Download functionalist theories of religion

A2/RELIGION
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FUNCTIONALIST THEORIES OF RELIGION
Functionalist theories stress the positive aspects of religion - i.e. how it contributes to the
maintenance of society by providing a clear set of norms and values that provide a
moral guide for the rest of society. Thus religion is a CONSERVATIVE force - a force
of SOCIAL ORDER and CONTROL which INTEGRATES society into one - in so doing it
creates VALUE CONSENSUS and SOCIAL HARMONY.
Three principal views stand out - those of DURKHEIM, MALINOWSKI and PARSONS.
Emile Durkheim 'The Elementary Forms of Religious Life' (1912)
(i)
In the above book, Durkheim explained his theory of religion.
(ii)
All societies, he believed, divide the world into two categories,
'The Sacred’ (religious) and 'The Profane' (non-religious).
(iii)
He defined religion as "..a unified system of beliefs and
practices related to sacred things, that is to say, things set
apart and forbidden."
(iv)
In simple societies, ‘sacred things’ are symbols used to represent something.
(v)
To understand the role of religion in society, the relationship between sacred
symbols and that which they represent must be established.
(vi)
He elaborated his argument by looking at AUSTRALIAN ABORIGINES. He
sees their religion - which he calls TOTEMISM-as the simplest and most basic
form of religion.
(vii)
Aborigine society is divided into several CLANS a clan being
like an extended family with its members sharing certain
duties and obligations.
(viii)
Each clan has a totem, usually an animal or plant, which is a
symbol and is an emblem for the clan which distinguishes it
from all other clans (e.g. 'The Clan of the Cave Bear.)
(ix)
The Totem is, in short, a SACRED SYMBOL. It is the "outward
and visible form" of what we would refer to as 'God'.
(x)
However, as the Totem or God is invented by that society are
they really not worshipping themselves as a society - after all, the Totem is
simply something created by the group because it makes it easier to 'visualise
and direct one's feelings of awe toward a symbol than towards so complex a
thing as a clan.'
(xi)
Thus religion, for Durkheim, is nothing more than the worship of society.
(xii)
Durkheim further believes that religion has a number of key functions for
society;(a)
it provides a set of shared moral values and beliefs which form
the "COLLECTIVE CONSCIENCE" of society. Without this there
would be no order, control, solidarity or co-operation - in short
there would be no society!
(b)
The act of worship strengthens these moral beliefs and by
defining them as sacred (God’s Laws) they have a greater
power to direct and control behaviour (e.g. the fear of Hell).
Furthermore, by meeting together in worship religion strengthens
the unity of the group - it INTEGRATES members into society
and therefore provides SOCIAL SOLIDARITY.
Critique
(i)
Some anthropologists such as Peter Worsley believe that Durkheim is not
justified in calling Totemism a religion. He also does not see a sharp division between
the ‘sacred’ and the ‘profane’. Worlsey finally believes that you cannot necessarily
apply the example of totemism to other religions.
(ii)
Some functionalist sociologists, such as Malinowski, do not see religion as the
worship of society.
(iii)
Durkheim's views are more relevant to small-scale non-literate societies than to
so complex a structure as Western society.
(iv)
Durkheim's ideas can only work if all members believe in religion - but
functionalists such as Wilson believe that the power of religion is in decline - a
process of secularisation is occurring - which, if correct, could leave Durkheim's
views redundant.
(v)
Postmodernists like Mestrovic believe that there is no longer a single shared
value system due to diversity and the collapse of the grand narrative of religion.
Bronslaw Malinowski 'Argonauts of the Western Pacific'
(i)
This is once again a study of a small-scale, non-literate society,
namely the Trobriand Islands of the coast of New Guinea.
(ii)
Malinowski agrees with Durkheim that religion reinforces social
norms and values and promotes social solidarity.
(iii)
It therefore serves to INTEGRATE members into society.
(iv)
He does not see religion as the worship of society.
(v)
Instead, his main concern is with how religion concerns itself to specific areas of
social life. These are situations of EMOTIONAL STRESS which could threaten the
very solidarity of society itself.
(a)
(b)
Stress is produced within 'CRISES OF LIFE'
such as birth, puberty, marriage and
death. Religion, however, deals with the
problem of death by expressing a belief
in the funeral ceremony that life is
immortal - which denies the fact of death
and so comforts the bereaved. The presence of mourners at the
ceremony provides comfort and support - which serves as a check
against the emotions which death produces and thus controls the anxiety
and distress which might disrupt society. In fact, in all societies these life
crises are surrounded by religious ritual.
Stress is also produced by certain undertakings
which cannot be controlled or predicted by practical
means. In the Trobriand Islands, such events were
surrounded by religious rituals. Fishing was one such
example. In the calm safe, lagoon where ‘man can
rely on his knowledge and skill' there is no need for
religious ritual. Yet in the dangerous and uncertain
open sea, religious rituals are held to ensure a good
catch and to protect the fisherman (it was quite possible they would not
return). Rituals therefore reduce anxiety by providing confidence and a
feeling of control. It is a social event so the group unites to deal with the
situations of stress and so HARMONY and INTEGRATION are assured.
Critique
(i)
It is questionable again as to how this can be applied to the more complex
western society.
(ii)
Secularisation would again appear to question the foundation of Malinowski’s
case.
Talcott Parsons
Parsons provides an overview of the whole functionalist perspective on
religion.
(i)
He believes that religious beliefs provide guidelines for human
action and standards against which human conduct can be evaluated.
(ii)
In a Christian society, the ten commandments operate in this way many of the norms in society - in fact the CENTRAL VALUE SYSTEM is based on
religious beliefs. These beliefs influence our behaviour in many areas of life for instance the commandment 'Thou shalt not kill', integrates such diverse norms
as how to drive a car, settle an argument, and to deal with the suffering of the
aged. The norms which direct these areas of behaviour prohibit manslaughter,
murder and euthanasia respectively.
(iii)
By establishing general principles and moral beliefs, religion helps to provide
the consensus which Parsons believes is necessary for order and stability.
(iv)
Like Malinowski, Parsons believes that religion can promote stability following a
disaster in two ways;(a)
When something unforeseen happens, such as a premature death,
religion promotes stability within the social group.
(b)
When uncontrollable or unknown factors can affect the outcome of hard work,
such as the effect of weather on agriculture. Here, religion provides a means of
coming to terms with this, thus maintaining a stable and integrated society.
(v)
A further function of religion is to make sense of the contradictions which
threatens the meaning man places on life. For instance, the existence of suffering and
pain which religion could explain in terms of 'sin’ or a 'mystery’, or bringing a later
reward in heaven. In this way suffering becomes meaningful.
(vi)
In short, religion provides meaning to events that frustrate people - in this way
stability is ensured.
Robert Bellah – ‘Civil Religion’

Bellah also looks at America and how religion unifies
such a multi – faith society.
 What unifies America is an overarching ‘CIVIL
RELIGION’.
 In other words, there is a strong belief system that
attaches sacred qualities to society itself
 This civil religion is effectively a faith in Americanism – ‘The American way of
life’.
 Civil religion integrates society in a way that individual religions cannot.
 It can firstly claim loyalty to all Americans.
 Secondly it involves loyalty to the nation-state and a belief in God – both of
which are equated with being a true American.
 It is expressed in various rituals, symbols and beliefs – such as the pledge of
allegiance to the American flag, phrases such as ‘One nation under God’ –
though this ‘God’ is American – not one of a particular religion.
 In this way it binds together Americans from different walks of life, different
religions and ethnicities. It ‘resacrilises’ the American way of life.
Critique
(i)
Functionalism concentrates too much on integration and harmony - it neglects
the fact that religion can be a divisive force - as in Northern Ireland or Bosnia. In such
cases religion can be seen as a direct threat to law and order. This is the point raised
by Charles Glock and Rodney Stark;
"We find it difficult to reconcile the general theory of functionalism with
considerable evidence of religious conflict. On every side it would seem that religion
threatens social integration as readily as it contributes to it. The history of
Christianity, with its many schisms, manifests the great power of religion not merely
to bind but to divide. "
(ii)
Marxists would argue where do these religious values come from and what
purpose do they serve? Marxists would believe that religious values are simply
an opiate designed to fool the mass of the population and keep the ruling class
in power.
(iii)
Weber would argue that what is missing in the functionalist view is the sheer
power of religion not only to keep order but also to act as a means of social
change.
(iv)
The final problem with this approach is identified by modern functionalists such
as Bryan Wilson. The views previously reviewed assume a high degree of
commitment to religious values in the population. Is
this really the case? Surely the decline in Christian
Church attendance figures in Modern Britain indicates
religion on the wane and not as a powerful force in
society. However, the counter- argument to this is that
the process of secularisation appears to be restricted
to certain countries only – for instance, 40% of the
American population regularly attend Church each week.