Download Earth Science CA Standard Study Guide

Earth Science CA Standard Study Guide
Earth’s Place in the Universe
1. Astronomy and planetary exploration reveal the solar system’s structure, scale, and change
over time. As a basis for understanding this concept:
a. Know that the differences and similarities among the sun, the terrestrial planets, and the gas planets
may have been established during the formation of the solar system.
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During the formation of the solar system while the sun was forming in the center of the nebular
the planets where forming.
There are two types of planets the inner(terrestrial) and the outer (gas planets)
The terrestrial planets are rocky and have a solid surface
The terrestrial planets from the Sun are Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars
The gas planets also known as the gas giants are very large
The gas giants are composed primarily of gassed and may not have a solid surface
The terrestrial planets lost their original atmosphere because they did not have enough gravity to
hold on to the hydrogen and helium when the sun started to fuse
The gas planets are larger in part because they are farther from the sun so lighter elements can
exist as Ice and therefore do not get blown away by the solar winds
The asteroid belt between Mars and Jupiter contains enough material to create a planet
The asteroid belt did not form a planet because Jupiter’s gravity was so large that whenever two
rocks came together the gravity would pull them apart
b. Know that the evidence from Earth and moon rocks indicates that the solar system was formed from a
nebular cloud of dust and gas approximately 4.6 billion years ago.
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Our solar system formed from a solar nebula about 4.6 to 5 billion years ago
A nebula is a giant cloud of gas and dust composed mostly of hydrogen
The nebula started to shrink under the force of its own gravity
As the nebula shrank it started to spin most of the mass is in the center where at the sun
The only material that did not end up in the sun was the material that was spinning around the
sun
The solar system is disk shaped because all of the material above and below the sun that did not
spin was pulled into the sun
The oldest rocks are 4.6 billion years old
Rocks are dated by using radioactive dating of isotopes inside the rocks
c. Know that the evidence from geological studies of Earth and other planets suggest that the early Earth
was very different from Earth today.
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Earth was originally molten when it first formed
Earth formed when asteroids collided together
Three things made the Earth molten: friction from meteor impacts, gravity form the material
collapsing in on its self, and radioactive decay of primarily uranium, plutonium, and thorium
When the Earth was molten the dense elements (iron and nickel) sank to the middle of the planet
and the less dense material rose to the crust
The separation of material had to occur when the Earth was molten because solids cannot flow
The process that cause the layer of the Earth to form is differentiation
Earth’s first atmosphere was mostly hydrogen and helium was blown away by the solar winds
Earth got its second atmosphere from out-gassing when gasses trapped inside the planet migrated
to the surface because of differences in density
The second atmosphere did not have any free oxygen and therefore the iron that was left on the
surface did not rust or oxidize
There was no oxygen in the first atmosphere because the iron in the rocks did not oxidize or rust.
The oxygen in the atmosphere is a direct result of photosynthesis by cyanobacteria
When the oxygen was forming in the atmosphere some rock deposits contained bands of rusted
(oxidized) iron and bands of non-rusted iron
d. Know that the evidence indicating that the planets are much closer to Earth than the stars are.
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Evidence that planets are closer to Earth than stars: planets appear to wander in the night sky,
calculations using parallax determines the distance the planets are from the Earth
Planets are smaller than stars but appear the same size because they are closer.
As stars move away from us the color shifts to the red, and when they move closer to us their color shifts
to the blue (the Doppler Effect).
e. Know that the Sun is a typical star and is powered by nuclear reactions, primarily the fusion of
hydrogen to form helium.
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The sun gets its energy by a complex process called fusion where four hydrogen atoms are
combined to form a helium atom and two positrons
In large stars when the hydrogen starts to run out three helium are fused to form carbon then
helium and carbon fuse to form oxygen. Elements continue to fuse until iron is produced.
No element heavier than iron is form from the fusion inside stars
Stars absolute magnitude and color are plotted on an HR diagram
Our sun is considered a main sequence star based on where it plots on the H-R diagram
Only very large stars go super nova our sun will eventually become a white dwarf
The color or solar spectrum of thousands of stars has been studied
The spectrum tells us what the star is composed of (each element emits a unique spectrum)
We know that our sun is a typical star by comparing its solar spectrum to thousands of other stars
f. Know that the evidence for the dramatic effects that asteroid impacts have had in shaping the surface of
planets and their moons and in mass extinctions of life on Earth.
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The Earth got its heat from three factors: meteor and asteroid collisions, compression from
gravity, and radioactive decay
Early in Earth’s history most of the heat came from meteor and asteroids collisions
Today Earth gets most of its heat from radioactive decay
The moons craters are evidence that there were many meteor impacts early in the formation of
the solar system
The meteor impacts on the moon are still present today because the moon does not experience
erosion or plate tectonics that would destroy the craters
Most of the craters on Earth got destroyed by erosion and plate tectonics
The moon gets more meteor and asteroid impacts for two reasons’ there is no atmosphere to
make the meteors burn up, and the Earth’s gravity deflects some objects into the moon.
There is evidence of meteor impacts on Earth. About 65 MYA a large meteor struck Earth off of the
Yucatan Peninsula causing the extinction of the dinosaurs. There an impact crater that is well
pressured in Arizona
2. Earth-based and space-based astronomy reveal the structure, scale, and changes in stars,
galaxies, and the universe over time. As a basis for understanding this concept:
a. Know that the solar system is located in an outer edge of the disc-shaped Milky Way galaxy, which
spans 100,000 light years.
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Our solar system is in the Milky Way galaxy
The solar system is about 2/3 from the center or 1/3 from the outer edge
The Milky Way galaxy is about 100,000 light years across. It takes light 100,000 years to go from
one edge to the next
There are four types of galaxies irregular, elliptical, spiral, and a barred spiral
Spiral and barred spiral galaxies are disk shaped
The Milky Way is a spiral galaxy
b. Know that galaxies are made of Billions of stars and comprise most of the visible mass of the universe.
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The universe 15 billion years ago consisted of all matter condensed into a small area
15 billion years ago the was a big thermonuclear explosion called the big bang
All matter in the universe came from the big bang
Soon after the Big Bang there were ripples in space that consisted of concentrations of matter
Today most of all visible matter is in galaxies
The space between galaxies is mostly empty
Each galaxy is composed of billions of stars
There are billions of galaxies in the universe
c. Know that the evidence indicates that all elements with an atomic number greater than that of lithium
have been formed by nuclear fusion in stars.
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Stars get there energy from fusion
Fusion is when two or more lighter elements are combined to form heavier elements
Fusion of hydrogen to form helium occurs in three steps
As part of the fusion process two hydrogen protons get converted into neutrons
Neutrons are slightly lighter than protons
The amount of energy generated is determined by Einstein’s equation E=mc2
After a star uses most of their hydrogen they start to fuse helium to make carbon.
The fusion process continues until iron is produced.
Elements heavier than iron cannot be formed from fusion in stars, only when stars go super nova.
Immediately after the big bang hydrogen, helium, and lithium where the only elements present.
In order for fusion to occur the atoms have to be at high temperature and moving at very high
velocities, about 10,000,000 degrees C in our sun
d. Know that stars differ in their life cycles and that visual, radio, and X-ray telescopes may be used to
collect data that reveal those differences.
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All of the information we have about stars comes from studying its spectrum and intensity
A stars spectrum is the amount and type of radiation that it emits
A stars spectrum includes X-rays, gamma rays, ultraviolet light, visual light, radio waves microwaves, and inferred radiation
Every element when supper heated gives of a unique blend of radiation from the previous list
By studying the radiation that a star gives off scientists can determined which elements are
present
A stars size is determined by the intensity or amount of radiation that is given off
The intensity and color of a star is plotted on a Hertzsprung-Russell (H-R) diagram
According to the diagram most stars plot along a band called the main sequence only very large or
small stars are not considered to be main sequence stars
Our sun is a main sequence star
After a star fuses its hydrogen it starts to fuse helium to form other heavy elements
Iron is the heaviest element that can form in a star
Elements heavier than Iron are formed in a super nova explosion
When large stars use up their hydrogen they eventually go super nova (a large explosion) and can
end up as a black hole
When medium and smaller stars like our sun use up their hydrogen they become a red giant then
became a white dwarf
Dynamic Earth Processes
3. Plate tectonics operating over geologic time has changed the patterns of land, sea, and
mountains on Earth’s surface. As the basis for understanding this concept:
a. Know that features of the ocean floor (magnetic patterns, age, and sea-floor topography) provide
evidence of plate tectonics.
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Before the theory of plate tectonics there was the hypotheses of continental drift
Continental drift states that the continents were once connected then drifted apart
The evidence for continental drift is: the contents fit together, the same plant and animal fossils
occur on multiple continents, the climate has vastly change on continents
The evidence for plate tectonics in the same as for continental drift with additional evidence
The first piece of evidence for plate tectonics is sea-floor spreading
In the middle of the Atlantic ocean there is a ridge created by a chain of volcanoes
The ocean floor is being pulled apart in the middle of the Atlantic ocean
As the floor is pulled apart new magma from the mantle rises and creates new ocean floor
The Earth’s magnetic field switches sometimes the magnetic north pole is north and sometimes it
is in the south
The iron in the magma aligns with the Earth’s magnetic field and is preserved when the magma
cools
As a result the rock on the ocean floor has rock with an alternating magnetic pattern
The alternating magnetic pattern is used to discover the different ages of rocks near the mid ocean
ridge and it is evidence for plate tectonics
The youngest rocks on the ocean floor are near the ridge
The oldest ocean rocks are near deep sea trenches where the old ocean crust is being subducted
and destroyed
b. Know that the principal structures that form at the three different kinds of plate boundaries.
 There are three types of plate boundaries: convergent, divergent, and strike-slip
Convergent
 At convergent plate boundaries the plates come together and there is a shorting of the curst
 There are three types of convergent plate boundaries: ocean-ocean, continental-continental, and
ocean-continental
 Ocean-Ocean one ocean plate goes under the other a deep sea trench is formed and an island arc
like Japan
 Continental-continental there is an uplifting of the crust resulting in very high mountains like the
Himalayan mountains
 Ocean-continental a deep sea trench forms and a volcanic arc like the cascade range in northern
California, Oregon, and Washington
Divergent
 A divergent plate boundary is where there is a lengthening of the earth’s crust as the plates move
apart. If the boundary is under water a mid ocean ridge forms if on land a deep canyon forms.
Transform
 At a transform boundary the plates slide past each other. There are strike slip faults like the San
Andreas the curst is nether lengthened or shorthand.
c. Know that the properties of rocks based on the physical and chemical conditions in which they formed,
including plate tectonic processes.
• Rocks can be made from minerals and non-minerals like coal and seashells
• The first rocks where made from the almost same material as what is in the mantle
• As the mantle material was recycled through the process of plate tectonics the lighter materials
became concentrated in the Earth’s crust
• There are three main types of rocks Igneous, Sedimentary, and Metamorphic
• Any of the rock types can be converted to another rock type
• Igneous rocks are created by melting of any other rock type including other igneous rocks
• There are 2 types of igneous rock intrusive (cooled slowly inside the Earth’s surface and has large
crystals) and extrusive (cooled quickly outside on the Earth’s surface and has small or no crystals)
• Igneous rocks have 2 general types of chemistry, Felsic (light colored contains more silicate
minerals the magma is more explosive) and Mafic (dark colored contains more iron and
magnesium the magma is less explosive)
• Metamorphic rocks are created by adding heat and or pressure to any preexisting rock including
other metamorphic rocks
• Sedimentary rocks are created when other rocks are broken apart by weathering or dissolved and
the resulting particles or solutions are compressed, cemented together, or precipitated from a
solution.
• Metamorphic rocks have two general forms foliated (the rocks contain bands or layers like a schist
or a gneiss) and non-foliated (the rocks do not contain any layering like quartzite and marble)
• There are 3 main types of sedimentary rocks: clastic (contains rock fragments), chemical
(composed of material that precipitated from a solution), and organic (came from living things).
• Oil and coal are called fossil fuel because they came from the remains of living organisms
• The 4main types of sedimentary rocks from limestone (mostly from marine organisms), shale
(compressed mud), sandstone (compressed sand), conglomerate (compressed mud sand and
rock) to Chemical sedimentary rocks from dried up water form halite, gypsum, and trona
d. Know why and how earthquakes occur and the scales used to measure their intensity and magnitude.
• Earthquakes usually occur along plate boundaries because that is where there is the greatest
amount of stress created as the plates separate, collide, sub duct, or slide past each other
• The three plate boundaries are convergent, divergent, and transform. The most damaging
earthquakes occur on convergent and transform boundaries.
• An Earthquake occurs when a piece of the lithosphere that had been unable to move suddenly
breaks free and moves very quickly
• The strength of the Earthquake is call magnitude and is measured with the Richter scale. A
seismograph and records the magnitude
• The Richter scale is exponential
• The amount of damage an Earthquake does is the intensity and is measured with the modified
Mercalli scale
• There are two main types of Earthquake waves body waves and surface waves
• When an Earthquake occurs body waves move though the Earth
• When body waves hit the surface of the Earth they become surface waves and move along the
surface
• Surface waves are the slowest of all of the waves
• There are two types of body wave primary waves (P waves) and secondary waves (S waves)
• Primary waves are the fastest, are a compression wave, and can move though solid liquid and gas
• Secondary waves are the slowest body wave, they are a shear wave, and can only move though
solids
• The center of the Earth was mapped using Earthquake waves are deflected by the various layers
e. Know that there are two kinds of volcanoes: one kind with violent eruptions producing steep slopes
and the other kind with voluminous lava flows producing gentle slopes.
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There are two main types of volcanoes explosive Stratovolcano and non-explosive Shield
Non explosive volcanoes are made of mafic lava and generally occur along divergent boundaries
and hot spots (Hawaii)
Non explosive volcanoes are called shield volcanoes and have gentle slopes because the magma
flows easily
Explosive volcanoes generally occur along convergent plate boundaries in volcanic arcs. Explosive
volcanoes are light colored (Felsic) and a steep slope
There are two main types of explosive volcanoes. Composite volcano or stratovolcano (made of
alternating layers of magma and rock and ash) a composite cone is the most explosive. Cinder
Cones (made of ash and small rocks, no magma) are not as explosive
Energy in the Earth System
4. Energy enters the Earth system primarily as solar radiation and eventually escapes as heat. As a
basis for understanding this concept:
a. Know that the relative amount of incoming solar energy compared with Earth’s internal energy and the
energy used by society.
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The Earth’s internal energy is mostly nuclear fission from the radioactive decay of uranium
plutonium and thorium there is a little heat energy left over from the formation of the Earth
Most of the energy on the Earth’s surface comes from the sun as solar radiation some heat from
the Earth’s interior is present on the surface as geothermal heat
Geothermal heat comes in the form of magma that heats water to create steam. The steam is
sometimes used to make electricity
Geothermal heat only occurs in a relative few areas and therefore can only be used in limited
amounts to generate electricity
The Sun is what warms most of the Earth’s surface and controls most of how hot an area is
The average square meter of Earth receives 1 kilowatt of solar energy every day
If all of the solar energy could be used the energy needs of the world would be met
For the over the last 300 million years much of the suns solar energy has been stored in the form
of coal and oil also known as fossil fuels
The Sun’s solar energy is stored in plants and fossil fuels.
b. Know that the fate of incoming solar radiation in terms of reflection, absorption, and photosynthesis.
The suns energy reaches Earth in the form of radiation
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All of the solar radiation is ether absorbed, reflected, or stored by photosynthesis
The first layer of the atmosphere that solar radiation hits is magnetic field where some of the
radiation is turned into hear or light (aurora borealis, northern lights) the heat gets reradiated
back into space
The next layer that affects light is the ozone layer that absorbs UV radiation and turns it into heat.
The heat gets reradiated back into space
Clouds reflect a lot of the visible light back into space
The solar radiation makes to the Earth’s surface where it is ether reflected back into space,
absorbed, or stored by photosynthesis
About 50% of the solar radiation is absorbed by the Earth’s surface converted into heat and
reradiated into the atmosphere as heat
Some of the radiation is used in photosynthesis by plants where the energy is stored in the form of
sugars. The plants use the energy at night and to make flowers and seeds. Animals get the energy
when they eat the plants. When plants die the energy can get stored in coal or oil deposits
c. Know that the different atmospheric gases that absorb the Earth’s thermal radiation and the
mechanism and significance of the greenhouse effect.
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The sun produces all frequencies of solar radiation including gamma-rays, X-rays, micro-waves,
visible light, radio waves, ultraviolet radiation, and inferred radiation (heat).
When the radiation hits the Earth’s atmosphere some of the radiation is converted into heat in the
magnetosphere and ozone layer, this heat is generally just reradiated back into space because it
occurs in the upper atmosphere
About 50% of the radiation is absorbed or reflect in the atmosphere the other 50% makes to the
Earth’s surface.
The solar radiation makes to the Earth’s surface where it is ether reflected back into space,
absorbed, or stored by photosynthesis
The radiation that is absorbed by the atmosphere or the land gets changed into inferred radiation
(heat) and reradiated back into the atmosphere
Heat wants to leave the Earth and escape into space
Heat that exists in the lower level of the atmosphere can get trapped by CO2 and be reflected back
down to the Earth’s surface causing a heat build up
The greenhouse effect is a natural heating of the Earth’s surface
Carbon dioxide is a bipolar molecule that is affected by the long wave length of inferred radiation
(heat). When heat waves hit CO2 the molecule gets excited and reradiates the heat trapping it in
the atmosphere
The greenhouse effect is caused by a buildup of CO2 in the atmosphere that traps the heat and
prevents it from escaping humans increased the greenhouse effect by releasing more CO2 into the
air
In the greenhouse effect CO2 and other greenhouse gasses in the atmosphere absorb and release
long wave radiation inferred
In order for the Earth to maintain a constant temperature it has to get rid of the same amount of
radiation as it takes in from the sun not including the energy that is stored by plants during
photosynthesis
5. Heating of Earth’s surface and atmosphere by the sun drives convection within the atmosphere
and oceans, producing winds and ocean currents. As a basis for understanding this concept:
a. Know that differential heating of Earth results in circulation patterns in the atmosphere and oceans
that globally distribute the heat.
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The equator is warmer than the poles because the Sun’s rays hit the equator at a high angle (close
to 90 degrees).
When air gets hotter and or moister it becomes less dense and it floats or rises
When air gets colder and or drier it becomes more dense and it sinks or goes down
When air gets pushed up into the upper atmosphere there is less pressure so the molecules
expand and the air cools
As air rises it becomes less dense and gets colder
When air rises it cannot hold as much water it forms clouds and the air becomes drier
Sinking air masses are drier than rising air masses
When an air mass sinks its temperature increases
The energy in the Earth’s atmosphere is distributed by convection (winds)
The oceans distribute heat mainly through surface currents
Ocean currents are caused by winds, the Coriolis Effect, and the location of continents.
Deep ocean currents are caused mostly by cold dense water sinking.
Areas next to the ocean do not heat as much or get as cold because water has a high specific heat
Soil absorbs and releases heat faster than water because it has a lower specific heat. Land locked
areas get a greater seasonal temperature variation.
b. Know that the relationship between the rotation of Earth and the circular motions of ocean currents
and air in pressure centers.
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The rotation of the Earth causes air and water to get deflected
In the northern hemisphere air from the equator is deflect to the East
In the northern hemisphere air from the North moving south is deflect to the West
In the southern hemisphere air from the equator is deflect to the East
In the southern hemisphere air from the North moving south is deflect to the West
In the Northern Hemisphere ocean currents travel clockwise and counter-clock wise in the
southern hemisphere
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S
c. Know that the origin and effects of temperature inversions.
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A temperature inversion is when warm air gets trapped on cold air
A temperature inversion prevents air from rising and escaping trapping dust and pollution
In a temperature inversion the pressure still drops with altitude just like all other air
Temperature inversions occur in the lower atmosphere because the air loses heat faster than it is
absorbed (the ground cools the lower layer of air in the winter)
d. Know that properties of ocean water, such as temperature and salinity, can be used to explain the layered
structure of the oceans, the generation of horizontal and vertical ocean currents, and the geographic
distribution of marine organisms.
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The early ocean was made of fresh water and got salty from the erosion of rocks on the earth’s crust
The greatest effect on the salinity of the ocean is the evaporation at the equator, freezing of water at the poles also
increases the salinity.
The amount of salt in the ocean is called its salinity
The higher the salinity the denser the ocean water is
The colder the water is the denser the ocean water is
The densest ocean water comes from the polar regions
There are 2 types of ocean currents deep and surface
Deep ocean currents are caused by a changes in density
Surface currents are caused by the Coriolis effect, winds, and the location of continents
Most of the temperature change in the ocean occurs in a layer called the Thermocline
The temperature of the surface water does not change much with depth and is depends mostly on latitude
The temperature of ocean water drops quickly when it hits the Thermocline there is not much temperature change
above or below this layer
An upwelling current is when cold deep nutrient-rich water is brought to the surface
An upwelling current helps marine life thrive
The Coriolis Effect makes things go clockwise in the northern hemisphere and counter clockwise in the southern
hemisphere
Plankton are an organism that drifts in open waters, Nekton are an organism that swims in open waters, and Benthos
are any organism that lives on the bottom of the ocean
The ocean is divided into several zones the Benthic Zone (bottom), Pelagic Zone (open ocean), and the Intertidal Zone
(near shore)
Desalination: a process of removing salt from ocean water: freezing, distillation, and reverse osmosis
Aquaculture: the raising of aquatic plants and animals for human use or consumption
e. Know that rain forests and deserts on Earth are distributed in bands at specific latitudes.
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Most of the rainforests occur along the equator (0 degrees latitude)
Most of the deserts are found at 30 degrees latitude
Monsoons are winds that blow in opposite directions in different seasons because of the differential heating of
the land and the ocean
6. Climate is the long-term average of a region’s weather and depends on many factors. As a basis for
understanding this concept:
a. Know that weather (in the short run) and climate (in the long run) involve the transfer of energy into and out
of the atmosphere.
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The Weather is the atmospheric condition over a small area and a short period of time (a season or a year) and it
is normal for it to change from year to year
The climate is the average conditions over a large area over a long period of time (a hundred years or more)
Climates take a long time to change
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Both the weather and climate involve the transfer of energy in and out of the environment
Clouds tend to hold in the heat during the winter giving an average warmer temperature
Ultimately weather and climates get their energy from the sun
The amount of solar energy has a direct impact on an area climate and weather
Storms occur when warm air and cold air meet
An area’s climate can change when plate tectonics move continents to the North or South
b. Know that the effects on climate of latitude, elevation, topography, and proximity to large bodies of water
and cold or warm ocean currents.
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The higher the latitude the colder the climate because the sun strikes the Earth at an angle so each
square meter receives less solar energy
The higher the elevation the colder the climate
A rain shadow is a mountain range that removes moisture from the air. The side facing the prevailing
winds is wet and the opposite side is dry.
When moist air is pushed against a mountain it is forced up cools and clouds form, this is called a
Chinook. Chinook wind currents produce a wet climate
When the air goes down the other side of the mountain it is dry and heats up it is called a Foehn. Foehn
air currents produce dry hot climates
When mountains prevent moisture from moving inland they are called Rain shadows
Water has a high specific heat so it heats up and cools down slowly
Land has a low specific heat so it heats up and cools down quickly
Air has a very low specific heat so water heats up and cools down adjacent air
Cities next to oceans and large bodies of water tend to have a lower temperature range cooler summers
and warmer winters because the water helps to control the adjacent air temperature
Cities that are land locked tend to have colder winters and hotter summers
The Gulf-Stream keeps Northern Europe warm, there is a similar current in the southern hemisphere
c. Know that Earth’s climate has changed over time, corresponding to changes in Earth’s geography,
atmospheric composition, and other factors, such as solar radiation and plate movement.
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The Earth’s climate is always fluctuating over periods of hundreds, thousands, and millions of years
The Earth’s climate is getting warmer in part because it is coming out of the last ice age
As continents move from the equator to the poles and from the poles to the equator the climates on the
continents changes
 Africa used to be located at the south pole and Antarctica used to be tropical as the continents moved
the glaciers melted on Africa and new ones formed on Antarctica
 Mountain ranges effect climates by removing moisture from air as it passes over creating a rain shadow
 The Earth’s atmosphere did not have any oxygen or an ozone layer until massive amount of oxygen was
produced in the Precambrian era that put oxygen in the atmosphere a created the ozone layer
Biogeochemical Cycles
7. Each element on Earth moves among reservoirs, which exist in the solid earth, in oceans, in the
atmosphere, and within and among organisms as part of biogeochemical cycles. As a basis for
understanding this concept:
a. Know that the carbon cycle of photosynthesis and respiration and the nitrogen cycle.
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Nitrogen is primarily removed from the atmosphere by nitrogen fixing bacteria
Nitrogen fixing bacteria binds nitrogen to other elements to form ammonium and other nitrates
A small amount of nitrogen is removed when lightning strikes
Nitrogen is necessary for life to occur it and it is unusable as it occurs in the air
The only way plants can use nitrogen is after it has been fixed usually by bacteria the lives on the roots
Animals get nitrogen by eating plants or other animals
Nitrogen enters back into the atmosphere when plants and animals die
The carbon cycle consists of photosynthesis, respiration, combustion and decay.
Carbon is removed from the atmosphere during photosynthesis
Most of the carbon for the last hundred years has been removed from the air and stored in the ocean
The oceans contain 60 times more carbon than the atmosphere
Ocean plants remove carbon from the ocean by photosynthesis
Animals like clams and coral remove carbon form the ocean when they make their shells
When animals die sometimes their shells or the coral gets accumulated and makes limestone
Sometimes when plants and animals die they form coal, oil, and natural gas deposits
The method that holds the carbon the longest is limestone California has limestone deposits that are
over 500 million years old most of the coal and oil deposits are 300 to 360 million years old
The burning of fossil fuels has put a lot of CO2 back into the atmosphere
The burning of limestone to make cement has contributed to the CO2 in the atmosphere but to a less
extent than burning fossil fuels
When animals breath respiration it puts CO2 into the atmosphere
The decaying of dead animals puts CO2 and nitrogen into the atmosphere
b. Know that the global carbon cycle: the different physical and chemical forms of carbon in the atmosphere,
oceans, biomass, fossil fuels, and the movement of carbon among these reservoirs.
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Carbon dioxide is present in the atmosphere as a gas
The other carbon molecules are less stable and are not in the atmosphere in large quantities
The main way carbon dioxide gets into the atmosphere is through combustion of fossil fuels, organic
matter (forest fires) and volcanic eruptions.
The main ways the carbon dioxide is removed from the atmosphere is by photosynthesis and when
the carbon enters the ocean because it gets trapped in tiny bubbles in waves
The oceans store 60 times more carbon than the atmosphere
Carbon dioxide is removed from the ocean when the water heats up it goes back into the atmosphere,
photosynthesis from aquatic plants, and when animals use the carbon to make shells and coral
The limestone made from shells and coral removes carbon from the atmosphere the longest
c. Know that the movement of matter among reservoirs is driven by Earth’s internal and external sources of
energy.
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Both nitrogen and carbon are stored in reservoirs
A reservoir is any place where carbon and nitrogen exist reservoirs include the atmosphere, the ocean,
rocks, and living organisms
Carbon and nitrogen will only move from one reservoir to another if energy is added the energy comes
from two sources solar energy form the sun and nuclear radiation from the Earth
Nuclear radiation (the nuclear fission of uranium, thorium, and plutonium) generates massive amount
of heat inside the Earth.
The heat inside the Earth is what keeps the mantle hot and causes convection that ultimately causes
plate tectonics on the surface of Earth
The solar radiation (energy from the sun) is where most of the energy comes from on the surface of
the Earth
Solar radiation is the energy source that powers photosynthesis
Structure and Composition of the Atmosphere
8. Life has changed Earth’s atmosphere and changes in the atmosphere affect conditions for life. As a basis
for understanding this concept:
a. Know that the thermal structure and chemical composition of the atmosphere.
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The current atmosphere is composed of about 79% nitrogen, 18% oxygen, 1% argon, and 1% other
gasses including carbon dioxide
The atmosphere has 4 layers from bottom to top Troposphere, Stratosphere, Mesosphere, and
Thermosphere
The layers are determined by their thermal gradient, Troposphere gets colder with altitude,
stratosphere gets warmer, mesosphere colder and the Thermosphere gets warmer.
The ozone layer is in the stratosphere it filters out UV radiation and is what makes the stratosphere
warm.
The ozone layer was created in the Precambrian era by photosynthesis that created massive amounts
of oxygen this layer then blocked out most of the incoming UV radiation
Most of the sun’s ultra violet (UV) radiation gets converted to heat energy when it comes into contact
with the ozone layer.
UV radiation breaks apart the ozone molecule the molecule reforms when it combines with other
oxygen atom.
The main man made thing destroying the ozone layer is chloral floral carbons CFC
Since the banning of CFC and other ozone depleting chemicals the hole in the ozone layer has been
shrinking.
The ionosphere is in the thermosphere and extends out into space beyond the atmosphere
The ionosphere is created by the Earth’s magnetic field
Some of the solar radiation (ex: gamma rays and x rays) are converted to heat and light energy when
the radiation comes in contact with the Earth’s magnetic field (the ionosphere)
The atmospheric pressure decreases with altitude
The greenhouse effect is caused mostly by CO2 in the atmosphere trapping the heat
b. Know that the composition of Earth’s atmosphere has evolved over geologic time and the effect of outgassing, the variations of carbon dioxide concentration, and the origin of atmospheric oxygen.
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The Earth’s first atmosphere was composed of Hydrogen (H) an Helium (He)
The Earth lost its first atmosphere when the sun started to fusion because the Earth did not have
enough gravity to hold on to the gas when the solar winds started. So, the first atmosphere was blown
into space by the solar winds
Our current atmosphere is a result of gasses trapped inside the Earth that escaped be a process called
out gassing
During out gassing the main gasses that came out of the volcanoes where: water vapor (H 2O), carbon
dioxide (CO2), nitrogen (N2), and ammonia (NH3)
The most abundant in element in the atmosphere today is Nitrogen (N 2) followed by oxygen (O2)
Our oxygen environment is a result of photosynthesis by cyanobacteria using the CO 2 and producing O2
c. Know that the location of the ozone layer in the upper atmosphere, its role in absorbing ultraviolet
radiation, and the way in which this layer varies both naturally and in response to human activities.
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One of the types of radiation produced by the sun is ultraviolet radiation UV
Before the ozone layer the UV radiation hit the Earth’s surface so the first life had to exist below the
water’s surface where the water protected it from the radiation
After a lot of oxygen was produced the ozone layer formed in the upper stratosphere
The ozone layer is composed of three oxygen atoms (O3)
The ozone layer occurs where it does because of its density
The ozone layer filters out most of the suns UV radiation
The UV radiation destroy the ozone molecule but in the upper atmosphere the molecule reforms
Some manmade chemicals like chlorofluorocarbons (CFC’s) destroy the ozone molecules and layer.
When CFC’s destroy the ozone molecule it does not reform and holes or weak spots have developed
as a result of manmade contaminates
Since the banning of CFC’s and other ozone depleting chemicals the ozone layer is healing or
recovering from the previous damage
California Geology
9. The geology of California underlies the state’s wealth of natural resources as well as its natural hazards.
As a basis for understanding this concept:
a. Know that the resources of major economic importance in California and their relation to California’s
geology.
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California has a very complex and diverse geology
400 million years ago most of California was under water
Because California is relatively young we have steep mountains and many active earthquake faults
Some of the mountains are still growing at a rate of 2 inches per year or more
As a result of the active geology California has active volcanoes and other volcanic activity
Hydro thermal activity does occur at various locations including Long Valley Caldera and Mt Lassen
Hydro thermal activity is the heating of ground water by magma in some cases the hot water is used to
generate electricity by the use of steam turbines
California has many natural resources including gold, silver, gem stones ( Benitoite, there are no
diamonds in California),
Sedimentary deposits rock, sand, and gravel are used to make concrete and stucco
California also possess lots of water and natural gas and oil
b. Know that the principal natural hazards in different California regions and the geologic basis of those
hazards.
There are many natural hazards in California including avalanches from snow on steep slopes
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Rock slides occur on steep slopes and are commonly triggered by Earthquakes
Landslides are common on steep hillsides where ground water gets into the hill and makes the slope
unstable