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Earth Science CA Standard Study Guide Earth’s Place in the Universe 1. Astronomy and planetary exploration reveal the solar system’s structure, scale, and change over time. As a basis for understanding this concept: a. Know that the differences and similarities among the sun, the terrestrial planets, and the gas planets may have been established during the formation of the solar system. During the formation of the solar system while the sun was forming in the center of the nebular the planets where forming. There are two types of planets the inner(terrestrial) and the outer (gas planets) The terrestrial planets are rocky and have a solid surface The terrestrial planets from the Sun are Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars The gas planets also known as the gas giants are very large The gas giants are composed primarily of gassed and may not have a solid surface The terrestrial planets lost their original atmosphere because they did not have enough gravity to hold on to the hydrogen and helium when the sun started to fuse The gas planets are larger in part because they are farther from the sun so lighter elements can exist as Ice and therefore do not get blown away by the solar winds The asteroid belt between Mars and Jupiter contains enough material to create a planet The asteroid belt did not form a planet because Jupiter’s gravity was so large that whenever two rocks came together the gravity would pull them apart b. Know that the evidence from Earth and moon rocks indicates that the solar system was formed from a nebular cloud of dust and gas approximately 4.6 billion years ago. Our solar system formed from a solar nebula about 4.6 to 5 billion years ago A nebula is a giant cloud of gas and dust composed mostly of hydrogen The nebula started to shrink under the force of its own gravity As the nebula shrank it started to spin most of the mass is in the center where at the sun The only material that did not end up in the sun was the material that was spinning around the sun The solar system is disk shaped because all of the material above and below the sun that did not spin was pulled into the sun The oldest rocks are 4.6 billion years old Rocks are dated by using radioactive dating of isotopes inside the rocks c. Know that the evidence from geological studies of Earth and other planets suggest that the early Earth was very different from Earth today. Earth was originally molten when it first formed Earth formed when asteroids collided together Three things made the Earth molten: friction from meteor impacts, gravity form the material collapsing in on its self, and radioactive decay of primarily uranium, plutonium, and thorium When the Earth was molten the dense elements (iron and nickel) sank to the middle of the planet and the less dense material rose to the crust The separation of material had to occur when the Earth was molten because solids cannot flow The process that cause the layer of the Earth to form is differentiation Earth’s first atmosphere was mostly hydrogen and helium was blown away by the solar winds Earth got its second atmosphere from out-gassing when gasses trapped inside the planet migrated to the surface because of differences in density The second atmosphere did not have any free oxygen and therefore the iron that was left on the surface did not rust or oxidize There was no oxygen in the first atmosphere because the iron in the rocks did not oxidize or rust. The oxygen in the atmosphere is a direct result of photosynthesis by cyanobacteria When the oxygen was forming in the atmosphere some rock deposits contained bands of rusted (oxidized) iron and bands of non-rusted iron d. Know that the evidence indicating that the planets are much closer to Earth than the stars are. Evidence that planets are closer to Earth than stars: planets appear to wander in the night sky, calculations using parallax determines the distance the planets are from the Earth Planets are smaller than stars but appear the same size because they are closer. As stars move away from us the color shifts to the red, and when they move closer to us their color shifts to the blue (the Doppler Effect). e. Know that the Sun is a typical star and is powered by nuclear reactions, primarily the fusion of hydrogen to form helium. The sun gets its energy by a complex process called fusion where four hydrogen atoms are combined to form a helium atom and two positrons In large stars when the hydrogen starts to run out three helium are fused to form carbon then helium and carbon fuse to form oxygen. Elements continue to fuse until iron is produced. No element heavier than iron is form from the fusion inside stars Stars absolute magnitude and color are plotted on an HR diagram Our sun is considered a main sequence star based on where it plots on the H-R diagram Only very large stars go super nova our sun will eventually become a white dwarf The color or solar spectrum of thousands of stars has been studied The spectrum tells us what the star is composed of (each element emits a unique spectrum) We know that our sun is a typical star by comparing its solar spectrum to thousands of other stars f. Know that the evidence for the dramatic effects that asteroid impacts have had in shaping the surface of planets and their moons and in mass extinctions of life on Earth. The Earth got its heat from three factors: meteor and asteroid collisions, compression from gravity, and radioactive decay Early in Earth’s history most of the heat came from meteor and asteroids collisions Today Earth gets most of its heat from radioactive decay The moons craters are evidence that there were many meteor impacts early in the formation of the solar system The meteor impacts on the moon are still present today because the moon does not experience erosion or plate tectonics that would destroy the craters Most of the craters on Earth got destroyed by erosion and plate tectonics The moon gets more meteor and asteroid impacts for two reasons’ there is no atmosphere to make the meteors burn up, and the Earth’s gravity deflects some objects into the moon. There is evidence of meteor impacts on Earth. About 65 MYA a large meteor struck Earth off of the Yucatan Peninsula causing the extinction of the dinosaurs. There an impact crater that is well pressured in Arizona 2. Earth-based and space-based astronomy reveal the structure, scale, and changes in stars, galaxies, and the universe over time. As a basis for understanding this concept: a. Know that the solar system is located in an outer edge of the disc-shaped Milky Way galaxy, which spans 100,000 light years. Our solar system is in the Milky Way galaxy The solar system is about 2/3 from the center or 1/3 from the outer edge The Milky Way galaxy is about 100,000 light years across. It takes light 100,000 years to go from one edge to the next There are four types of galaxies irregular, elliptical, spiral, and a barred spiral Spiral and barred spiral galaxies are disk shaped The Milky Way is a spiral galaxy b. Know that galaxies are made of Billions of stars and comprise most of the visible mass of the universe. The universe 15 billion years ago consisted of all matter condensed into a small area 15 billion years ago the was a big thermonuclear explosion called the big bang All matter in the universe came from the big bang Soon after the Big Bang there were ripples in space that consisted of concentrations of matter Today most of all visible matter is in galaxies The space between galaxies is mostly empty Each galaxy is composed of billions of stars There are billions of galaxies in the universe c. Know that the evidence indicates that all elements with an atomic number greater than that of lithium have been formed by nuclear fusion in stars. Stars get there energy from fusion Fusion is when two or more lighter elements are combined to form heavier elements Fusion of hydrogen to form helium occurs in three steps As part of the fusion process two hydrogen protons get converted into neutrons Neutrons are slightly lighter than protons The amount of energy generated is determined by Einstein’s equation E=mc2 After a star uses most of their hydrogen they start to fuse helium to make carbon. The fusion process continues until iron is produced. Elements heavier than iron cannot be formed from fusion in stars, only when stars go super nova. Immediately after the big bang hydrogen, helium, and lithium where the only elements present. In order for fusion to occur the atoms have to be at high temperature and moving at very high velocities, about 10,000,000 degrees C in our sun d. Know that stars differ in their life cycles and that visual, radio, and X-ray telescopes may be used to collect data that reveal those differences. All of the information we have about stars comes from studying its spectrum and intensity A stars spectrum is the amount and type of radiation that it emits A stars spectrum includes X-rays, gamma rays, ultraviolet light, visual light, radio waves microwaves, and inferred radiation Every element when supper heated gives of a unique blend of radiation from the previous list By studying the radiation that a star gives off scientists can determined which elements are present A stars size is determined by the intensity or amount of radiation that is given off The intensity and color of a star is plotted on a Hertzsprung-Russell (H-R) diagram According to the diagram most stars plot along a band called the main sequence only very large or small stars are not considered to be main sequence stars Our sun is a main sequence star After a star fuses its hydrogen it starts to fuse helium to form other heavy elements Iron is the heaviest element that can form in a star Elements heavier than Iron are formed in a super nova explosion When large stars use up their hydrogen they eventually go super nova (a large explosion) and can end up as a black hole When medium and smaller stars like our sun use up their hydrogen they become a red giant then became a white dwarf Dynamic Earth Processes 3. Plate tectonics operating over geologic time has changed the patterns of land, sea, and mountains on Earth’s surface. As the basis for understanding this concept: a. Know that features of the ocean floor (magnetic patterns, age, and sea-floor topography) provide evidence of plate tectonics. Before the theory of plate tectonics there was the hypotheses of continental drift Continental drift states that the continents were once connected then drifted apart The evidence for continental drift is: the contents fit together, the same plant and animal fossils occur on multiple continents, the climate has vastly change on continents The evidence for plate tectonics in the same as for continental drift with additional evidence The first piece of evidence for plate tectonics is sea-floor spreading In the middle of the Atlantic ocean there is a ridge created by a chain of volcanoes The ocean floor is being pulled apart in the middle of the Atlantic ocean As the floor is pulled apart new magma from the mantle rises and creates new ocean floor The Earth’s magnetic field switches sometimes the magnetic north pole is north and sometimes it is in the south The iron in the magma aligns with the Earth’s magnetic field and is preserved when the magma cools As a result the rock on the ocean floor has rock with an alternating magnetic pattern The alternating magnetic pattern is used to discover the different ages of rocks near the mid ocean ridge and it is evidence for plate tectonics The youngest rocks on the ocean floor are near the ridge The oldest ocean rocks are near deep sea trenches where the old ocean crust is being subducted and destroyed b. Know that the principal structures that form at the three different kinds of plate boundaries. There are three types of plate boundaries: convergent, divergent, and strike-slip Convergent At convergent plate boundaries the plates come together and there is a shorting of the curst There are three types of convergent plate boundaries: ocean-ocean, continental-continental, and ocean-continental Ocean-Ocean one ocean plate goes under the other a deep sea trench is formed and an island arc like Japan Continental-continental there is an uplifting of the crust resulting in very high mountains like the Himalayan mountains Ocean-continental a deep sea trench forms and a volcanic arc like the cascade range in northern California, Oregon, and Washington Divergent A divergent plate boundary is where there is a lengthening of the earth’s crust as the plates move apart. If the boundary is under water a mid ocean ridge forms if on land a deep canyon forms. Transform At a transform boundary the plates slide past each other. There are strike slip faults like the San Andreas the curst is nether lengthened or shorthand. c. Know that the properties of rocks based on the physical and chemical conditions in which they formed, including plate tectonic processes. • Rocks can be made from minerals and non-minerals like coal and seashells • The first rocks where made from the almost same material as what is in the mantle • As the mantle material was recycled through the process of plate tectonics the lighter materials became concentrated in the Earth’s crust • There are three main types of rocks Igneous, Sedimentary, and Metamorphic • Any of the rock types can be converted to another rock type • Igneous rocks are created by melting of any other rock type including other igneous rocks • There are 2 types of igneous rock intrusive (cooled slowly inside the Earth’s surface and has large crystals) and extrusive (cooled quickly outside on the Earth’s surface and has small or no crystals) • Igneous rocks have 2 general types of chemistry, Felsic (light colored contains more silicate minerals the magma is more explosive) and Mafic (dark colored contains more iron and magnesium the magma is less explosive) • Metamorphic rocks are created by adding heat and or pressure to any preexisting rock including other metamorphic rocks • Sedimentary rocks are created when other rocks are broken apart by weathering or dissolved and the resulting particles or solutions are compressed, cemented together, or precipitated from a solution. • Metamorphic rocks have two general forms foliated (the rocks contain bands or layers like a schist or a gneiss) and non-foliated (the rocks do not contain any layering like quartzite and marble) • There are 3 main types of sedimentary rocks: clastic (contains rock fragments), chemical (composed of material that precipitated from a solution), and organic (came from living things). • Oil and coal are called fossil fuel because they came from the remains of living organisms • The 4main types of sedimentary rocks from limestone (mostly from marine organisms), shale (compressed mud), sandstone (compressed sand), conglomerate (compressed mud sand and rock) to Chemical sedimentary rocks from dried up water form halite, gypsum, and trona d. Know why and how earthquakes occur and the scales used to measure their intensity and magnitude. • Earthquakes usually occur along plate boundaries because that is where there is the greatest amount of stress created as the plates separate, collide, sub duct, or slide past each other • The three plate boundaries are convergent, divergent, and transform. The most damaging earthquakes occur on convergent and transform boundaries. • An Earthquake occurs when a piece of the lithosphere that had been unable to move suddenly breaks free and moves very quickly • The strength of the Earthquake is call magnitude and is measured with the Richter scale. A seismograph and records the magnitude • The Richter scale is exponential • The amount of damage an Earthquake does is the intensity and is measured with the modified Mercalli scale • There are two main types of Earthquake waves body waves and surface waves • When an Earthquake occurs body waves move though the Earth • When body waves hit the surface of the Earth they become surface waves and move along the surface • Surface waves are the slowest of all of the waves • There are two types of body wave primary waves (P waves) and secondary waves (S waves) • Primary waves are the fastest, are a compression wave, and can move though solid liquid and gas • Secondary waves are the slowest body wave, they are a shear wave, and can only move though solids • The center of the Earth was mapped using Earthquake waves are deflected by the various layers e. Know that there are two kinds of volcanoes: one kind with violent eruptions producing steep slopes and the other kind with voluminous lava flows producing gentle slopes. • • • • There are two main types of volcanoes explosive Stratovolcano and non-explosive Shield Non explosive volcanoes are made of mafic lava and generally occur along divergent boundaries and hot spots (Hawaii) Non explosive volcanoes are called shield volcanoes and have gentle slopes because the magma flows easily Explosive volcanoes generally occur along convergent plate boundaries in volcanic arcs. Explosive volcanoes are light colored (Felsic) and a steep slope There are two main types of explosive volcanoes. Composite volcano or stratovolcano (made of alternating layers of magma and rock and ash) a composite cone is the most explosive. Cinder Cones (made of ash and small rocks, no magma) are not as explosive Energy in the Earth System 4. Energy enters the Earth system primarily as solar radiation and eventually escapes as heat. As a basis for understanding this concept: a. Know that the relative amount of incoming solar energy compared with Earth’s internal energy and the energy used by society. The Earth’s internal energy is mostly nuclear fission from the radioactive decay of uranium plutonium and thorium there is a little heat energy left over from the formation of the Earth Most of the energy on the Earth’s surface comes from the sun as solar radiation some heat from the Earth’s interior is present on the surface as geothermal heat Geothermal heat comes in the form of magma that heats water to create steam. The steam is sometimes used to make electricity Geothermal heat only occurs in a relative few areas and therefore can only be used in limited amounts to generate electricity The Sun is what warms most of the Earth’s surface and controls most of how hot an area is The average square meter of Earth receives 1 kilowatt of solar energy every day If all of the solar energy could be used the energy needs of the world would be met For the over the last 300 million years much of the suns solar energy has been stored in the form of coal and oil also known as fossil fuels The Sun’s solar energy is stored in plants and fossil fuels. b. Know that the fate of incoming solar radiation in terms of reflection, absorption, and photosynthesis. The suns energy reaches Earth in the form of radiation All of the solar radiation is ether absorbed, reflected, or stored by photosynthesis The first layer of the atmosphere that solar radiation hits is magnetic field where some of the radiation is turned into hear or light (aurora borealis, northern lights) the heat gets reradiated back into space The next layer that affects light is the ozone layer that absorbs UV radiation and turns it into heat. The heat gets reradiated back into space Clouds reflect a lot of the visible light back into space The solar radiation makes to the Earth’s surface where it is ether reflected back into space, absorbed, or stored by photosynthesis About 50% of the solar radiation is absorbed by the Earth’s surface converted into heat and reradiated into the atmosphere as heat Some of the radiation is used in photosynthesis by plants where the energy is stored in the form of sugars. The plants use the energy at night and to make flowers and seeds. Animals get the energy when they eat the plants. When plants die the energy can get stored in coal or oil deposits c. Know that the different atmospheric gases that absorb the Earth’s thermal radiation and the mechanism and significance of the greenhouse effect. The sun produces all frequencies of solar radiation including gamma-rays, X-rays, micro-waves, visible light, radio waves, ultraviolet radiation, and inferred radiation (heat). When the radiation hits the Earth’s atmosphere some of the radiation is converted into heat in the magnetosphere and ozone layer, this heat is generally just reradiated back into space because it occurs in the upper atmosphere About 50% of the radiation is absorbed or reflect in the atmosphere the other 50% makes to the Earth’s surface. The solar radiation makes to the Earth’s surface where it is ether reflected back into space, absorbed, or stored by photosynthesis The radiation that is absorbed by the atmosphere or the land gets changed into inferred radiation (heat) and reradiated back into the atmosphere Heat wants to leave the Earth and escape into space Heat that exists in the lower level of the atmosphere can get trapped by CO2 and be reflected back down to the Earth’s surface causing a heat build up The greenhouse effect is a natural heating of the Earth’s surface Carbon dioxide is a bipolar molecule that is affected by the long wave length of inferred radiation (heat). When heat waves hit CO2 the molecule gets excited and reradiates the heat trapping it in the atmosphere The greenhouse effect is caused by a buildup of CO2 in the atmosphere that traps the heat and prevents it from escaping humans increased the greenhouse effect by releasing more CO2 into the air In the greenhouse effect CO2 and other greenhouse gasses in the atmosphere absorb and release long wave radiation inferred In order for the Earth to maintain a constant temperature it has to get rid of the same amount of radiation as it takes in from the sun not including the energy that is stored by plants during photosynthesis 5. Heating of Earth’s surface and atmosphere by the sun drives convection within the atmosphere and oceans, producing winds and ocean currents. As a basis for understanding this concept: a. Know that differential heating of Earth results in circulation patterns in the atmosphere and oceans that globally distribute the heat. The equator is warmer than the poles because the Sun’s rays hit the equator at a high angle (close to 90 degrees). When air gets hotter and or moister it becomes less dense and it floats or rises When air gets colder and or drier it becomes more dense and it sinks or goes down When air gets pushed up into the upper atmosphere there is less pressure so the molecules expand and the air cools As air rises it becomes less dense and gets colder When air rises it cannot hold as much water it forms clouds and the air becomes drier Sinking air masses are drier than rising air masses When an air mass sinks its temperature increases The energy in the Earth’s atmosphere is distributed by convection (winds) The oceans distribute heat mainly through surface currents Ocean currents are caused by winds, the Coriolis Effect, and the location of continents. Deep ocean currents are caused mostly by cold dense water sinking. Areas next to the ocean do not heat as much or get as cold because water has a high specific heat Soil absorbs and releases heat faster than water because it has a lower specific heat. Land locked areas get a greater seasonal temperature variation. b. Know that the relationship between the rotation of Earth and the circular motions of ocean currents and air in pressure centers. The rotation of the Earth causes air and water to get deflected In the northern hemisphere air from the equator is deflect to the East In the northern hemisphere air from the North moving south is deflect to the West In the southern hemisphere air from the equator is deflect to the East In the southern hemisphere air from the North moving south is deflect to the West In the Northern Hemisphere ocean currents travel clockwise and counter-clock wise in the southern hemisphere N W E S c. Know that the origin and effects of temperature inversions. A temperature inversion is when warm air gets trapped on cold air A temperature inversion prevents air from rising and escaping trapping dust and pollution In a temperature inversion the pressure still drops with altitude just like all other air Temperature inversions occur in the lower atmosphere because the air loses heat faster than it is absorbed (the ground cools the lower layer of air in the winter) d. Know that properties of ocean water, such as temperature and salinity, can be used to explain the layered structure of the oceans, the generation of horizontal and vertical ocean currents, and the geographic distribution of marine organisms. The early ocean was made of fresh water and got salty from the erosion of rocks on the earth’s crust The greatest effect on the salinity of the ocean is the evaporation at the equator, freezing of water at the poles also increases the salinity. The amount of salt in the ocean is called its salinity The higher the salinity the denser the ocean water is The colder the water is the denser the ocean water is The densest ocean water comes from the polar regions There are 2 types of ocean currents deep and surface Deep ocean currents are caused by a changes in density Surface currents are caused by the Coriolis effect, winds, and the location of continents Most of the temperature change in the ocean occurs in a layer called the Thermocline The temperature of the surface water does not change much with depth and is depends mostly on latitude The temperature of ocean water drops quickly when it hits the Thermocline there is not much temperature change above or below this layer An upwelling current is when cold deep nutrient-rich water is brought to the surface An upwelling current helps marine life thrive The Coriolis Effect makes things go clockwise in the northern hemisphere and counter clockwise in the southern hemisphere Plankton are an organism that drifts in open waters, Nekton are an organism that swims in open waters, and Benthos are any organism that lives on the bottom of the ocean The ocean is divided into several zones the Benthic Zone (bottom), Pelagic Zone (open ocean), and the Intertidal Zone (near shore) Desalination: a process of removing salt from ocean water: freezing, distillation, and reverse osmosis Aquaculture: the raising of aquatic plants and animals for human use or consumption e. Know that rain forests and deserts on Earth are distributed in bands at specific latitudes. Most of the rainforests occur along the equator (0 degrees latitude) Most of the deserts are found at 30 degrees latitude Monsoons are winds that blow in opposite directions in different seasons because of the differential heating of the land and the ocean 6. Climate is the long-term average of a region’s weather and depends on many factors. As a basis for understanding this concept: a. Know that weather (in the short run) and climate (in the long run) involve the transfer of energy into and out of the atmosphere. The Weather is the atmospheric condition over a small area and a short period of time (a season or a year) and it is normal for it to change from year to year The climate is the average conditions over a large area over a long period of time (a hundred years or more) Climates take a long time to change Both the weather and climate involve the transfer of energy in and out of the environment Clouds tend to hold in the heat during the winter giving an average warmer temperature Ultimately weather and climates get their energy from the sun The amount of solar energy has a direct impact on an area climate and weather Storms occur when warm air and cold air meet An area’s climate can change when plate tectonics move continents to the North or South b. Know that the effects on climate of latitude, elevation, topography, and proximity to large bodies of water and cold or warm ocean currents. The higher the latitude the colder the climate because the sun strikes the Earth at an angle so each square meter receives less solar energy The higher the elevation the colder the climate A rain shadow is a mountain range that removes moisture from the air. The side facing the prevailing winds is wet and the opposite side is dry. When moist air is pushed against a mountain it is forced up cools and clouds form, this is called a Chinook. Chinook wind currents produce a wet climate When the air goes down the other side of the mountain it is dry and heats up it is called a Foehn. Foehn air currents produce dry hot climates When mountains prevent moisture from moving inland they are called Rain shadows Water has a high specific heat so it heats up and cools down slowly Land has a low specific heat so it heats up and cools down quickly Air has a very low specific heat so water heats up and cools down adjacent air Cities next to oceans and large bodies of water tend to have a lower temperature range cooler summers and warmer winters because the water helps to control the adjacent air temperature Cities that are land locked tend to have colder winters and hotter summers The Gulf-Stream keeps Northern Europe warm, there is a similar current in the southern hemisphere c. Know that Earth’s climate has changed over time, corresponding to changes in Earth’s geography, atmospheric composition, and other factors, such as solar radiation and plate movement. The Earth’s climate is always fluctuating over periods of hundreds, thousands, and millions of years The Earth’s climate is getting warmer in part because it is coming out of the last ice age As continents move from the equator to the poles and from the poles to the equator the climates on the continents changes Africa used to be located at the south pole and Antarctica used to be tropical as the continents moved the glaciers melted on Africa and new ones formed on Antarctica Mountain ranges effect climates by removing moisture from air as it passes over creating a rain shadow The Earth’s atmosphere did not have any oxygen or an ozone layer until massive amount of oxygen was produced in the Precambrian era that put oxygen in the atmosphere a created the ozone layer Biogeochemical Cycles 7. Each element on Earth moves among reservoirs, which exist in the solid earth, in oceans, in the atmosphere, and within and among organisms as part of biogeochemical cycles. As a basis for understanding this concept: a. Know that the carbon cycle of photosynthesis and respiration and the nitrogen cycle. Nitrogen is primarily removed from the atmosphere by nitrogen fixing bacteria Nitrogen fixing bacteria binds nitrogen to other elements to form ammonium and other nitrates A small amount of nitrogen is removed when lightning strikes Nitrogen is necessary for life to occur it and it is unusable as it occurs in the air The only way plants can use nitrogen is after it has been fixed usually by bacteria the lives on the roots Animals get nitrogen by eating plants or other animals Nitrogen enters back into the atmosphere when plants and animals die The carbon cycle consists of photosynthesis, respiration, combustion and decay. Carbon is removed from the atmosphere during photosynthesis Most of the carbon for the last hundred years has been removed from the air and stored in the ocean The oceans contain 60 times more carbon than the atmosphere Ocean plants remove carbon from the ocean by photosynthesis Animals like clams and coral remove carbon form the ocean when they make their shells When animals die sometimes their shells or the coral gets accumulated and makes limestone Sometimes when plants and animals die they form coal, oil, and natural gas deposits The method that holds the carbon the longest is limestone California has limestone deposits that are over 500 million years old most of the coal and oil deposits are 300 to 360 million years old The burning of fossil fuels has put a lot of CO2 back into the atmosphere The burning of limestone to make cement has contributed to the CO2 in the atmosphere but to a less extent than burning fossil fuels When animals breath respiration it puts CO2 into the atmosphere The decaying of dead animals puts CO2 and nitrogen into the atmosphere b. Know that the global carbon cycle: the different physical and chemical forms of carbon in the atmosphere, oceans, biomass, fossil fuels, and the movement of carbon among these reservoirs. Carbon dioxide is present in the atmosphere as a gas The other carbon molecules are less stable and are not in the atmosphere in large quantities The main way carbon dioxide gets into the atmosphere is through combustion of fossil fuels, organic matter (forest fires) and volcanic eruptions. The main ways the carbon dioxide is removed from the atmosphere is by photosynthesis and when the carbon enters the ocean because it gets trapped in tiny bubbles in waves The oceans store 60 times more carbon than the atmosphere Carbon dioxide is removed from the ocean when the water heats up it goes back into the atmosphere, photosynthesis from aquatic plants, and when animals use the carbon to make shells and coral The limestone made from shells and coral removes carbon from the atmosphere the longest c. Know that the movement of matter among reservoirs is driven by Earth’s internal and external sources of energy. Both nitrogen and carbon are stored in reservoirs A reservoir is any place where carbon and nitrogen exist reservoirs include the atmosphere, the ocean, rocks, and living organisms Carbon and nitrogen will only move from one reservoir to another if energy is added the energy comes from two sources solar energy form the sun and nuclear radiation from the Earth Nuclear radiation (the nuclear fission of uranium, thorium, and plutonium) generates massive amount of heat inside the Earth. The heat inside the Earth is what keeps the mantle hot and causes convection that ultimately causes plate tectonics on the surface of Earth The solar radiation (energy from the sun) is where most of the energy comes from on the surface of the Earth Solar radiation is the energy source that powers photosynthesis Structure and Composition of the Atmosphere 8. Life has changed Earth’s atmosphere and changes in the atmosphere affect conditions for life. As a basis for understanding this concept: a. Know that the thermal structure and chemical composition of the atmosphere. The current atmosphere is composed of about 79% nitrogen, 18% oxygen, 1% argon, and 1% other gasses including carbon dioxide The atmosphere has 4 layers from bottom to top Troposphere, Stratosphere, Mesosphere, and Thermosphere The layers are determined by their thermal gradient, Troposphere gets colder with altitude, stratosphere gets warmer, mesosphere colder and the Thermosphere gets warmer. The ozone layer is in the stratosphere it filters out UV radiation and is what makes the stratosphere warm. The ozone layer was created in the Precambrian era by photosynthesis that created massive amounts of oxygen this layer then blocked out most of the incoming UV radiation Most of the sun’s ultra violet (UV) radiation gets converted to heat energy when it comes into contact with the ozone layer. UV radiation breaks apart the ozone molecule the molecule reforms when it combines with other oxygen atom. The main man made thing destroying the ozone layer is chloral floral carbons CFC Since the banning of CFC and other ozone depleting chemicals the hole in the ozone layer has been shrinking. The ionosphere is in the thermosphere and extends out into space beyond the atmosphere The ionosphere is created by the Earth’s magnetic field Some of the solar radiation (ex: gamma rays and x rays) are converted to heat and light energy when the radiation comes in contact with the Earth’s magnetic field (the ionosphere) The atmospheric pressure decreases with altitude The greenhouse effect is caused mostly by CO2 in the atmosphere trapping the heat b. Know that the composition of Earth’s atmosphere has evolved over geologic time and the effect of outgassing, the variations of carbon dioxide concentration, and the origin of atmospheric oxygen. The Earth’s first atmosphere was composed of Hydrogen (H) an Helium (He) The Earth lost its first atmosphere when the sun started to fusion because the Earth did not have enough gravity to hold on to the gas when the solar winds started. So, the first atmosphere was blown into space by the solar winds Our current atmosphere is a result of gasses trapped inside the Earth that escaped be a process called out gassing During out gassing the main gasses that came out of the volcanoes where: water vapor (H 2O), carbon dioxide (CO2), nitrogen (N2), and ammonia (NH3) The most abundant in element in the atmosphere today is Nitrogen (N 2) followed by oxygen (O2) Our oxygen environment is a result of photosynthesis by cyanobacteria using the CO 2 and producing O2 c. Know that the location of the ozone layer in the upper atmosphere, its role in absorbing ultraviolet radiation, and the way in which this layer varies both naturally and in response to human activities. One of the types of radiation produced by the sun is ultraviolet radiation UV Before the ozone layer the UV radiation hit the Earth’s surface so the first life had to exist below the water’s surface where the water protected it from the radiation After a lot of oxygen was produced the ozone layer formed in the upper stratosphere The ozone layer is composed of three oxygen atoms (O3) The ozone layer occurs where it does because of its density The ozone layer filters out most of the suns UV radiation The UV radiation destroy the ozone molecule but in the upper atmosphere the molecule reforms Some manmade chemicals like chlorofluorocarbons (CFC’s) destroy the ozone molecules and layer. When CFC’s destroy the ozone molecule it does not reform and holes or weak spots have developed as a result of manmade contaminates Since the banning of CFC’s and other ozone depleting chemicals the ozone layer is healing or recovering from the previous damage California Geology 9. The geology of California underlies the state’s wealth of natural resources as well as its natural hazards. As a basis for understanding this concept: a. Know that the resources of major economic importance in California and their relation to California’s geology. California has a very complex and diverse geology 400 million years ago most of California was under water Because California is relatively young we have steep mountains and many active earthquake faults Some of the mountains are still growing at a rate of 2 inches per year or more As a result of the active geology California has active volcanoes and other volcanic activity Hydro thermal activity does occur at various locations including Long Valley Caldera and Mt Lassen Hydro thermal activity is the heating of ground water by magma in some cases the hot water is used to generate electricity by the use of steam turbines California has many natural resources including gold, silver, gem stones ( Benitoite, there are no diamonds in California), Sedimentary deposits rock, sand, and gravel are used to make concrete and stucco California also possess lots of water and natural gas and oil b. Know that the principal natural hazards in different California regions and the geologic basis of those hazards. There are many natural hazards in California including avalanches from snow on steep slopes Rock slides occur on steep slopes and are commonly triggered by Earthquakes Landslides are common on steep hillsides where ground water gets into the hill and makes the slope unstable