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Theme
AP European History
Unit 5.2
The Age of Napoleon:
1799-1815
Napoleon began his reign as an
Enlightened Despot who instituted
numerous significant reforms in
France. Eventually, his lust for power
and conquest led him to overextend his
empire resulting in his ultimate defeat
at Waterloo in 1815.
Napoleon
Crossing the
Alps by
Jacques-Louis
David (1801)
The “Age of
Montesquieu”
(Constitutional
Monarchy)
1789-1792
The “Age of
Rousseau”
(The Republic)
Nat’l Assembly:
1789-1791
Nat’l
Convention:
1792-1795
Legislative
Assembly:
1791-92
The Directory:
1795-99
1792-1799
The “Age of
Voltaire”
(Napoleon’s
Empire/
Enlightened
Despotism)
1799-1815
Consulate:
1799-1804
Napoleonic
Empire:
1804-15
I. Napoleon Bonaparte
A. Born of Italian descent to a Corsican
family on French island of Corsica
B. Military genius who specialized in
artillery
C. Avid ―child of the Enlightenment‖
and the French Revolution
D. Associated with the Jacobins and
advanced rapidly in the army due to
emigration of aristocratic officers
E. Eventually inspired a divided nation
during the Directory period into a
united nation but at the price of
individual liberty
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II. Consulate Period: 1799-1804 (period
of enlightened reform)
A. Napoleon took power on December
25, 1799 with the constitution
giving him supreme power
1. As First Consul, he behaved
more as an absolute ruler than a
revolutionary statesman
2. Demanded loyalty to the state,
rewarded ability, and created an
effective hierarchical bureaucracy
3. Last and most eminent of the
Enlightened despots
B. Reforms
1. Napoleon Code: first clear and
complete codification of French law
a. Perhaps longest lasting legacy of
Napoleon’s rule
• Included a civil code, code of
criminal procedure, a
commercial code and a penal
code
• Emphasized protection of
private property
• Resulted in strong central gov’t
and administrative unity
b. Many achievements of the
revolution were made permanent
• Equality before the law
• Freedom of religion
• State was secular in character
• Property rights
• Abolition of serfdom
• Gave women inheritance rights
c. Denied women equal status with
men
• Women and children were
legally dependent on their
husband or father
• Divorce was harder to obtain
than during the Revolution
• Women could not buy or sell
property or start a business
without the husbands’ consent
• Income earned by wives went
to their husbands
• Penalties for adultery far more
severe for women than men
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2. “Careers open to talent”
a. Citizens theoretically were able
to rise in gov’t service purely
according to their abilities
b. However, a new imperial
nobility was created to reward
the most talented generals and
officials.
c. Wealth determined status
d. Neither military commissions
nor civil offices could be bought
or sold
e. Granted amnesty to about
100,000 émigrés in return for a
loyalty oath
• Many soon occupied high
posts in the expanding state
f. Some nobles from foreign
countries served the empire with
distinction.
g. Working-class movement (e.g.
sans culottes) was no longer
politically significant
• Workers were denied the right
to form trade unions
3. Religious reforms
a. Concordat of 1801 with Roman
Catholic church
• Napoleon’s motives
o Peace with the Church would
weaken its link to
monarchists who sought the
restoration of the Bourbons.
o Religion would help people
accept economic equalities in
French society.
• Provisions
o Papacy renounced claims
over church property seized
during Revolution
o French gov’t had power to
nominate or depose bishops
o In return, priests who had
resisted the Civil
Constitution of the Clergy
would replace those who had
sworn an oath to the state.
o Pope gave up claims to
Church lands in France
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o Catholic worship in public
was allowed
o Church seminaries were
reopened
o Extended legal toleration to
Catholics, Protestants, Jews,
and atheists who all received
the same civil rights
o Pope gave up claims to
Church lands in France
o Replaced the Revolutionary
Calendar with the Christian
calendar
4. Financial unity
a. Bank of France served the needs
of the state and financial oligarchy
b. The gov’t balanced the budget
c. Sound currency and public credit
d. Economic reforms stimulated
the economy:
• Low food prices
• Low unemployment
• Lowered taxes on farmers
• Peasants retained lands taken
from the church
b. To dispel the notion of an
established church, Napoleon
put Protestant ministers of all
denominations on the state
payroll
• Created an independent
peasantry that would become
the backbone of French
democracy
• Tax collections became more
efficient
• Workers were not allowed to
form guilds or trade unions
o Retained the Le Chapelier
Law of 1791
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5. Educational reforms were based on
a system of public education under
state control
a. Rigorous standards were available
to the masses
b. Secondary and higher education
(called lycées) was reorganized to
prepare young men for gov’t jobs
and professional occupations
c. Education important for social
standing and advancement
d. Napoleon sought to increase
the size of the middle class
7. Drawbacks of Napoleon’s reforms
a. Severe inequality for women
b. Workers not allowed to form
trade unions
c. Liberty and republicanism were
repressed
d. Practiced nepotism by placing his
family members on the thrones of
nations he conquered
6. Creation of a police state
a. Spy system kept thousands of
citizens under continuous
surveillance
b. After 1810, political suspects were
held in state prisons (as they had
during the Terror).
c. Gov’t ruthlessly put down
opposition, especially guerillas in
the west in provinces of the
Vendee and Brittany.
d. Most notorious action was the
execution of Duke of Enghien
III. Napoleonic Wars during the
Consulate era
A. Wars were short and distinct
1. Only Britain was at war
continually with France
2. Four Great Powers (Britain,
Austria, Prussia, and Russia)
did not fight France
simultaneously until 1813.
a. Nations allied with France for
own foreign policy benefit
b. French conquest of Italy
alienated foreign powers
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B. War of the 2nd Coalition, 1798-1801
1. Battle of the Nile (1798): Britain’s
Horatio Nelson destroyed
Napoleon’s navy
2. Napoleon victorious, nevertheless
3. Treaty of Lunèville, 1801
a. Ended the Second Coalition
b. Austria lost Italian possessions
c. German territory west of the
Rhine incorporated into France
d. Russia retreated from western
Europe due to British threats
in the Mediterranean
C. Peace Interim (1802)
1. Treaty of Amiens with Britain in
1802 temporarily suspended
war between Britain and France
2. Napoleon reorganized the
Confederation of Switzerland
A British cartoon
commenting on
the Battle of the
Nile
"Expiration of
the plagues of
Egypt;
destruction of
revolutionary
crocodiles or
the British hero
cleansing ye
mouth of ye
Nile"
3. Napoleon sent large army to
subdue a slave rebellion in Haiti
a. French forces were decimated by
disease and slave rebels
b. Napoleon thus sold the Louisiana
Territory in North America to the
United States in 1803 as the
Haitian Rebellion dashed his
dream of a North American
Empire
Haitian slave rebels
staged a successful 12year revolt that ended in
1803.
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IV. The Empire Period, 1804-1815
A. 1804, Napoleon crowned himself
emperor
1. Hoped to preempt plans of
royalists to restore Bourbons to
the throne
2. Believed an empire was necessary
for France to maintain and expand
its influence throughout Europe
a. Napoleon saw himself as a
liberator
b. His empire unleashed forces
of nationalism that led to
his downfall
Napoleon on his
Imperial Throne
by
Jacques- DominiqueAuguste Ingres, 1806
Coronation of Emperor Napoleon I and Coronation of
the Empress Josephine in the Notre-Dame de Paris,
December 2, 1804 by Jacques-Louis David and Georges
Rouget, 1805-1807
B. The Grand Empire
1. Beginning in 1805, Napoleon
engaged in constant warfare
2. Napoleon achieved the largest
empire since Roman times
(though only temporary)
a. France extended to the Rhine,
including Belgium and
Holland, the German coast to
the western Baltic, and the
Italian coast extending down to
Rome.
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b. Dependent satellite kingdoms
where Napoleon put his
appointees on the throne:
• Confederation of the Rhine
• Brother, Joseph Bonaparte,
became king of Spain in 1808
• Youngest brother, Jerome,
became king of Westphalia
• Brother, Louis, was king of
Holland for 6 years before
Napoleon had him removed
and incorporated Holland
into France
• Italy
o His sister, Caroline, became
Queen of Naples
o Lombardy, Venice and Papal
States ruled by his step-son
o Abolished feudalism and
reformed the social, political,
and economic structures
o He opposed a unified Italy
since it might one day
threaten his influence
• Duchy of Warsaw
• Illyrian Provinces, included
Trieste and Dalmatian coast
3. Independent but allied states
included: Austria, Prussia and
Russia.
4. All countries of the Grand Empire
saw the introduction of some of the
main principles of the French
Revolution.
a. Notable exception: no self-gov’t
through elected legislative bodies.
b. Initially, Napoleon was supported
by commercial and professional
classes who supported the
Enlightenment.
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c. Repression and exploitation
eventually turned his conquered
territories against him.
• Conscription into the French
army
• Higher taxes (while taxes in
France were lowered)
• Continental System
d. Enlightenment reformers believed
Napoleon had betrayed the ideals of
the Revolution.
5. Battle of Trafalgar (Oct 1805)
a. French and Spanish fleets were
destroyed by British navy under
command of Lord Horatio
Nelson, off the Spanish coast
• Established supremacy of
British navy for over a century.
b. French invasion of Britain no
longer feasible
c. Though killed in the battle,
Nelson became one of the great
military heroes in English
history.
C. War of the Third Coalition, 1805-07
1. In 1803, Napoleon began
preparations to invade Britain
2. In 1805, Britain allied with Austria
3. Coalition was complete when
Alexander I of Russia joined
4. Napoleon’s conquest of Italy
convinced Russia and Austria that
he was a threat to the balance of
power.
Horatio Nelson
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The Death of Nelson, 1805
Cartoon by
James Gillray
6. Battle of Austerlitz (Dec. 1805)
a. Alexander I pulled Russia out of
the battle, giving Napoleon
another major victory on land
b. Austria suffered large territorial
losses
c. Third Coalition collapsed
d. Napoleon was now the master
of western and central Europe
e. In commemoration of his
victory, Napoleon
commissioned the Arc de
Triomphe in 1806
Though planning began in 1806, the Arc de Triomphe was
not fully completed until the mid-1830s. It stands at the
western end of the Champs Èlysèes. It is a good example of
the Neoclassical style.
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7. Prussia was twice defeated by
Napoleon in 1806 (Jena and
Auerstadt)
8. Russia sought peace after another
French victory in the spring of 1807
9. Treaty of Tilsit, June 1807
a. Provisions:
• Prussia lost half its population
in lands ceded to France.
• Russia accepted Napoleon’s
reorganization of western and
central Europe.
• Russia agreed to Napoleon’s
Continental System.
D. Reorganization of Germany
1. With Prussia and Austria
defeated, Napoleon reorganized
Germany
2. Consolidated 300 small German
states into several large ones.
a. Confederation of the Rhine: 15
German states (excluding
Austria, Prussia, and Saxony)
b. Holy Roman Empire abolished
c. Kingdom of Westphalia
• Ended serfdom
d. Sparked German
nationalism
b. In many ways, the treaty
represented the height of
Napoleon’s success.
• French and Russian empires
became allies, mainly against
Britain.
• Alexander accepted Napoleon’s
domination of western Europe
• France continued to occupy
Berlin and enjoyed increased
control in western Germany
E. Continental System
1. Napoleon waged economic
warfare against Britain after his
loss at Trafalgar.
2. Berlin Decree, 1806: intended to
starve Britain by closing ports
on the Continent to British
commerce
• Coerced Russia, Prussia,
Denmark, Portugal, and Spain
to adhere to it at the Treaty of
Tilsit in 1807
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3. British order-in-council: required all
neutral ships to first stop in Britain
before entering Continental ports
4. Milan Decree, 1807: any ship
entering a British port or subject to
a British search at sea would be
confiscated if entering the
Continent
5. U.S. eventually declared war on
Britain for violating its neutral
shipping rights
e. Shippers, shipbuilders, and
international merchants were
ruined
• Eastern Europe was hard hit
as it was dependent on
industrial imports
f. Britain made up its lost trade
with Europe by expanding its
markets in Latin America
6. The Continental System failed
a. Caused widespread opposition
to Napoleon’s rule in Europe
b. Imports from U.S. enjoyed high
demand in Continental Europe
c. Continental industries could not
equal Britain’s output
d. Without railroads, the
Continental System was
impossible to maintain
F. The Peninsular War, 1808-1814
1. First great revolt against
Napoleon’s power occurred in
Spain
2. When Napoleon tried to tighten
control over Spain by replacing
Spain’s king with his brother,
Joseph, a bloody guerrilla war
ensued
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G. 1810, Napoleon married Marie
Louise, the 18-year-old daughter of
the Austrian emperor and niece of
Marie Antoinette.
• By marriage, Napoleon was now
nephew of Louis XVI and he
began to show more
consideration to
French noblemen of
the Old Regime
Francisco Goya, The Third of May, 1814
In this groundbreaking work, Goya commemorates Spanish resistance to
Napoleon’s rule.
Jacques-Louis David.
Napoleon in His Study.
1812. Oil on canvas. The
National Gallery of Art,
Washington, DC, USA.
H. Russian Campaign
1. Napoleon invaded Russia in June
1812 with his 600,000-man Grand
Army
a. Only 1/3 were French
b. Cause for invasion: Russia
withdrew from the Continental
System
2. Battle of Borodino ended in a
draw with the Russians retreating
in good order
• Napoleon thus had
overextended himself
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3. Napoleon forced to retreat from
Moscow after 5 weeks during the
brutal Russian winter due to the
Russian ―scorched earth‖ tactics.
• Russians evacuated, then
burned Moscow and refused to
negotiate.
The burning of Moscow, September, 1812
4. Only 30,000 of Napoleon’s men
returned to their homelands
a. 400,000 dead
b. 100,000 taken prisoner
The brutal Russian winter of 1812-1813 destroyed
much of Napoleon’s army as it retreated back to
France.
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5. Napoleon raced home to raise
another army while Austria and
Prussia deserted Napoleon and
joined Russia and Great Britain in
the Fourth Coalition.
4. Napoleon abdicated in April 1814
after allied armies entered Paris
5. Bourbons restored to the throne:
Louis XVIII
a. Charter of 1814: king created a
two-house legislature that only
represented the upper classes
• First constitution in European
history issued by a monarch
b. Restoration maintained most of
Napoleon’s reforms (Code
Napoleon, Concordat with the
pope, end of feudalism)
I. War of the Fourth Coalition: (1813-14)
Britain, Russia, Austria & Prussia
1. Battle of Leipzig (“Battle of
Nations”), October 1813: Napoleon
finally defeated
2. Napoleon refused the ―Frankfurt
Proposals” to restore France to its
traditional size in return for his
remaining on the throne
3. Quadruple Alliance formed in
March, 1814
• Each provided 150,000 soldiers to
enforce the peace
6. “First” Treaty of Paris, 1814
a. France surrendered all territory
gained since the Wars of the
Revolution had begun in 1792.
b. Allied powers imposed no
indemnity or reparations (after
Louis XVIII had refused to pay)
7. Napoleon was exiled to the island
of Elba as a sovereign with an
income from France.
8. Quadruple Alliance agreed to
meet in Vienna to work out a
general peace settlement
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V. Congress of Vienna (1814-1815)
A. Major powers of Europe, including
France, met to redraw territorial
lines and to try and restore the social
and political order of the ancien
regime
B. ―Big Four‖
1. Austria – Metternich
2. Britain – Lord Castlereagh
3. Russia – Alexander I
4. Prussia
5. France later involved: Talleyrand
c. Sardinia (Piedmont) had its
former territory restored, with
the addition of Genoa.
d. A compromise on Poland
reached—―Congress Poland‖
created with Alexander I of
Russia as king; lasted 15 years.
e. Only Britain remained as a
growing power—began their
century of world leadership from
1814 to 1914.
C. Principles of settlement:
1. Legitimacy: restoration of
European thrones
2. Compensation: to countries who
fought Napoleon
3. Balance of Power
a. Encirclement of France
b. End of Holy Roman Empire
• Enhanced Austrian influence
over German states with
creation of German
Confederation (Bund)
of 39 states
D. Hundred Days (March-June 1815)
1. Napoleon capitalized on the
stalled talks in Vienna and
escaped Elba for France
2. Napoleon marched into Paris
with massive popular support
and Louis XVIII fled Paris
3. Napoleon
defeated a
Prussian
army in
Belgium in
June
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4. Battle of Waterloo (June 1815)
a. Last battle of Napoleonic Wars
b. Napoleon defeated by British
army led by the Duke of
Wellington and Prussian forces
5. Napoleon exiled to south
Atlantic island of St. Helena
where he died in 1821
6. ―2nd‖ Treaty of Paris (1815):
Allies now dealt harshly with
France in subsequent
negotiations
a. Minor changes of the borders
previously agreed to
b. France charged a 700 million
franc indemnity for loss of life
VI. Evaluation of Napoleon’s rule
A. First egalitarian dictatorship of
modern times
B. Positive achievements
1. Revolutionary institutions were
consolidated
2. Thoroughly centralized French
government
3. Made a lasting settlement with the
Church
4. Spread positive achievements of
French Revolution to the rest of
Europe
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C. Impact on other countries
1. Serfdom ended in much of
Germany by 1807
2. Germany was reorganized into 39
states
3. Prussia and Austria, for selfpreservation, reformed their
military and provided some
reforms.
D. Liabilities
1. Repressed individual liberty
2. Subverted republicanism
3. Oppressed conquered peoples
throughout Europe.
4. Caused tremendous suffering as a
result of war.
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