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6. Some Effects Due to Internal Forces To this point our illustrations of the laws of force and motion have focused on the effects of external forces acting on identifiable objects: balls, cars, people, and so forth. We will next turn our attention to illustrating the effects of forces that act inside objects and materials. These internal forces can also be understood in terms of the laws we have discussed. Such illustrations are as important as those involving external forces. We will begin by discussing forces that occur within solid objects such as trees, people, and automobiles. This will establish some useful general principles. Then we will examine forces within fluids, mainly water and air, and discuss buoyancy and other important manifestations of these internal forces. Finally, we will discuss some of the forces that occur within the earth itself and that govern some of the changes we see on the earth’s surface. Forces within Solids Figure 6.1. What forces act on a piece of wood inside a tree trunk? We have seen that objects exert contact forces on each other whenever they touch. This is also true for individual samples of matter within any object. Consider any ordinary solid: a tree, for example. Imagine a small piece of wood inside the tree near the center of the trunk (Fig. 6.1). What do we know about the forces that act on this sample? The method for finding forces outlined in Chapter 5 applies to this piece of wood as well as to any other object. Using this method we first ask about the gravitational force on the piece of wood. There must be one, because the sample has mass. Thus we know at least one force, its weight, is acting on this object. Because there are no long-range electromagnetic forces, we next inquire about possible contact forces. The sample is touching other wood at all of its boundaries. Electrical contact forces are being exerted at each point of contact. It is difficult to describe these in detail without knowing more about the internal structure of the wood. However, we can determine exactly how large the net force must be due to all of these interactions. Also notice that the sample is in equilibrium; it is not accelerating. This means that the total force must be zero. The total force can be zero only if the combined contact forces provide a force that exactly balances the Figure 6.2. How can we describe the total effect of all the contact forces? weight of the sample. Thus we know that the combined contact forces provide a net upward force on this sample of wood, and that the strength of the contact forces is exactly equal to the weight of the sample (Fig. 6.2). The same is true for the forces within any material. When the sample is at rest, contact forces balance the long-range forces, usually gravity. If the surrounding material is accelerating, these interior contact forces 47 change so that a net force is on each piece of the sample, causing it to accelerate in accord with the Second Law of Motion. To better understand this last point, consider the forces that act when you jump. The contact force with the ground is the external force that accelerates your body upward. Gravity, as always, provides a downward force. There are no significant long-range electromagnetic interactions. But what force accelerates your head? Your head is not in contact with the floor, so the contact interaction with the floor cannot accelerate your head. Your head, in fact, is accelerated by contact forces exerted by that which it touches, namely the top of the spinal column. The spinal column exerts an upward force on your skull that just balances gravity when your head is not accelerating and that exceeds gravity (providing a net upward force) when you jump (Fig. 6.3). zontal motion. The contact forces, in turn, depend on what a given piece of matter actually touches. It experiences no forces from objects that it does not touch. Pressure When you immerse an object in a fluid, it is subjected to forces from the fluid touching it. Because the contact comes at so many different places, we speak of “pressure” rather than of force. Pressure is defined as the force per unit area of contact: . pressure 5 force area Thus, a 100-pound force distributed over an area of 4 square inches exerts a pressure of 25 pounds per square inch. The same force distributed over an area of 1 square inch exerts a pressure of 100 pounds per square inch. For many applications, it is pressure which is the crucial issue. A pound is a modest force, but if distributed over a very small area it may exert a pressure of 100,000 pounds per square inch on that small area. Some materials may not be able to withstand this concentration of force and may give way, even though this same force might not cause any problem when spread over a much larger area (thus producing less pressure). You can investigate the pressure exerted on objects in fluids with a device like that shown in Figure 6.4. The device, called a gauge, exposes a small, known area to the contact forces of the fluid. The strength of the force is measured by how much it compresses the gauge’s spring. Because you are interested in measuring pressure at a particular position in the fluid, imagine the device to be as small as possible. Then you can speak of the pressure at a certain point. Contact Force (with spinal column) Head Weight Figure 6.3. What force causes your head to accelerate when you jump? The contact force explains the neck pain that a jogger sometimes experiences. When a person is running, the head moves up and down. Each time the head comes down, it must be stopped and then accelerated upward again by forces exerted by the spine. If these motions are very uneven or jerky, the forces the spine exerts on the skull can resemble hammer-blows. Continued over a long time, they can cause some structures of the spinal column to deteriorate. Such damage can be minimized by running as smoothly as possible, reducing the rate of vertical acceleration by running on softer surfaces and wearing shoes with soft soles. The motion of every piece of matter—whether a single atom, a complete object, or a small part of such an object—is governed by the laws of motion and force. In the absence of long-range electromagnetic forces, the interplay between weight and contact forces governs vertical motion, and contact forces alone govern hori- Figure 6.4. A pressure gauge. When you investigate pressures with your imagined gauge, you find four simple rules: 1. Fluids at rest only exert pressure perpendicular to the surface of the object in contact with the fluid. Fluids at rest do not exert shear (“sideways”) forces, although these are present when the fluid is moving. 2. Pressure does not depend on the orientation of the pressure-measuring device. At a given depth, 48 pressure in the fluid does not depend on direction. Buoyant Force 3. Pressure does depend on depth. The deeper the gauge, the greater the pressure. Indeed, the pressure at any depth in the fluid must equal the weight of the column of fluid above it, if the column is at rest. This insight provides a way to calculate the pressure at any depth in a fluid: Imagine a fluid column of unit area above the point and compute its weight. Also, it may be necessary to add the weight of the air column above the fluid if its surface is exposed to the atmosphere. At sea level a column of air with a cross-sectional area of one square inch and reaching to the top of the atmosphere weighs 14.7 pounds. Object Weight Figure 6.5. Fluid pressure causes a net upward buoyant force on any object. 4. The pressure is the same at all points of the same depth. Pressure does not depend on the total surface area of the fluid above the gauge. For example, the pressure on the bottom of a dam does not depend on the area of the lake. occupied by the immersed object in Figure 6.5 is filled with fluid instead. Now recall our earlier discussion of the forces on a piece of wood inside a tree. Remember that the adjacent wood was exerting a net upward force that was just large enough to keep the piece from falling. The same arguments we used there lead us to conclude here that the water adjacent to our sample in Figure 6.5 exerts a force on it that just balances its weight. Now, suppose that the immersed object (Fig. 6.5) exactly fills the space previously occupied by the sample of fluid. The surrounding fluid exerts a net upward force on the object equaling the force previously exerted on the sample of fluid. This force is equal to the weight of the fluid that the object displaced (i.e., took the place of). This is the buoyant force. The rule governing the strength of the buoyant force is known as Archimedes’ Principle: It may seem incredible at first to realize that the atmosphere exerts a pressure of almost 15 pounds per square inch over the surface of your body. Your body has a lot of square inches; the resulting total force on your body is thousands of pounds, enough to crush you to a pulp. You avoid this fate by keeping air pressure inside your body which balances the air pressure on the outside. The alternative is not pleasant! Buoyant Forces Most of us have noticed that objects immersed in a fluid, such as water, seem to weigh less than before. However, from our study of the gravitational interaction we know that neither of the factors affecting weight (mass and distance) have changed. Thus, objects really weigh the same when immersed in the fluid. However, they are undeniably easier to lift when immersed. Why? This situation is illustrated in Figure 6.5, where a fluid pushes in on an immersed object from all sides. Pressure in the fluid increases with depth, so the forces pushing up on the bottom of the object are larger than those pushing down on its top. The total result is a net upward contact force, called a buoyant force. You should recognize that the buoyant force is really the result of all the contact forces between the immersed object and the surrounding fluid. However, it is easier to think of buoyancy as a single force rather than as a large number of smaller forces acting in different directions as shown in Figure 6.5. With a little effort we can discern the strength of the buoyant force in any situation. Imagine that the space An object immersed in a fluid experiences an upward buoyant force due to contact interactions with the surrounding fluid, whose strength is equal to the weight of the displaced fluid. An object immersed in fluid experiences two forces: its weight pulling downward and the upward buoyant force. The object accelerates in the direction of the net force, which is the stronger of these two. An object sinks if its weight is stronger than the buoyant force, and it rises if the buoyant force is stronger. Consider a balloon and a solid metal ball that are the same size and are both submerged in water (Fig. 6.6). The buoyant forces on the two have exactly the same strength, because they both displace the same amount of fluid. However, the weight of the balloon is much less than the buoyant force. Thus the net force is upward and the balloon rises to the surface. Since the 49 weight of the metal ball is greater than the weight of an equal volume of water, its weight exceeds the strength of the buoyant force. The net force on the ball is downward, and it sinks to the bottom. Buoyant Force The density of an object or sample of fluid is its mass per unit volume, or its mass divided by its volume. An object sinks if its density is greater than the density of the fluid in which it is immersed. It rises if its density is less than the fluid in which it is immersed. Do you see why? Densities of materials are often compared with the density of water. This relative density is given the name specific gravity. Thus, if a rock sample has a density of 2.3, or a specific gravity of 2.3, its density is 2.3 times the density of water. Buoyant Force Floating Objects Weight Weight We next turn our attention to objects floating on the surface of fluids, such as objects floating on water. By now you should visualize two forces acting on the floating boat in Figure 6.8: its weight pulling downward and a buoyant force exerted by the surrounding water pressing upward. These two forces just balance each other, so that once the boat reaches a certain level, it neither rises nor sinks. Figure 6.6. A balloon and a metal ball might be the same size. Why does one float and the other sink? Now imagine two objects that have the same weight but different volumes (Fig. 6.7). One might be a ball made of wood and the other a much smaller ball made of iron. Since the wood ball is larger, the buoyant force acting on it is also larger. If the wood weighs less than an equal volume of water, the buoyant force will exceed the weight of the ball; the net force will be upward, and the ball will rise to the surface. The buoyant force on the smaller metal ball, however, will be less than that on the Buoyant Force Buoyant Force Figure 6.8. How much of the boat is below water level? Weight Weight How much of the boat will sink below the water level? We have seen that the strength of the buoyant force is equal to the weight of displaced fluid. Thus, the volume of the boat below the water surface must displace a weight of water equal to the weight of the boat and passengers. What will happen if the boat is loaded more heavily? Its weight will increase and it will sink until it displaces more water. How much? Enough water must be displaced so that its weight equals the weight of the additional freight. What happens if the ship does not have enough volume to displace the extra water? It sinks. Icebergs illustrate these same points. They float because ice has a density about 10% less than water. It only takes 90% of the iceberg’s volume to displace enough water to equal its total weight, so the iceberg floats with about 10% of its volume above the surface of the water. Several features of this phenomenon are worth not- Figure 6.7. These objects have the same weight. Why does one sink and the other float? wood ball. The volume of water it displaces weighs less the metal. Therefore, the metal ball sinks, even though its weight is the same as the weight of the wood ball. The general rules concerning floating and sinking are sometimes summarized simply in terms of density. density 5 mass . volume 50 Figure 6.9. A floating iceberg sinks when more mass is added and rises when mass leaves or is taken away. Figure 6.10. The earth’s crust floats in (or on) the mantle much as icebergs float in water. ing. First, compare a large iceberg with a smaller one. Notice that the larger one has more volume below the water as well as above the water compared to the smaller one. Second, imagine what will happen if more mass is added to the part of the iceberg above the water, say by a snowstorm or by visiting walruses (Fig. 6.9). The iceberg will sink farther into the water, thus increasing the buoyant force needed to balance the increased mass. Finally, imagine what will happen if some of the material above the water is lost, by melting for example. The iceberg will rise in the water, since a smaller buoyant force is needed to balance the iceberg’s lightened weight. the mantle’s buoyant force supports its weight, together with that of the water above. The materials that make up the continents are significantly less dense than the oceanic crust. These lighter continental materials sink into the mantle only far enough to displace the weight of mantle material equal to their own. Each continent, and indeed each mountain, has “roots” extending far enough below it to provide the necessary buoyant force. You can deduce many of the consequences of these ideas by remembering our iceberg example. The taller mountain or continent must have deeper roots, just as the large iceberg must have more volume below the surface. If material is added to a continent—for example, by the formation of a glacier; a flow of lava, or even the construction of a large building—the crust will sink, over time, farther into the mantle. If material is removed—for example, by erosion or the melting of a glacier—the underlying crust will rise. The general principle governing this fluid-like equilibrium in the earth’s crust is called isostasy. Buoyancy in the Earth’s Crust: Isostasy An interesting application of buoyancy occurs in the earth’s crust. The continents actually float in the earth’s mantle in much the same way that ships or icebergs float in water. The outer layer of the mantle is hot enough to have some characteristics of a fluid. In particular, forces within the mantle adjust over long periods, following the general rules for fluids we described earlier. The crust lies above this semifluid layer. Its general features are shown in Figure 6.10. The crust underneath the oceans is quite dense (but less dense than the mantle) and relatively thin. The oceanic crust sinks just far enough into the mantle that Convection We now look at one additional illustration of buoyant forces. Suppose we have regions of high and low density occurring within the same fluid because of dif- 51 Figure 6.11. Daytime convection pattern near a seashore. Air near the land surface is hotter than air over the water. Figure 6.12. Nighttime convection pattern near a seashore. Air near the land surface is cooler than air over the water. ferent temperatures within the fluid. Most fluids expand when their temperatures rise. Thus, they become less dense because the same mass occupies greater volume. High-density regions of fluid sink, while low-density regions of fluid rise. Do you see why? High-density regions displace surrounding fluid, but the displaced fluid does not weigh as much. Thus, the buoyant force on the high-density region is less than its weight, so it sinks. Low-density regions also displace fluid. In their case, the displaced fluid weighs more. Thus, the buoyant force on the region is greater that its weight, so it rises. The result in both cases is that cooler regions of fluid sink as warmer regions rise. These motions cause interesting and important processes in nature. Consider the common example shown in Figure 6.11 of a large body of water adjacent to land. The temperature of the soil is higher than the temperature of the water during the day. Air above the soil heats and expands, becoming less dense than the air above; therefore, it rises. As it rises, it is replaced by the cooler, denser air from the water. A circulation pattern is established as shown in the figure. The result is a cool breeze from the body of water during the day. The situation is reversed at night. The land cools more rapidly and, in many cases, becomes cooler than the water. Air circulation then proceeds in the opposite direction, with the surface wind blowing away from the land (Fig. 6.12). This kind of circulation, caused by differences in tem- 52 perature and density, is called convection. It is responsible for many of the broad circulation patterns in the earth’s atmosphere and oceans. Convection is probably the mechanism that also drives broad regions of the earth’s crust from place to place on the surface of the earth. Notice that convection depends on the presence of gravitational forces. Neither weight nor buoyant forces would be present without gravity, so there would be no convection. 6. 7. Summary earth’s crust seen as “floating” in the underlying mantle rock. Pressure: The force applied to the surface of an object divided by the area over which the force is applied. Force per unit area. Specific Gravity: The density of a material divided by the density of a reference substance, usually water. The specific gravity of water is 1.0, if water itself is the reference substance. D. FOCUS QUESTIONS 1. In each of the following situations: a. Describe the motion. b. Analyze the motion by applying the procedure of Chapter 5 (Finding Forces). c. List the fundamental principles used in coming to the results of your analysis. (1) A cube of wood within a tree trunk. (2) A cube of air above you on a calm day. The air is not moving. (3) A part of the surface of a can when the air was pumped out. (4) An imaginary, vertical cylinder of water in a tub of water at rest. 2. Consider three spheres of the same size completely submerged in a tub of water. One sphere is made of lead, another is made of wood, and the third is made of water. a. How do the weights of the three objects compare to each other? b. How do the buoyant forces on the three objects compare to each other? c. Analyze the motion of the three objects by applying the procedure above. d. List the fundamental principles used in coming to the results of your analysis. 3. Consider a floating iceberg: a. Describe why it floats by using the procedure given to analyze motion. b. What happens when some of the iceberg melts? Why does it happen? c. What happens when it snows on the top of the iceberg? Why? This chapter extends applications of the laws of motion and force to forces within materials, particularly fluids. STUDY GUIDE Chapter 6: Some Effects Due to Internal Forces A. 1. 2. 3. 4. FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES The First Law of Motion: See Chapter 3. The Second Law of Motion: See Chapter 3. The Third Law of Motion: See Chapter 3. The Universal Law of Gravitation: See Chapter 4. 5. The Electric Force Law: See Chapter 4. B. MODELS, IDEAS, QUESTIONS, OR APPLICATIONS 1. How can you use the laws of force and motion to analyze the motion of a part of a stationary object? 2. How can you use the laws of force and account for the motion of a part of a fluid? What is a buoyant force? What is Archimedes’ Principle? 3. How can you apply this understanding to explain: a. floating objects? b. buoyancy in the crust of the earth? c. convection in a liquid or a gas? C. GLOSSARY 1. Archimedes’ Principle: An object immersed in a fluid experiences an upward buoyant force due to contact interactions with the surrounding fluid, whose strength is equal to the weight of the displaced fluid. 2. Buoyant Force: For an object at rest which is wholly or partially immersed in a fluid, the buoyant force is the net or resultant force of the contact forces exerted on the object by the fluid. 3. Convection: The circulation (movement) of the matter of a fluid because of differences in temperature and pressure throughout the fluid. 4. Density: The mass per unit volume of a substance. 5. Isostasy: The word means “balance.” In geology, the term is applied to the balance of the buoyant force and the force of gravity on a piece of the E. EXERCISES 6.1. Consider a piece of air 20 meters above the ground. What keeps it from falling? 6.2. Imagine yourself running. What forces govern the motion of each foot from the time it leaves the ground until it returns to the ground? 6.3. Imagine yourself in an elevator. What force accelerates your stomach when the elevator begins to move up? 53 6.4. Explain why it is easier to lift a rock when it is under water than when it is above water. 6.20. Explain why buoyant forces cause convection when a fluid such as air is unevenly heated. 6.5. Do heavy objects always sink? Under what circumstances would a heavy object not sink? 6.21. An object sinks in oil but floats in water. Which is true? (a) The above situation is not possible. (b) Oil decreases the gravitational force on an object. (c) Water increases the gravitational force on an object. (d) The buoyant force on the object immersed in oil is greater than the gravitational force. (e) The buoyant force on the object floating in water is equal to the gravitational force. 6.6. Explain why an object sinks if it is more dense than the fluid it is immersed in. 6.7. Explain why the strength of a buoyant force is equal to the weight of displaced fluid. 6.8. Describe the interaction which causes the buoyant force on an immersed object. Is this a longrange or a contact interaction? What other interaction is important when describing the behavior of objects immersed in a fluid? 6.9. Does the strength of the buoyant force depend on the weight of an immersed object, its size, its density, the density of the fluid, all of these, or none of these? Explain your answer. 6.10. Explain why a kilogram of wood can float in water when a kilogram of iron sinks. 6.11. Explain why a helium-filled balloon rises but why an air-filled balloon does not. What factors determine how high the helium-filled balloon will rise? 6.12. Explain the meaning of “density.’’ 6.13. Explain the meaning of “specific gravity.’’ 6.14. upward? Why is a buoyant force always directed 6.15. Outdoor swimming pools in certain areas of California sometimes rise out of the ground when they are drained for the winter. How could this occur? 6.16. Explain why an aircraft carrier can float while a small ball made of the same steel will sink. 6.17. Explain why an oil tanker sits lower in the water when loaded than when it is empty. 6.18. Why are the most dense materials of the earth mostly found near its center? 6.19. Some parts of the U.S. require the excavation of soft rocks and sediment before laying foundations for large buildings. What would you expect to happen to such a building if its weight were greater than that of the removed rock? What would happen if the building weighed less? Explain why you would expect such behavior. 54