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Wolves in Poland
2
Poland - one of the biggest countries of central Europe (312,685 km ) is inhabited by almost 40 million
people. Large wood complexes of pine, spruce, mixed and deciduous (consisting of beech, hornbeam,
birch, oak, lime, maple) forests, rich in native species of plants and animals, cover about 28% of the
total country area. 89 % of forests are public forests and are managed by the State Forest Service.
The ungulate community consists mostly of four native species: red deer, roe deer, wild boar and
moose. In a few places small isolated free-ranging populations of European bison still exist. The
population of three main ungulate species has increased significantly during the last forty years and in
2000 reached a level of 117,500 red deer, 597,000 roe deer, 180,300 wild boar (the moose population
is still small, about 2,000 individuals and slightly decreasing) in the whole of Poland. Ungulates cause
large scale damage to young trees plantations and thickets and cost of prevention activities in the
State Forests achieved a peak of £12 million.
Such circumstances create ideal conditions for the large predators present. The large carnivore
community includes the wolf, the lynx and the brown bear in Poland. All these species are protected in
the whole country, the brown bear since 1957, the lynx since 1995, and the wolf since 1998. The only
region inhabited by brown bear is the Carpathian Mts. (south east and south central Poland), where no
more than 80 individuals occur. They are part of a larger population inhabiting the Carpathian
Mountain range. Lynx is not a common species in Poland. Its distribution is limited to north-eastern
and, eastern part of Poland and the Carpathian Mts. According to preliminary results of this year’s
large scale inventory of wolf and lynx populations, the number of lynx is surprisingly low, about 180
individuals.
Wolf distribution and numbers in Poland
The wolf is a species relatively more widespread in Poland than brown bear and lynx. The majority of
the Polish wolf population is a vital part of a continuous Eastern Europe wolf population and inhabits
north-eastern, eastern and southern (Carpathian Mts) part of our country. Isolated populations in the
large forest complexes of Western Poland, near German-Polish border comprise only a few
individuals. According to the inventory mentioned above, the number of wolf packs is estimated at
about 110, and the total number of wolves at about 500 individuals. These estimates are half the
number of last year’s official data, which was based on hunter's inventories.
Studies on wolves in Poland
The biggest refuge for Polish wolves is the Carpathian Mts. (Bieszczady Mts., Tatra Mts. and he
Beskidy Mts.) together with the Carpathian foothills, which is home to about 200 individuals. This
population is partly shared with Slovakia and Ukraine. The other main wolf areas are the large forest
complexes of north-eastern Poland (Białowieża Primeval Forest, Augustowska Forest, Knyszyńska
Forest, Piska Forest), where about 160-190 wolves occur, although some wolf packs have territories
on Belarusia and Russia side as well.
Regular studies on wolves have been conducted in Poland for about fifteen years, mainly in
Białowieża Primeval Forest and in the Bieszczady Mountains, the most natural forests complexes in
our country. This gave an opportunity to research the correlation between predators and prey in quite
natural conditions, with very little human impact. Currently, studies on wolf populations are conducted
in the Western Beskidy Mountains, the Piska Forest (NE Poland), and in the Bieszczady Mountains
(telemetry) as well. The results of latest surveys are still preliminary, but they give some answers on
the impact of wolves on the managed forests.
Ecology of wolves in Poland
According to these studies the average number of wolves in a pack varies from to 3-5 individuals. The
wolf pack territory covers about 200-300 km2 in lowland (Okarma et al. 1998b) and about 100 km2 in
the mountains (Śmietana and Wajda 1997, Nowak and Mysłajek unpubl.), and depends on the local
density of ungulates and the land shape. For example the average density of wolves in the Białowieża
Primeval Forest, where the number of wild prey is relatively high, is about 2-3 individuals/100 km2, for
the Bieszczady Mts. the wolf density reaches 4.2 individuals/100 km2, and is the biggest in Poland.
Wolves in Poland mostly prey on wild ungulates. The local ungulate community structure depends on
the predominant kind of management in the forest complex. The majority of Polish forests are
exploited forests and in such areas the ungulate community consists of 60-80% roe deer, 15% red
deer, 5-20% wild boar and others. Polish studies on wolf diet reported that wolves prefer to prey on
red deer, which composed about 40-55% of all kills by these predators and about 70-80% of biomass
of consumed food (Jędrzejewski et al. 1992, Śmietana and Klimek 1993, Nowak and Mysłajek
unpubl.). Roe deer and wild boar are quite important, but depend on local conditions and season,
source of food, and their contribution to the wolf diet is smaller than can be expected based on the
local ungulate structure. According to studies in Białowieża Primeval Forest, during one week a wolf
pack kills about 3 ungulates. The average daily consumption is about 4-7 kilos per wolf. Kills are eaten
very fast; one medium pack can consume an adult female red deer in 1½ days. Every year wolves
remove about 15% of individuals from the red deer population and about 5% of individuals from the
roe deer population (Jędrzejewski et al. 2000). Whilst access to food sources seems to be the main
factor that limits the local ungulate density, the wolves can significantly influence ungulate numbers
and the rate of growth of red deer and roe deer in the forest complex. The occurrence of wolves in the
forest complex can decrease the density of red deer and partly roe deer. Wolves restrict the rate of
growth of red deer and roe deer populations and prevent the maximum densities of ungulates allowed
by food resources being reached. This influence is highly positive, preventing overdensity and
competition for food resulting in poor condition and vulnerability to different diseases.
To achieve an overview of the impact of wolf predation on the ungulate community, the age and sex
structure of kills were analysed, based on prey remains and wolf scats. According to study in
Białowieża Primeval Forest the most frequent prey amongst red deer were calves (61%) and then
adult females (31%) (Jędrzejewski et al. 1992). Only 14-27% of kills consisted of red deer males
(Okarma et. al. 1995). In the wild boar population the percentage of killed youngsters was even bigger
and reached 94% (Jędrzejewski et al. 1992). Such selective predation was not found with respect to
the roe deer population. Practically, wolves were killing roe deer nonselectively in every age and sex
(Okarma et al. 1995). The remains of prey found in the Bieszczady Mts. showed that wolves killed
mostly red deer females (40-45%) and calves (32-51%) and rarely males (9-24%) (Okarma 1991,
Bobek et al. 1992). Amongst males the young individuals were killed more frequently and than very
old ones. In total, amongst 61 prey remains found 57% consisted of calves and young individuals
aged below three years (Bobek et al. 1992). Scat analysis showed that in the Bieszczady Mts amongst
wild boars the most frequent wolf kills (76%) were youngsters (Śmietana and Klimek 1993).
Main threats to wolf population in Poland
Damages to livestock caused by wolves
In addition to wild ungulates, wolves prey on livestock in almost the whole range of their distribution in
Poland. Some packs more frequently, some incidentally. The level of damages depends on local
densities of wild predators (Jędrzejewska & Jędrzejewski 1998), areas inhabited by packs and
prevention methods used by farmers. Every year the distribution of damages across the country
changes, and varies between £24,000 - £27 000. According to Polish law, losses are compensated by
the State, but the system of estimating damages and the payment procedure needs to be improved.
Despite compensation payments, wolf predation on livestock causes affected farmers to try to force
the return of the wolf to the game list or at least the removal of wolf packs from neighbouring areas.
This is strongly supported by hunters, who still see wolf predation on wild ungulates as a similar kind
of loss, and present an influential force of 100,000 members of the Polish Hunting Union.
Over hunting of wild ungulates in wolf areas
From the other side, hunting plans do not take into account the feeding needs of large carnivores
inhabiting forests areas. This results in decreasing local wild prey populations and increasing losses
amongst domestic animals, and conflicts with livestock owners
Wolf killing in trans-border areas.
Most of the neighbouring countries, which share the same wolf population with Poland, in spite of
being signatories to the Bern Convention, have not developed similar protection laws towards this
species. Wolves are killed as a game species in Slovak Republic, and are regularly persecuted in
Ukraine, Belarus and Russia. Wolf killing causes instability of trans-border wolf populations in the
Carpathian Mountains (in the Polish part of Carpathians, too) and in the eastern part of Poland. In the
last few years in spite of laws protecting them in the Czech Republic and Germany, several roaming
wolves from Poland were shot by hunters, near the Polish border (Nowak & Mysłajek 2001).
Poaching.
According to studies in the Białowieża Primeval Forest the illegal killing and snaring (not only of
wolves but also wild ungulates) causes about 20% of mortality among wolves, in eastern Poland. This
problem is much lower in the rest of Poland, where poaching is not so frequent. The next important
threat is taking of pups from dens, temporarily (to show to family or to take a picture) or permanently to
breed (rear) or to cross with dogs. Such cases are not rare in forest complexes intensively penetrated
by people. People are still not aware of the consequences of such activities (Nowak & Mysłajek 1999,
2001).
Foresters activity and human penetration
According to the current model of forest management in Poland, foresters work such as weed cutting,
thicket cleaning, thinning, tree clearance or even logging lasts throughout the year, and disturbs
wolves during the denning season and the pups rearing. The traditional, annual intensive penetration
of woods by people is limited to the late summer and early autumn months of the mushroom crop, but
force wolves to frequently change resting places with pups and this can influence rearing success as
well.
Lack of corridors between forest complexes, fragmentation of existing forests by highway
construction and development of motor traffic.
In spite of strict protection of this species in the whole of Poland, a dramatic decrease in wolf numbers
in western Poland has been recorded during the last few years (from about 40 individuals to just 13).
This suggests a lack of roaming wolves to enrich these isolated local small populations with new
individuals. Such migration would be a source of animals, which are crucial in cases of death of local
wolves from disease and parasites such as mange, car accidents, injures and accidental poaching. It
shows the importance of contact of wolves in western Poland with the core population in eastern and
southern Poland. The lack of roaming wolves could be a result of the breaking of old migration routes
by the rapid development of motor traffic and motorways during the last ten years in Poland. From the
other side the interim results of this year’s inventory suggests that still not all forest complexes in
eastern, northern and southern parts of Poland are inhabited by wolves and the densities are not high
enough to promote the long migration of young individuals to the west. Also the migration routes
through wide, deep rivers like the Wisła can be limited to cold winters when the river is covered by
thick ice.
Activities for long-term wolf protection in Poland
It is impossible to protect wolves through establishing special protected areas for them. It is important
to allow wolves to inhabit all suitable managed forests and to increase acceptance of these predators
amongst local communities, mostly farmers, foresters and hunters. This is the reason why widespread
education and intensive monitoring as well as resolving conflicts between man/wolf are fundamental to
work for the long-term protection of wolves. There are several initiatives, which were developed and
carried out for the benefit of wolves by the Association for Nature WOLF in Poland (Mysłajek & Nowak
1998, Nowak & Mysłajek 1999, 2001).
The National Strategy of Wolf Protection and Management
Association for Nature WOLF was calling for the development of this strategy, for several years. In
1998 a group of wolf specialists (including a representative of AfN) developed and submitted this
project to the Ministry of Environment (Okarma et al. 1998). The Strategy includes: a consistent
protection system for the wolf throughout the whole country, mostly in large forest complexes; a wolf
habitat protection programme; an improved, efficient system of compensation for livestock damages
caused by wolves; a training and consulting program concerning prevention methods for farmers (e.g.
guarding dogs and mobile fences); rules for removal of wolves specialised in preying on livestock from
areas of greatest conflicts; development of a scientific research programme concerning wolf
populations in Poland and large-scale monitoring; and a widespread education programme for the
general public. This strategy has been approved by the State Nature Protection Council.
Wolf monitoring and study
Because the previous studies on wolves in Poland were conducted in forest complexes, which are in
mostly protected as national parks and nature reserves and are rarely populated, our association
decided in 1996 to start its own study project on dynamics, ecology, and conservation problems of
wolf populations in the Western Beskidy Mountains (about 745 km2, mainly managed forest). Our goal
is to recognise the mechanism of adaptation of wolves to conditions of high human penetration and
forestry activity, which are common in existing wolf territories and in potential areas for wolf recolonisation in our country. During our study we have found the wolf distribution and abundance, the
approximate dimensions of wolf territories, the wolf diet, breeding success, the influence of wolf
predation on the local ungulates and livestock, the main threats and conflicts between wolves and
humans.
The previous official data on wolf and lynx occurrence and numbers in the whole Poland were based
solely on hunter's inventories. Currently a large-scale inventory of wolf and lynx populations is
conducted in all forest divisions in Poland, in close co-operation with foresters from all forest divisions.
The aim is to recognise the distribution and abundance of both species, as well as existing barriers for
spontaneous migration. This project is co-ordinated by the Mammal Research Institute of the Polish
Academy of Science in Białowieża and the Association for Nature WOLF. In addition to the verification
of data on wolf and lynx occurrence, and wolf pack numbers in Poland, basic education and training of
Polish foresters also takes place.
Furthermore, to locate all wolf packs, which inhabited trans-border areas of Poland and Germany,
members of AfN WOLF conduct detailed surveys, including summer howling sessions, in co-operation
with German environmentalists. The aim is to identify actual wolf key areas and potential sites
providing suitable habitat for these animals, with special focus on their potential to support the reestablishment of wolf population in Germany. The next aim is to recognise the main threats and
develop local wolf protection plans.
Wide education of society in Poland and abroad.
Since 1996 AfN WOLF has organised dozens of talks, lectures and wolf workshops for school
children, students, teachers, journalists, foresters, staff of Nature Protection Departments, National
and Landscape Parks, local authorities and others. More than 4,200 people have been educated this
way. Several educational booklets, posters, stickers, T-shirts, and two guidebooks have been
published.
Resolving conflicts between farmers and wolves.
Currently two projects for livestock owners are conducted in Poland. In the Bieszczady Mountains, a
project to introduce and train Tatra Mountain Shepherd Dogs for protection of sheep flocks. This
project is co-ordinated by Dr Wojciech Śmietana from the Institute of Nature Conservation PAS.
In the Western Beskidy Mountains, AfN WOLF in co-operation with Landscape Parks conducts a
project to educate local farmers and equip them with mobile fences called "fladry". Also shepherd dogs
will be introduced to this project, next year (Nowak & Mysłajek 2001).
References
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relationships in Bieszczady Mountains. In: Global trends in wildlife management (Bobek B., Perzanowski K. & Regelin W. Świat
Press, Kraków-Warszawa: 341-348.
Jędrzejewska B., Jędrzejewski W. 1998. Predation in vertebrate communities. The Białowieża Primeval Forest as a case study.
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Europe. Acta Theriologica 40: 335-386.
Okarma H., Jędrzejewski W., Jędrzejewska B., Nowak S., Śmietana W. 1998a. [The Strategy of Wolf Protection and
Management in Poland]. IOP PAN, Kraków: 1-38 [in Polish].
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Białowieża Primeval Forest, Poland, compared with other Eurasian populations. Journal of Mammalogy 79: 842-852.
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© Association for Nature “WOLF” and The Wolves and Humans Foundation 2005. Unauthorised reproduction of all or
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