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Learning CHAPTER 5 Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Rudimentary Learning (1 of 3) Learning – a relatively permanent change in behavior that results from practice and experience Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Rudimentary Learning (2 of 3) Habituation – gradual decline in the strength of a response to a stimulus that has become familiar Most basic form of learning Allows attention to be paid to environmental conditions that could be dangerous or deadly Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Rudimentary Learning (3 of 3) Sensitization – an increase in response to stimuli that are dangerous or threatening Allows focus of more attention to make sense of what’s happening Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Biological Preparedness (1 of 3) Biological preparedness – idea that certain species are predisposed (“naturally” ready) to learn some connections more easily than others Helps speed the learning process Makes some learned responses more resistant to forgetting Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Biological Preparedness (2 of 3) Taste aversions – avoidance of a food because it caused illness Helps to protect from potentially harmful substances Extremely hard to change Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Biological Preparedness (3 of 3) Phobias – intense, irrational fears of objects or situations Objects that pose actual threats more common than nonthreatening stimuli Example: heights or spiders May have been biologically encouraged through evolution Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Reward Circuits Dopamine – neurotransmitter thought to play a significant role in the brain reward system involved in the learning process Animals quickly learn to repeat behaviors that activate brain’s reward circuitry Seek out behaviors that stimulate dopamine activity in the brain Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Classical Conditioning (1 of 4) Associative learning – learning that results from two events occurring close together in time Classical conditioning – type of learning in which an unlearned, reflexive response to one stimulus is conditioned to be triggered by another, formerly neutral stimulus Example: Pavlov’s dogs Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Classical Conditioning (2 of 4) Before conditioning: A natural response to one stimulus is triggered by another, formerly neutral stimulus (NS) Example: After a series of trials, the dogs would salivate to the sound of the bell alone Meat = unconditioned stimulus (UCS) Salivation = unconditioned response (UCR) Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Classical Conditioning (3 of 4) During conditioning: of contiguity – idea that events occurring close together in time become linked in the brain Law Through repeating this pairing, dogs learned to associate the bell with the meat Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Classical Conditioning (4 of 4) After conditioning: Bell is considered a learned or conditioned stimulus (CS) Salivation is a learned or conditioned response (CR), because it occurs in response to the bell Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Figure 5.4c Three Stages of Classical Conditioning Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Higher-Order Conditioning Responses conditioned in one situation can be applied to similar situations Higher-order conditioning – process of associating a new neutral stimulus with an already conditioned stimulus Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Figure 5.5 Diagram of Higher-Order Conditioning Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Extinction and Spontaneous Recovery Extinction – gradual weakening of a previously conditioned response occurs when the CS and UCS are no longer paired together Spontaneous recovery – reappearance of a conditioned response to a conditioned stimulus after extinction Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Figure 5.6 Extinction and Spontaneous Recovery Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Generalization and Discrimination Stimulus generalization – tendency to respond to stimuli that are similar to the conditioned stimulus (CS) Stimulus discrimination – ability to distinguish between the conditioned stimulus (CS) and similar stimuli Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Figure 5.7b Generalization and Discrimination Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Applications of Classical Conditioning (1 of 2) Classical conditioning has important implications for almost every aspect of daily living. Phobias are often the result of classical conditioning, specifically emotional responses. Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Applications of Classical Conditioning (2 of 2) Applications to real world problems: Curing phobias (e.g., Little Albert) Sheep predation by coyotes Bedwetting Treatment of alcoholism (e.g., Antabuse) Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Operant Conditioning (1 of 3) Operant conditioning – learning of voluntary behaviors in a given situation because they are followed by a consequence Reinforced Punished behaviors more likely to be repeated behaviors less likely to be repeated Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Operant Conditioning (2 of 3) Learner actively produces responses that operate or act on the environment to produce a desired consequence Also called instrumental conditioning Future behavior either strengthened or weakened by favorable or unfavorable consequences Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Operant Conditioning (3 of 3) Law of effect – behaviors that lead to rewarding outcomes more likely to occur again and be learned Behaviors that lead to unpleasant outcomes less likely to occur and will not be learned Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Figure 5.9 Cat in Thorndike’s Puzzle Box Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Reinforcement (1 of 4) Reinforcement – consequences of a response that increase the probability it will occur again Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Reinforcement (2 of 4) Types of reinforcers: reinforcers – naturally rewarding and satisfy basic needs Primary reinforcers – consequences that have been learned are rewarding Secondary Example: compliments, awards, grades, and material possessions Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Reinforcement (3 of 4) Positive reinforcement – adding or presenting a stimulus with the goal of increasing behavior Negative reinforcement – taking something away in order to reinforce (reward) a behavior Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Reinforcement (4 of 4) Continuous reinforcement – behavior rewarded each and every time it occurs Partial reinforcement – reinforcement received only some of the time the behavior happens Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Schedules of Reinforcement (1 of 2) Fixed-ratio (FR) schedule – rewarded after a fixed number of responses Variable-ratio (VR) schedule – exact number of responses needed for a reward varies Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Schedules of Reinforcement (2 of 2) Fixed-interval (FI) schedule – reward given after a fixed amount of time Variable-interval (VI) schedule – time between correct response and the reward is unpredictable Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Figure 5.11 (1 of 4) Reinforcement Schedules: Fixed-ratio (FR) schedule Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Figure 5.11 (2 of 4) Reinforcement Schedules: Variable-ratio (VR) schedule Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Figure 5.11 (3 of 4) Reinforcement Schedules: Fixed interval Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Figure 5.11 (4 of 4) Reinforcement Schedules: Variable interval (VI) schedule Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Punishment Punishment – undesirable consequence following a behavior that leads to a decrease in that behavior Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Types of Punishment Positive punishment – something unpleasant is added to the situation to reduce the behavior Negative punishment – removal of something desirable to reduce a behavior Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Reality Check Misconception; Negative reinforcement = punishment. Reality; Negative reinforcement & punishment both involve aversive stimuli, but the similarity ends there. Negative reinforcement involves removal of unpleasant stimulus, thereby strengthening a response. Punishment involves the presentation of unpleasant stimulus, thereby weakening a response. Thus, they are opposite procedures that yield opposite effects on behavior. Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Figure 5.12 Reinforcement Versus Punishment Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Applications of Operant Conditioning Principles used by: teachers salespeople coaches therapists employers parents animal trainers Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Operant Conditioning - Negative Reinforcement vs Positive Punishment Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Operant Conditioning in the Real World Animal trainers regularly use the techniques of shaping and positive reinforcement Shaping – researcher rewards each small step that leads to the desired behavior Behavior modification – changing people’s behavior through the use of learning principles Example: Weight loss programs Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Cognitive Learning (1 of 3) Cognitive learning – acquisition of new knowledge or skill through mental processes Learner must actively process and remember information taken in through observation, listening, reading, or other direct experience Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Cognitive Learning (2 of 3) Latent learning – learning that occurs without any obvious reinforcement and is not immediately obvious Insight learning – learning that occurs through sudden cognitive changes sudden understanding of previously unseen relationships Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Cognitive Learning (3 of 3) Observational learning – acquisition of new behaviors by observing the actions of a model Often referred to as the social cognitive or social learning theory Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Learned Helplessness Learned helplessness – failure to escape from a situation because of repeated, past failures Way of responding becomes rooted in the individual Can be generalized to other situations (e.g., failing to leave an abusive relationship) Higher incidence of depression, interpersonal problems, and health problems Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Figure 5.14 Seligman’s Shuttlebox Apparatus Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Learning Disabilities Learning disabilities – problems related to the brain’s ability to process, analyze, or store information Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Types of Learning Disabilities (1 of 2) Specific Learning Disorder (Dyslexia) – disorder in which a person has difficulties with reading, spelling, or mathematical reasoning Strong evidence for a neural signature for specific learning disorder disruption in phonological processing in the left hemisphere Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Types of Learning Disabilities (2 of 2) Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder – a neurobiological disorder with core symptoms of distractibility, impulsivity, and developmentally inappropriate levels of activity Genetics and structural abnormalities in the brain play a key role Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
