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SuperStock Philadelphia’s Independence Hall 1770 NORTHWEST TERRITORY THE UNITED STATES 1780 1790 1777 1787 Articles of Confederation written U.S. U.S. Constitution Constitution signed ratified 1788 The Articles of Confederation History Social Science Standards US8.2 Students analyze the political principles underlying the U.S. Constitution and compare the enumerated and implied powers of the federal government. US8.3 Students understand the foundation of the American political system and the ways in which citizens participate in it. US8.9 Students analyze the early and steady attempts to abolish slavery and to realize the ideals of the Declaration of Independence. Looking Back, Looking Ahead Content Vocabulary In Chapter 2, you learned about the American Revolution. The United States was now independent, but it remained to be seen whether the new nation could survive. popular sovereignty (PAH • pyuh • luhr SAH • vuhrn • tee) bicameral (by • KAM • ruhl) confederation (kuhn • FEH • duh • RAY • shuhn) sovereignty (SAH • vuhrn • tee) ratify (RA • tuh • fy) ordinance (AWR • duhn • uhnts) right of deposit (di • PAH • zuht) Focusing on the • As soon as the Declaration of Independence was signed, the 13 states began writing their own constitutions. (page 179) • Americans realized the necessity of establishing a central, or national, government for the 13 states. (page 180) • The weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation created problems for the new country. (page 183) Academic Vocabulary interpret (ihn • TUHR • pruht) authority (uh • THAHR • uh • tee) Reading Strategy Organizing Draw a diagram like the one below. In each oval, list a power you think a national government should have. Locating Places Appalachian Mountains (A • puh • LAY • chuhn) Northwest Territory Powers of government Meeting People Robert Morris John Jay 1775 si p p i issis M NORTHWEST TERRITORY R. 178 1780 1785 1790 1777 1781 1787 Articles of Confederation written All states approve Confederation government Northwest Ordinance is passed CHAPTER 3 • A More Perfect Union US8.3.1 Analyze the principles and concepts codified in state constitutions between 1777 and 1781 that created the context out of which American political institutions and ideas developed. Thirteen Independent States As soon as the Declaration of Independence was signed, the 13 states began writing their own constitutions. Reading Connection What makes people get along with one another? Do they need rules or a strong leader? Read to learn how the people of the new states answered these questions. In 1783 an enslaved Massachusetts man named Quock Walker made an important decision. He took legal action against a white man who had assaulted him. The case reached the state supreme court. Chief Justice William Cushing agreed with Walker: “ Our Constitution [of Massachusetts] sets out with declaring that all men are born free and equal—and that every subject is entitled to liberty. . . . This being the case, I think the idea of slavery is inconsistent with our own conduct and Constitution. ” ––William Cushing, from Founding the Republic The Quock Walker case demonstrated that the Massachusetts courts would not support slavery. Because of this ruling and other antislavery efforts, slavery ceased to exist in Massachusetts. State Constitutions Even before the Declaration of Independence was signed, American colonists discussed the possibility of independence and American leaders began preparing new state constitutions to replace the old colonial charters. Many of the new state governments were based upon ideals expressed in the Declaration of Independence. American ideals of individual rights to “life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness” are in the Declaration. So are such values as popular sovereignty (PAH • pyuh • luhr SAV • vuhrn • tee)—government by consent of the governed—and equal justice under law. These ideals were also an important part of the early state constitutions. Systems of Government In January 1776, New Hampshire became the first colony to organize as a state and craft a constitution. By 1780, the other former colonies had followed suit. The new state constitutions set up a similar system of government. Each state had a legislature to create laws, and most of these legislatures were bicameral (by • KAM • ruhl), like the English Parliament; that is, they were divided into two parts, or houses. Each state also had a chief executive called the governor, who was elected by the legislature or by the citizens. The governor’s job was to carry out the laws. To prevent abuses by a single ruler most states’ constitutions limited the power of the governor. Finally, each state had judges and courts to interpret the laws—to decide what the laws meant and how they applied to each new situation. Preserving Rights To keep power in the hands of the people, state legislators were popularly elected, and elections were frequent. In most states, only white males who were at least 21 years old could vote. These citizens also had to own a certain amount of property or pay a certain amount of taxes. Some states allowed free African American males to vote. Most state constitutions included a bill of rights, guaranteeing certain freedoms and legal protections to the state’s citizens. Some of these rights, such as trial by jury and protection of personal property, can be traced back to the Magna Carta and the English Bill of Rights. As you learned earlier, these documents helped establish the idea that people have rights and that the power of the government should be limited. Explain Describe the branches of the new state government. CHAPTER 3 • A More Perfect Union 179 US8.3.2 Explain how the ordinances of 1785 and 1787 privatized national resources and transferred federally owned lands into private holdings, townships, and states. US8.9.3 Describe the significance of the Northwest Ordinance in education and in the banning of slavery in new states north of the Ohio River. Forming the New Government Americans realized the necessity of establishing a central, or national, government for the 13 states. Reading Connection Would you be surprised to learn that the Constitution of the United States was not our nation’s first plan of government? Read to find out about the nation’s first constitution. Although each state was well prepared and eager to govern itself when independence was declared, a state could not do some things on its own. It could not raise and maintain a large army, for example, and Americans knew that 13 small, separate forces would be no match for the mighty British army. Americans realized that if they wanted to win the war with Great Britain, they needed a single, strong army under central control. For this and other reasons, the Second Continental Congress made plans for a union of the states. A Confederation of States At the same time that Jefferson was drafting the Declaration of Independence, members of the Continental Congress were developing a plan for the new government. In 1777 the Congress detailed these plans in a document called the Articles of Confederation, the first constitution of the United States of America. A confederation is a voluntary association of independent states. In a confederation (kuhn • FEH • duh • RAY • shuhn), the member states agree to let the central government undertake a limited number of activities, such as forming an army. The Articles set up a one-house legislature called the Congress. Although the states could send between two and seven delegates to the congress, each state, no matter what the size, had only one vote. The issue of sovereignty (SAH • vuhrn • tee), or supreme power, was an important part of the Articles of Confederation: “ Each state retains its sovereignty, freedom and independence, and every power, jurisdiction and right, which is not by this Confederation expressly delegated to the United States in Congress assembled. ” ––Article II, Articles of Confederation The Second Continental Congress adopted the Articles of Confederation in 1781. Why did the Congress form a union of states? 180 CHAPTER 3 • A More Perfect Union Picture Research Consultants The Powers of Congress Congress had several powers under the Articles of Confederation. Congress had the authority to conduct foreign affairs, maintain armed forces, borrow money, and issue currency. These central powers were quite limited, though. As a result of their negative experiences with the British government, the 13 states refused to give the Congress two important powers. It had no power to enforce its laws and no power to tax. The Articles allowed the Congress to ask the states for money but not to demand it. The Congress could not, in fact, require the states to do anything.Without money or real power over the states, the Confederation Congress commanded so little respect that its members often did not bother to attend sessions. Weaknesses of the Articles By 1781 all 13 states had ratified (RA • tuh • fyd), or approved, the Articles of Confederation. Within the next few years, however, it became clear that the Articles had some serious problems. To begin with, the Congress could not pass a law unless nine states voted in favor of it. Any attempt to amend, or change, the Articles required a unanimous vote of all 13 states. These strict voting requirements made it difficult for the Congress to accomplish anything. Even when the Congress managed to pass laws, it could not enforce them. Unlike the state constitutions, the Articles did not provide for a chief executive or for courts. If a state decided to ignore a law, the Congress could do nothing. Despite the weaknesses of the Articles, the Confederation government accomplished important tasks. Perhaps its greatest achievement was establishing a fair policy for the development of the lands west of the Appalachian Mountains (A • puh • LAY • chuhn). Western Land Policies At the beginning of the Revolutionary War, only a few thousand non-Indian settlers lived west of the Appalachian Mountains. By the 1790s, the number was approaching 120,000. These settlers hoped to organize their lands as states and join the union, but the Articles contained no provision for adding states. Congress knew that it had to extend its authority over the territory. Lacking the power to tax or regulate trade, the only way for the Confederation Congress to raise money to pay its debts and operate the government was to sell land. To get people to buy land and settle in the western region, the Congress had to establish a system for dividing and selling the land and governing the new settlements. In 1785 Congress passed an ordinance (AWR • duhn • uhnts), or law, that established a procedure for surveying and selling the western lands. The new law divided the land into local government units called townships, which are perfectly squared blocks usually six miles wide and six miles long. These townships were to be further divided into 36 sections of 640 acres each that would be sold at public auction for at least a dollar an acre. The Northwest Ordinance Two years later, Congress passed the Northwest Ordinance, which created a single Northwest Territory out of the lands north of the Ohio River and east of the Mississippi River. The lands were to be divided into not fewer than three nor more than five smaller territories. The Northwest Ordinance provided a democratic model for national expansion. When the population of a territory reached 60,000, its people could petition, or apply to Congress, for statehood. Each new state would come into the Union with the same rights and privileges as the original 13 states. Weaknesses in the Articles of Confederation Weakness Congress has no power to tax. Result It had to rely on the states to collect and forward taxes, which the states were reluctant to do. The central government was always short of money. Congress has no power to enforce its laws. Congress depended on the states to enforce its laws, which they rarely did. There was no executive branch. Coordinating the work of the national government was almost impossible. Nine states had to approve any law before it could be passed. Most laws were difficult, if not impossible, to enact. Congress could not force the states to meet military quotas. They could not draft soldiers to form a standing army. The national government had limited powers. It depended on states for revenue, soldiers, and law enforcement. Analyze Why did the states approve a government with many weaknesses? 181 Minute Man National Historic Park/Rob Huntley for Chromographics The Northwest Ordinance also guaranteed certain rights to people living in the territory. These rights included freedom of religion, property rights, and the right to trial by jury. The ordinance also included a clause stating, “ There shall be neither slavery nor involuntary servitude in [the] territory. ” ––Article 6, The Northwest Ordinance This clause is very important. It marked the United States’s first attempt to stop the spread of slavery. Which States Were Formed? The Confederation’s western ordinances had an enormous effect on American expansion and development. The Ordinance of 1785 and the Northwest Ordinance described the steps by which new states would be formed. These policies opened the way for settlement of the Northwest Territory in a clear and orderly manner. Ohio was the first state admitted (1803) to the Union from the Northwest Territory. Other states were admitted later. The present-day states of Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, and Wisconsin eventually were formed from the Northwest Territory. Explain What was the purpose of the Northwest Ordinance? Surveying the Land When the Revolution began, only a few thousand white settlers lived west of the Appalachian Mountains. By the 1790s their numbers had increased to about 120,000. Through the Ordinance of 1785, Congress created a system for surveying––taking a detailed measurement of an area of land––and selling the western lands. The Ordinance at first applied only to what was then called the Northwest Territory–– present-day Ohio, Indiana, Michigan, Illinois, and Wisconsin. It established a system of land survey and settlement that we still use today. 182 The Land Ordinance led to the sale of large amounts of land and speeded settlement of the Northwest Territory.