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CHAPTER 8 Motivation and Emotion Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Motivation Motivation – process of guiding & maintaining behavior to reach a desired goal Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Biological Theories (1 of 4) Instinct theory – suggests humans are driven by genetically-determined factors Based on Darwin’s theory of natural selection animals engage in unlearned behaviors that increase chances of survival mating, hunting, protecting, and homebuilding Basis of modern evolutionary psychology Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Biological Theories (2 of 4) Drive reduction theory – internal tension created by unmet biological needs is the force behind many of our actions drive – the state of tension Centers on the concept of homeostasis body is constantly trying to maintain an internal state of balance Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Figure 8.1 Drive Reduction Theory Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Biological Theories (3 of 4) Arousal theory – suggests humans are motivated to seek an optimal level of arousal Yerkes-Dodson law – suggests somewhere in the middle is the optimal level of arousal Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Figure 8.2 Yerkes-Dodson Law Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Biological Theories (4 of 4) Sensation seeking – pattern of behavior characterized by looking for intense, novel, and varied experiences seen in early childhood, and predicts impulsive behavior dopamine and genetics play a role Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Learning Theories (1 of 5) Learning theories focus on the influence of the environment Include tangible incentives and rewards from others, called social rewards Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Learning Theories (2 of 5) Incentive theories – suggest outside world pulls individuals toward behaviors that produce rewards based on the principles of operant conditioning Incentive – specific, external goal that individuals feel driven to pursue Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Learning Theories (3 of 5) Expectancy-value theory – view that it is critical to examine the meaning or worth a person places on a particular reward Suggests motivation is a combination of: 1. How much a person values the goal 2. Expectation of obtaining it Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Learning Theories (4 of 5) Social motives – strong need to bond with other human beings Taught by family, society, and culture Examples: affiliation, aggression, achievement, dominance, approval, and power Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Learning Theories (5 of 5) Two distinct goal systems of social motives: social motives – direct us toward seeking positive social rewards Approach social motives – drive us to behaviors in order to move away from negative social consequences Avoidance Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Humanistic Theories (1 of 4) Humanistic perspective suggests: Humans have a natural, in-born drive toward personal growth and fulfillment Need for personal growth forms the basis of personality and motivation Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Humanistic Theories (2 of 4) Maslow’s hierarchy of needs Depicted as a pyramid in which more basic needs must be met prior to higher needs Physiological and safety needs at the bottom Psychological Esteem needs in the middle needs at the top – becoming everything one is capable of becoming Self-actualization Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Figure 8.4 Maslow’s Hierarchy Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Humanistic Theories (3 of 4) Self-determination theory – humans are proactive & have a natural tendency toward self-motivation Intrinsic motivation - to do things based on the how it feels internally. Ex: For enjoyment or fun motivation – desire to do something stems from outside rewards Extrinsic Ex: money or praise Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Humanistic Theories (4 of 4) Self-determination theory’s three inherent psychological needs: 1. 2. 3. Competence – need to feel effective in one's environment Autonomy – need to be a causal agent in one's life Relatedness – need to connect with and care for others Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Hunger Hunger – the drive to seek food Has biological, psychological, social, & cultural elements Sensation usually described as a physical one Homeostatically regulated The result of a combination of bodily signals and mechanisms Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Physiology of Hunger Stomach is lined with neurons that: Sense the level of nutrients in your stomach Determine receptors whether it is empty or stretched full pass the information to the brain Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Figure 8.6 Physiology of Hunger Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Brain Signals Hypothalamus (key brain structure involved in hunger) Three key areas: Lateral hypothalamus – recognizes hunger hypothalamus – involved in the feeling of fullness. Ventromedial hypothalamus – regulates hunger by triggering the release of hormones Paraventricular Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Environmental Factors in the Regulation of Hunger Organisms consume more food when it is palatable more is available when there is greater variety in the presence of others Environmental cues, such as advertisements for food, can also promote eating. Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Hormonal Signals (1 of 3) Blood sugar subsystem is one way hunger is regulated – simple sugar converted from food that provides the main source of energy for the cells in the body Glucose – secreted by the pancreas and plays a role in regulating the metabolism or conversion of fats and carbohydrates Insulin Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Hormonal Signals (2 of 3) Digestive hormones – hormone produced by the stomach typically secreted between meals that sends hunger signals to the brain Ghrelin Cholecystokinin (CCK) – hormone released that signals fullness Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Hormonal Signals (3 of 3) Stress-Leptin subsystem point – the weight the body naturally maintains Set influences metabolic rate and hunger level – hormone present in fat cells that communicates with the brain about long–range food needs based on energy stores Leptin Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Common Eating Disorders (1 of 3) Obesity – weighing 20% or more than what's appropriate for a given height Obese mass index (BMI) – commonly used scale for determining proper weight Body Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Figure 8.7 Obesity Rates Across the U.S. Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Common Eating Disorders (2 of 3) Anorexia nervosa – inability to eat enough food to maintain normal body weight due to an intense fear of gaining weight Inability to maintain at least 85% of the recommended body weight body image – defining feature of anorexia in which the individual sees themselves as fat despite being thin Distorted Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Common Eating Disorders (3 of 3) Bulimia nervosa – intense fear of gaining weight accompanied with cycles of bingeing and purging Binge eating disorder (BED) – person engages in binge behavior without the compensatory behaviors of excessive exercise or vomiting afterward Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Causes of Disordered Eating (1 of 4) Personality variables include: the link between body image and self-worth overvaluation – excessive influence of body shape or weight on self-image More common among: “Perfectionists” People who have obsessive-compulsive personality Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Causes of Disordered Eating (2 of 4) Social and cultural variables include: Influence of media effect – exposure to highly unrealistic images and ideas about weight and shape Barbie dysmorphia – disorder in which a person becomes obsessed with the idea that he or she is not muscular enough Muscle Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Causes of Disordered Eating (3 of 4) Biological factors include: Mismatch between individual biology and food environment Genetic predisposition to overeating Genetically influenced weight set-point Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Causes of Disordered Eating (4 of 4) Biological factors include: metabolic rate – the rate at which a person burns calories when at rest Basal Reward circuitry (pleasure seeking) part of the brain Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Emotion Emotion – feeling state involving physiological arousal, thoughts, and changes in outward expression Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Early Theories of Emotion (1 of 2) 1. 2. James-Lange theory – suggests emotions register in the brain after physiological changes in the body occur Cannon-Bard theory – suggests changes in the body happen at the same time as the emotional experience Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Early Theories of Emotion (2 of 2) 3. Two-factor theory – argues that both physiological arousal and a cognitive label are needed before an emotion is registered transfer theory – arousal from one stimulus is transferred to another excitation Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Figure 8.9 Three Classic Theories of Emotion Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Theories of Emotion Dual pathway model – suggests brain uses two different pathways for processing emotions low road is largely unconscious; emotions happen automatically and without a lot of thought high road involves conscious thought and arises from appraising the situation Includes important elements from all three of the earlier theories Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Figure 8.10 Dual Pathway Model Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved The Unconscious Emotional System Low road to emotion involves both the limbic system and autonomic nervous system systems allow humans to respond quickly to threatening or dangerous situations Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Role of the Limbic System (1 of 2) Especially involved in emotions related to survival fear and anger in response to danger feelings of pleasure derived from eating and sex Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Role of the Limbic System (2 of 2) Amygdala “tastes” incoming stimuli Takes in just enough to be able to react immediately to danger and threat Passes information to the cortex where potential threat is considered Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Role of the Autonomic Nervous System Each emotion has unique pattern of autonomic nervous system response anger and fear usually associated with increased heart rate and body temperature Parasympathetic rebound – parasympathetic system overcompensates by slowing blood pressure too much during extreme emotional stress Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Detecting Lies Polygraphs are not all that accurate in assessing individuals’ veracity. Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved The Role of Cognitive Appraisal Conscious recognition of an emotion occurs in the cortex Cognitive appraisal – personal interpretation of a situation accounts for people’s different emotional reactions to the same event used in therapies to help people with emotional and mood-related problems Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Exploring the Ingredients of Happiness Factors that do not Predict Happiness Money Age Parenthood Intelligence and Attractiveness Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Moderately Good Predictors of Happiness Health Social Activity Exploring the Ingredients of Happiness Strong Predictors of Happiness Love and Marriage. Work Genetics and Personality Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
