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4/1/13 Water and Other Welfare Factors Chapter 12 Chapter Objectives Introduction Water Water Requirements of Wildlife Overview of Water Balance and Thermoregulation Types of Water Developments Water Management for Wildlife Potential Benefits of Providing Water for Wildlife Potential Negative Impacts of Water Developments Influence of Water Developments on Selected Wildlife Species Special Factors Summary 1 4/1/13 Water All life processes evolved around water Crucial in some form for all animals Animals obtain water from 3 sources: Free water Preformed water in food Metabolic water from oxidation of organic compounds containing hydrogen Water Requirements of Wildlife Requirements vary based on thermal load, activity patterns, morphology, diet, metabolic processes, reproductive state, and adaptations for water conservation Determining water requirements must evaluate all sources and should be done on free-ranging animals Birds and mammals get most of their water as preformed water Large herbivores get most of their water annually from preformed and metabolic water If pre-formed and metabolic unavailable, must have access to free water 2 4/1/13 Overview of Water Balance and Thermoregulation Physiological mechanisms and water balance Water loss in feces and urine Thermoregulation Evaporative heat loss in mammals Evaporative heat loss in birds Thermoregulation and water balance Metabolic rate Adaptive heterothermy Overview of Water Balance and Thermoregulation Behavioral regulation of body temperature and water balance Diet and water balance Timing of activity Use of microclimates Body orientation 3 4/1/13 Overview of Water Balance and Thermoregulation Morphological adaptations for thermoregulation and water balance Body size and shape Pelage, plumage, and horn characteristics Types of Water Developments Precipitation catchments Guzzlers Tinajas Adits Retention dams and sand tanks Wells and windmills Springs and seeps Horizontal wells Livestock water developments 4 4/1/13 Precipitation Catchments Guzzlers 5 4/1/13 Retention Dams and Sand Tanks Water Management for Wildlife Liebig’s Law of the Minimum – growth determined by scarcest resource Limiting factor can put boundary on population growth Often focuses on water Starting in the 1940s, sportsman’s groups and agencies started to develop water sources Quail, chukar, mule deer, bighorn sheep, pronghorn Widely used in arid regions 6 4/1/13 Desert Species Water Management for Wildlife 10 of 11 western states have water programs 6,000 water developments built >$1 million/year spent on water developments Very little follow up research on effectiveness of water developments to impact population growth rates May be positive and negative effects of developing water resources 7 4/1/13 Potential Benefits of Providing Water for Wildlife Increase animal abundance Increase available habitat Improve habitat quality Recovery and management of special status species Potential Negative Impacts of Water Developments Increase potential for disease transmission Reduced water quality Increased predation rates Increased competition Direct mortality Detrimental impacts on vegetation 8 4/1/13 Influence of Water Developments on Selected Wildlife Species Mammals Desert bighorn sheep Mule deer White-tailed deer Elk Pronghorn Predators Small mammals Influence of Water Developments on Selected Wildlife Species Birds Upland Game Birds Nongame birds Reptiles and Amphibians 9 4/1/13 Cover Cover provides shelter and can be vegetation and topographic features Feeding, hiding, sleeping, playing, and raising young Can provide protection from sun, heat, cold, snow Refuge cover, loafing cover, thermal cover, escape cover Cover Cover is complex and species specific Management is challenging because of this complexity Habitat management for one species can have detrimental effects on other species Human use can influence cover Management of cover is management of successional stages Not all cover management techniques have been evaluated for impacts on populations 10 4/1/13 Special Factors Special factors are used for a short period of time or in small quantities Can be grouped with food, water, and cover Salt licks, mud baths, bear dens, dense shade, windswept areas in winter, lambing areas, lek areas Absence of special factor will limit distribution and habitat use by a species Summary Water and cover are essential for all wildlife species Physiological, morphological, and behavioral adaptations allow species to live in areas with limited water availability Much time and money has been allocated to water developments Not enough research has been done on the population impacts of water developments Cover is important and species specific Special factors can limit distribution 11