Download summary and conclusion

CHAPTER VI
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION
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SUMMARY
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The detail structural exploration in the North Almora Shear Zone (NASZ)
reveals that the zone is characterized by progressive deformation within the
range ductile to brittle regime and suggests a variation in strain localization in the
zone. The strain variation can be seen easily by reduction in grain size from
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porphyritic to fine mylonitic granite gneiss toward thrust plane within shear zone.
Various structures are developed in the rocks of the NASZ, where the rock units
of the Rautgara Formation show shearing impacts only upto less distance then
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the Saryu Formation and show absence of recrystallization of grains.
The complications arise due to the presence of the major Transverse
Faults in the NW (Dwarahat-Gairsen sector) and Central part (Seri-Seraghat
sector) of the NASZ i.e. Chaukhutiya and Rantoli faults. These portions of the
NASZ reflect consequential changes in the structural pattern due to the later
strike slip movement. Steeply dipping foliations and axial planes, rotation and
merging of hinge lines, horizontal to sub-horizontal stretching lineations in the
central part of the faults, explain the strike slip movement of the transverse faults
and related subsidiary faults. Besides of this geomorphic features are the
supportive evidences of the presence of the transverse faults (Valdiya, 1980;
Pant et al., 2007; Kothyari and Pant, 2008; Pant et al., 2011).
Pancheshwar- Seri sector is characterized by the NNE-SSW and ENEWSW (near the Pancheshwar), NNE-SSW and NE-SW (near the Rameshwar-
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Ghat), strike slip faults. The rotation in the hinge line and steeply dipping
foliations and sub-horizontal stretching lineation and parallel fractured planes are
some structural features with some geomorphic evidences, which support their
presence in the area.
Seri-Seraghat and Dwarahat-Gairsen areas are exemplified by the
transverse strike slip faults i.e. Chaukhutiya and Rantoli faults. These sectors are
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very significant for the purpose of the deep study of the transverse faults of the
Himalayan region as they are the seismically active zone (Valdiya, 1975).
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Horizontal to sub-horizontal stretching lineation highly fractured zone parallel to
the transverse fault, steeply dipping lithounits and regional folds with the rotation
in the hinge towards the fault trace are some similar structural features, which are
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observed in the both sectors near the fault planes.
Seraghat-Dwarahat sector is similar to Pancheshwar-Seri sector, and
characterized by NNE-SSW oriented strike slip faults, those dissect the NAT
plane and oriented across the NAT in the region. The structural data strongly
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proves their presence and also supported by geomorphic features. Their NNESSW orientation which is sub-parallel to the major transverse faults and some
deformation pattern in the study area imply the same mechanism and timing
behind the origin of transverse faults as well as these relatively small scale faults.
In the Seraghat-Dwarahat the lithounits are sub-vertical to gently dipping and
demonstrate regional folds with the ESE-WNW and NW-SE striking axial planes.
The study evinces remarkable deformation pattern of different stages (D 1,
D2, D3 and D4) with ductile to brittle stage within the NASZ presence of well
developed kinematic structures. The first phase of folding (F1) represents the D1
phase of deformation (Powell and Conaghan 1973; Saklani, 1973; Schwan, 1980;
Gairola, 1982; 1992, Gairola and Singh, 1995 and others) when isoclinal folds
(F1) developed on bedding (So) with the axial planar cleavage or schistosity (S1).
The second phase of folding (F2) over the S1, explains to D2 deformation (Powell
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and Conaghan 1973; Schwan, 1980; Gairola, 1982; 1992; Gairola and Singh,
1995) and suggest the development of S2 axial planar schistosity. The
mylonitization and development of c-surfaces may be related to D3 phase of
Himalayan orogeny when thrusting occurred (Krishnan, 1960; Powell and
Conaghan, 1973; Schwan, 1980; Srivastava and Gairola, 1990; Kumar and
Singh, 1992; Gairola, 1992 and Gairola and Singh, 1995). Crenulation in the
mylonite bands under the ductile regime and stretching lineation and fractures/
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or D4 phase of deformation.
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joints in the mylonites under brittle regime, represent later phase of deformation
Within the ductile regime the presence of symmetric and
asymmetric structures explain the pure shear component with the simple
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shearing.
The presence of the mesoscopic kinematic structures of mylonites along
the tectonic planes, associated with the NASZ, reveal that the asymmetric fabric,
viz. the mylonitic foliation, S-C fabric, shear bands, asymmetric folds, faults,
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sigmoidal quartz veins, delta and sigma structures have formed in ductile to brittle
conditions within the zone and explain the S to SW sense of movement.
However some mesoscopic structures i.e. C-C′ bands, kinking, small scale
shear zone in the area illustrate top to NE sense of movement in NASZ and late
stage of shearing toward NE direction along the NAT. It represents later
adjustment after placement of Almora thrust sheet over the Lesser Himalaya due
to continuous compressional stress in the area.
Normal faulting and boudinized veins show extensional regime whereas
reverse faulting and numbers of folds introduce the compressional regime within
the NASZ along with it area is also undergone superimposed folding.
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Thin section studies reveal that the mylonitic foliation becomes
progressively stronger and more penetrative towards the NASZ centre and which
may also caused of a stronger lattice preferred orientation of quartz grains.
Microstructures and c-axis pattern reveal both non-coaxial and coaxial
deformations. Non-coaxial deformation fabric and asymmetric microstructures
(i.e. S-C bands, rotation of porphyroblasts/ porphyroclasts, σ- and δ structures)
developed in ductile deformation indicate top-to-S and top-to-SW sense of shear
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directions in the NASZ. Folded mica laths, snowball garnets and over growth of
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the porphyroblasts revealed at least two phase of deformation.
The quartz c-axis single girdles geometry in the intensely sheared rocks
near the NAT trace, and asymmetric cross girdles and symmetric cross girdles/
orthogonal symmetry in less sheared rock units away from the NAT trace are
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observed. Here former explains to simple shear at the NAT and later to pure
shear away from the NAT, in the NASZ. Few specimens at the vicinity of the
NAT also show symmetric cross girdles and pure shear at the NAT (near
Pancheshwar, SW sector). It may be due to later impact of pure shear over the
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simple shear in the rock units within the NASZ and represent to the non-steady
strain path (Gosh and Ramberg, 1976; Platt and Behermann, 1986; Passchier,
1987; Simpson and De Paor 1993; Jiang and White, 1995; Passchier, 1998).
Since CPO in quartz aggregates indicates the deformation temperature
through active slip systems Schmid and Casey (1986), Ralser et al. (1991). The
c-axis projection which display type I single cross girdle, and asymmetric type II
cross girdles with point maxima near Y or close to Z or occasionally at an
intermediate orientation between Y and Z axes, have been shown to form by the
dominant activity of basal <a> and prism <a> at intermediate temperature
conditions (400-600º C), respectively (Takeshita, 1996; Passchier and Trouw,
1996). It also represents the deformation and metamorphism under amphibolite
facies condition (Bunge and Wenk, 1977; Schmid and Casey 1986).
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AMS properties of the rock units can represent the effects of shearing,
folding and faulting (Tarling and Hrouda, 1993; Hallwood et al., 1992; Nakamura
and Nagahama, 2001; Mamtani and Sengupta, 2010). Petrography and magnetic
mineralogy reveals that the anisotropy is controlled mostly by paramagnetic
minerals and negligible contribution of ferromagnetic minerals.
Vertical to subvertical magnetic foliation planes with variable orientations
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represent latterly developed fabrics due to continuous horizontal compressional
forces. Their parallel alignment with the transverse faults along with horizontal to
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gently plunging magnetic lineations, represent the strike slip movement of NNWSSE oriented transverse faults and other subsidiary faults. In the central part of
transverse faults magnetic and field foliation show contrast orientations, and
manifest superimposed deformation due to the development of transverse faults
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and subsidiary faults. However in the terminal parts of the faults the magnetic and
field foliation show similar orientation and less variation between them, which
reflects negligible impacts of faulting in those portions of the faults.
Near the NAT contact magnetic foliation planes follow the orientation of
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the contact and remain parallel to it until faults are encountered and the magnetic
foliations become parallel to these faults in the area.
The clusters of magnetic axes (K1, K2 and K3) are well defined in the rocks
of the Saryu Formation as well as in the highly sheared micaceous quartzarenites
of the Rautgara Formation, as shown by stereoplots. However less deformed
quartzarenite rock samples away from the NAT have almost randomly oriented
axes e.g. mixed maximum, intermediate and minimum axes and shows no
significant results in fabric study.
Schists are showing positive as well as negative relation between P j and
Km. Positive relation is due to the growth of very fine grain iron oxides and
negative relation is due to alteration of paramagnetic minerals as strain
increases, which is verified with the petrography study.
Granitic gneiss and
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proto-mylonite to mylonite in the study area, are consistently showing negative
relation between Pj and Km due to the decreasing the size of the paramagnetic
minerals on increasing the strain near the thrust plane. High K m value of
ultramylonitised granite is a consequence of the presence of ferromagnetic
minerals (pyrrhotite, size < 0.1mm). High Pj value at the NAT plane is due to the
localization of high strain in the rocks of the contact.
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Rf /φ plots is giving high strain (Rs) values near the NAT and low from the
central part of the NASZ.
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distant area of the NAT, which represent increasing value of strain towards the
Highly fractured and sheared rocks in the fault zones show distinct
magnetic foliations, are oriented parallel or sub-parallel to the fault plane. Their
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parallel orientations are due to the growth of fine grain iron oxides along fractures
developed parallel to the fault zone. These results of fractured rocks are
significant in finding out the effects of the main transverse faults as well as of the
small scale subsidiary faults (Nakamura and Nagahama, 2001).
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The magnetic parameter (T vs. Pj) and Flinn plots show dominating oblate
magnetic ellipsoids in the central part of the transverse faults, and prolate to
oblate magnetic ellipsoids in terminals of the transverse faults and along the
NAT. Therefore it is inferred that deformation was mostly of flattening in the
central part and constrictional in terminal parts of the transverse faults and other
parts of the NASZ. Here magnetic ellipsoids along the transverse faults show
flattening strain and strike slip faulting, whereas along the NAT trace represents
constrictional to flattening strain and thrusting effects.
CONCLUSION
 Structural observations in the field and laboratory explain that the area has
been under gone two major deformation regimes i.e. ductile to brittle-
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ductile deformation, and lithounits are intensely deformed and mylonitized
in the NASZ.
 The study verifies remarkable deformation pattern of D1, D2, D3 and
4
stages within the NASZ. D1 deformation explains the development of the
S1 schistosity over the So and D2 deformation suggest the development of
S2 due to the folding in the S1 schistosity. The mylonitization during
shearing show the development of c-surface and represents D3 phase of
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deformation in the Himalayan orogeny. Crenulation in the mylonite bands
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and highly fractured lithounits of the hanging wall as well as foot wall
define the strong brittle deformation of later stage and D4 phase of
deformation in the NASZ.
 Microstructures study revealed at least two phase of deformation in rock
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units of the NASZ.
 Superimposed folding within the NASZ concluded the different phase of
deformation under the ductile conditions. Open to tight isoclinal folds in the
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hanging wall represents progressive deformation towards the NAT plane.
 Petrofabric study revealed the strong mylonitic foliation with grain size
reduction and completely recrystallized grains (shows oblique secondary
foliation) in the Suryu Formation (hanging wall) near the NAT and
incremental strain in the shear zone towards the center of the NASZ.
However the rock units of the foot wall that belongs to Rautgara Formation
show absence of recrystallization of grains and less deformation.
 Sericitization or increased amount of muscovite at the centre of the NASZ
is revealing retrograde metamorphism at the time of thrusting within the
shear zone.
 Precise field and laboratory (meso- microstructures and CPO of the quartz
c-axis) studies explain that the structures and fabric of the rocks have
been undergone simple shear and some where pure shear deformations.
Specifically the development of symmetry in the fabrics at the NAT plane
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is giving clue of the impact pure shear over the simples shear active in the
centre of the NASZ.
 The asymmetry of the fabric (either CPO or meso-microstructures)
revealed the top to SW or S sense of shearing in the Southerly and South
Westerly dipping NASZ.
 The structures that are developed under the brittle or brittle-ductile regime
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as a response of later tectonic adjustments indicate top to NE shear in the
NASZ.
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 Few small scale wedge shaped shear zone with top to NE shearing are
observed in the NASZ, which represent the post-shear zone structures.
These formed as a consequence of tectonic movements in response to
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still continuing compression.
 AMS, and petrofabric study proved the incremental strain towards the NAT
contact in the NASZ.
 Indepth study (field, AMS data) represents the strong evidences of the
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presence of the subsequently developed transverse faults along the NAT
in the NW and central part of the NASZ. Study explains that the transverse
faults are more active in the central part then the terminal parts and they
reflect the high strain accumulation at that portion of the NASZ.
 Magnetic and micro-fabric ellipsoids indicate constrictional to flattening
strain along the NAT contact and dominantly flattening strain where
transverse faults encountered, and reflect early thrusting and subsequent
faulting effects, respectively.
 Steep foliation planes at the vicinity of the NAT contact where transverse
faults encountered and gentle foliation in other parts of the contact explain
the differential strain accumulation within the NASZ and relatively high
stain along the transverse faults.
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 Some new faults i.e. NNE-SSW trending fault near Pancheshwar and NWSE trending near Ghat are discovered in the study area.
 The steep magnetic foliations are interpreted to be on account of regional
compression.
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KINEMATIC MODEL:
Through present indepth structural study a model is proposed which
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explains the incremental stages of deformation in the NASZ:
(I) The stage
explain the low angle thrust fault with the S and SW shear sense and (II) second
stage explain the change in the low angle thrust plane (NAT) to steep plane due
to continuous accumulation of and subsequently development of the transverse
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fault along the NAT in the brittle-ductile regime (Fig.6).
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180
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te
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