause of the rotten egg smell).
smell)
9 The sulfur oxides and nitric oxides
react with water vapor and other chemicals
high in the atmosphere in the presence of
sunlight
g to form sulfuric and nitric acids .
9 The acids formed usually dissolve in the suspended water
droplets in clouds or fog. These acid-laden droplets, which
can be as acidic as lemon juice, are washed from the air on
to the soil by rain or snow. This is known as acid rain. 66
The Greenhouse Effect:
Global Warming and Climate Change
• Glass of the car transmits over 90% of radiation in the
visible range and is practically opaque
(nontransparent) to radiation in the longer
wavelength
a elength infrared regions
regions.
• Therefore, glass allows the solar radiation to enter
freely but blocks the infrared radiation emitted by
the interior surfaces. This causes a rise in the interior
temperature
te
pe atu e as a result
esu t of
o the
t e thermal
t e a energy
e e gy buildup
bu dup
in the car. This heating effect is known as the
greenhouse effect, since it is utilized primarily in
greenhouses.
67
• The greenhouse effect is also experienced on a larger
scale on earth.
earth The surface of the earth,
earth which warms up
during the day as a result of the absorption of solar
energy, cools down at night by radiating part of its energy
into deep space as infrared radiation. Carbon dioxide
(CO2 being the primary component),
water
t vapor, andd trace
t
amounts
t off some
other gases such as methane and
nitrogen oxides act like a blanket
and keep the earth warm at night by
blocking the heat radiated from the
earth. Therefore, they are called
“greenhouse
greenhouse gases”
gases .
68
• Excessive amounts of these gases disturb the delicate
balance by trapping too much energy,
energy which causes the
average temperature of the earth to rise and the climate
at some localities to change. These undesirable
consequences of the greenhouse effect are referred to as
global warming or global climate change.
change
• In
I a 1995 report,
t the
th world’s
ld’ leading
l di climate
li t scientists
i ti t
concluded that the earth has already warmed about 0.5°C
during
g the last century,
y, and theyy estimate that the earth’s
temperature will rise another 2°C by the year 2100.
• A rise of this magnitude is feared to cause severe changes
in weather patterns with storms and heavy rains and
flooding at some parts and drought in others
69
Summary
•
Forms of energy
– Macroscopic = kinetic + potential
– Microscopic = Internal energy (sensible + latent + chemical + nuclear)
•
•
•
•
Energy transfer by heat
Energy transfer by work
Mechanical forms of work
The first law of thermodynamics
– Energy balance
– Energy change of a system
– Mechanisms of energy transfer (heat, work, mass flow)
• Energy conversion efficiencies
– Efficiencies of mechanical and electrical devices (turbines
(turbines, pumps)
•
Energy and environment
– Ozone and smog
– Acid rain
– The Greenhouse effect: Global warming
70