Download A History of Modern Psychology

A History of
Modern Psychology
Eighth Edition
Duane P. Schultz
University of South Florida
Sydney Ellen Schultz
THOMSON
*J
WADSWORTH
Australia • Canada • Mexico • Singapore • Spain
United Kingdom • United States
Prejudice and Discrimination 12
Conceptions of Scientific History 18
The Personalistic Theory 18
The Naturalistic Theory 18
Schools of Thought in the Evolution of
Modern Psychology 21
Plan of the Book 23
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 24
SUGGESTED READINGS 24
People as Machines 32
The Calculating Engine 33
The Beginnings of Modern Science 36
Rene Descartes (1596-1650) 37
The Contributions of Descartes: Mechanism
and the Mind-Body Problem 39
The Nature of the Body 40
The Mind-Body Interaction 42
The Doctrine of Ideas 42
Philosophical Foundations of the New
Psychology: Positivism, Materialism,
and Empiricism 44
Auguste Comte (1798 -1857) 44
John Locke (1632-1704) 45
In Their Own Words: Original Source
Material on Empiricism from An Essay
Concerning Human Understanding
(1690), by John Locke 47
George Berkeley (1685 -1753) 51
David Hume (1711-1776) 53
David Hartley (1705-1757) 55
James Mill (1773-1836) 56
John Stuart Mill (1806-1873) 5 7
Contributions of Empiricism
to Psychology 59
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 59
SUGGESTED READINGS 60
Chapter 2
Chapter 3
PHILOSOPHICAL INFLUENCES
ON PSYCHOLOGY 26
PHYSIOLOGICAL INFLUENCES
ON PSYCHOLOGY 62
The Spirit of Mechanism 26
The Clockwork Universe 28
Determinism and Reductionism 29
Automata 29
The Importance of the Human Observer 62
Developments in Early Physiology 64
Research on Brain Functions: Mapping from
the Inside 65
vjj
Preface
xvi
Chapter 1
THE STUDY OF THE HISTORY
OF PSYCHOLOGY 1
The Development of Modern Psychology 1
The Relevance of the Past for the Present 2
The Data of History: Reconstructing
Psychology's Past 5
Historiography: How We Study History 5
Lost or Suppressed Data 7
Data Distorted in Translation 8
Self-Serving Data 9
Contextual Forces in Psychology 10
Economic Opportunity 11
War 12
viii
CONTENTS
Research on Brain Functions: Mapping from
the Outside 66
Research on the Nervous System 69
The Mechanistic Spirit 70
The Beginnings of Experimental
Psychology 70
Why Germany? 71
Hermann von Helmholtz (1821-1894) 73
Helmholtz's Life 73
Helmholtz's Contributions: The Neural
Impulse, Vision, and Audition 74
Ernst Weber (1795-1878) 76
Two-Point Thresholds 76
Just Noticeable Differences 76
Gustav Theodor Fechner (1801-1887) 77
Fechner's Life 78
Mind and Body: A Quantitative
Relationship 79
Methods of Psychophysics 81
In Their Own Words: Original Source
Material on Psychophysics from
Elements of Psychophysics (1860),
by Gustav Fechner 82
The Formal Founding of Psychology 84
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 85
SUGGESTED READINGS 85
Chapter 4
THE NEW PSYCHOLOGY
87
The Founding Father of Modern
Psychology 87
Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920) 88
Wundt's Life 88
The Leipzig Years 90
Cultural Psychology 91
The Shidy of Conscious Experience 93
The Method of Introspection 95
Elements of Conscious Experience 96
Organizing the Elements of Conscious
Experience 98
In Their Own Words: Original Source
Material on the Law of Psychic Resultants
and the Principle of Creative Synthesis
from Outline of Psychology (1896),
by Wilhelm Wundt 98
The Fate of Wundt's Psychology
in Germany 100
Criticisms ofWundtian Psychology 100
Wundt's Legacy 101
Other Developments in German
Psychology 102
Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850-1909) 103
Ebbinghaus's Life 103
Research on Learning 104
Research with Nonsense Syllables 105
Ebbinghaus's Other Contributions
to Psychology 107
Franz Brentano (1838-1917) 108
The Study of Mental Acts 109
Carl Stumpf (1848-1936) 110
Phenomenology 111
Oswald Kiilpe (1862-1915) 111
Ktilpe's Differences with Wundt 112
Systematic Experimental Introspection 112
Imageless Thought 113
Research Topics of the Wurzburg
Laboratory 114
Comment 114
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 115
SUGGESTED READINGS 116
Chapter 5
STRUCTURALISM
117
Edward Bradford Titchener
(1867-1927) 118
Titchener's Life 118
CONTENTS
Titchener's Experimentalists: No Women
Allowed! 120
The Content of Conscious Experience 122
In Their Own Words: Original Source
Material on Structuralism from
A Textbook of Psychology (1909),
by E. B. Titchener 123
Introspection 125
The Elements of Consciousness 127
Criticisms of Structuralism 130
Criticisms of Introspection 130
Additional Criticisms of Titchener's
System 133
Contributions of Structuralism 133
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 134
SUGGESTED READINGS 135
ix
In Their Own Words: Original Source
Material from Hereditary Genius: An
Inquiry Into Its Laws and Consequences
(1869), by Francis Galton 156
Statistical Methods 157
Mental Tests 158
The Association of Ideas 160
Mental Imagery 161
Arithmetic by Smell and Other Topics 161
Comment 162
Animal Psychology and the Development
of Functionalism 163
George John Romanes (1848-1894) 164
C. Lloyd Morgan (1852-1936) 166
Comment 168
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 168
SUGGESTED READINGS 169
Chapter 6
FUNCTIONALISM:
ANTECEDENT INFLUENCES
Chapter 7
136
The Functionalist Protest 136
Forerunners of Functionalism 137
The Evolution Revolution: Charles Darwin
(1809-1882) 137
Darwin's Life 140
On the Origin of Species by Means
of Natural Selection 143
The Finches' Beaks: Evolution
at Work 147
The Evolution of Machines 148
Darwin's Influence on Psychology 150
In Their Own Words: Original Source
Material from The Autobiography of
Charles Darwin (1876) 151
Individual Differences: Francis Galton
(1822-1911) 153
Galton's life 153
Mental Inheritance 154
FUNCTIONALISM: DEVELOPMENT
AND FOUNDING 171
Evolution Comes to America 171
Herbert Spencer (1820-1903) 171
Social Darwinism 172
Synthetic Philosophy 17A
The Continuing Evolution of
Machines 174
Henry Hollerith and the Punched Cards 175
William James (1842-1910): Anticipator
of Functional Psychology 175
James's Life 176
The Principles of Psychology 182
The Subject Matter of Psychology:
A New Look at Consciousness 182
In Their Own Words: Original Source
Material on Consciousness from
Psychology (Briefer Course) (1892),
by William James 184
x
CONTENTS
The Methods of Psychology 186
Pragmatism 186
The Theory of Emotions 186
Habit 187
The Functional Inequality of Women 188
Mary Whiton Calkins (1863-1930) 188
Helen Bradford Thompson Woolley (18741947) 190
Leta Stetter Hollingworth (1886-1939) 191
The Founding of Functionalism 192
The Chicago School 193
John Dewey (1859-1952) 194
The Reflex Arc 194
Comment 195
James Rowland Angell (1869-1949) 196
Angell's Life 196
The Province of Functional Psychology 196
Comment 197
Harvey A. Carr (1873-1954) 198
Functionalism: The Final Form 198
Functionalism at Columbia University 200
Robert Sessions Woodworth
(1869-1962) 200
Woodworth's Life 200
Dynamic Psychology 201
Criticisms of Functionalism 202
Contributions of Functionalism 204
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 204
SUGGESTED READINGS 205
Chapter 8
APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY: THE LEGACY
OF FUNCTIONALISM 207
Toward a Practical Psychology 207
The Grpwth of American Psychology 208
Economic Influences on Applied
Psychology 210
Granville Stanley Hall (1844 -1924) 211
Hall's Life 212
Evolution and the Recapitulation Theory of
Development 216
Comment 218
James McKeen Cattell (1860-1944) 218
Cattell's Life 218
Mental Testing 222
Comment 223
The Psychological Testing Movement 224
Binet, Terman, and the IQ Test 224
World War I and Group Testing 226
Ideas from Medicine and Engineering 229
Racial Differences in Intelligence 229
Contributions of Women to the Testing
Movement 232
Lightner Witmer (1867-1956) 233
Witmer's Life 234
Clinics for Child Evaluation 236
Comment 237
The Clinical Psychology Movement 237
Walter Dill Scott (1869-1955) 239
Scott's Life 239
Advertising and Human Suggestibility 241
Employee Selection 241
Comment 242
The Industrial-Organizational
Psychology Movement 243
The Impact of the World Wars 243
The Hawthorne Studies and Organizational
Issues 243
Contributions of Women to IndustrialOrganizational Psychology 245
Hugo Munsterberg (1863-1916) 246
Milnsterberg's Life 247
Forensic Psychology and Eyewitness
Testimony 249
Psychotherapy 250
CONTENTS
Industrial Psychology 251
Comment 252
Applied Psychology in the United States:
A National Mania 252
Comment 254
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 255
SUGGESTED READINGS 256
Chapter 9
BEHAVIORISM: ANTECEDENT
INFLUENCES 258
Toward a Science of Behavior 258
The Influence of Animal Psychology
on Behaviorism 260
Jacques Loeb (1859-1924) 260
Rats, Ants, and the Animal Mind 261
Clever Hans, the Clever Horse 264
Edward Lee Thorndike (1874 -1949) 267
Thorndike's Life 268
Connectionism 269
The Puzzle Box 270
Laws of Learning 271
Comment 272
Ivan Petrovitch Pavlov (1849-1936) 273
Pavlov's Life 273
Conditioned Reflexes 276
In Their Own Words: Original Source
Material from Conditioned Reflexes
(1927), by Ivan Pavlov 279
A Note on E. B. Twitmyer 280
Comment 281
Vladimir M. Bekhterev (1857-1927) 282
Associated Reflexes 283
Animal Psychology and the Animal Rights
Movement 284
The Influence of Functional Psychology
on Behaviorism 285
xi
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 287
SUGGESTED READINGS 287
Chapter 10
BEHAVIORISM: THE BEGINNINGS
289
John B. Watson (1878-1958) 289
Watson's Life 289
In Their Own Words: Original Source
Material on Behaviorism from Psychology
as the Behaviorist Views It (1913), by
John B. Watson 297
The Reaction to Watson's Program 300
The Methods of Behaviorism 301
The Subject Matter of Behaviorism 303
Instincts 304
Emotions 305
Thought Processes 307
Behaviorism's Popular Appeal 308
An Outbreak of Psychology 311
Watson and the Animal Rights
Movement 312
Karl Lashley (1890-1958) 313
Criticisms of Watson's Behaviorism 314
William McDougall (1871-1938) 314
Contributions of Watson's Behaviorism 316
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 317
SUGGESTED READINGS 318
Chapter 11
BEHAVIORISM: AFTER THE
FOUNDING 320
Three Stages of Behaviorism 320
Operationism 321
Edward Chace Tolman (1886-1959)
Purposive Behaviorism 323
Intervening Variables 323
322
xii
CONTENTS
Learning Theory 324
Comment 325
Clark Leonard Hull (1884-1952) 326
Hull's Life 326
The Spirit of Mechanism 327
Objective Methodology and
Quantification 328
Drives 328
Learning 329
Comment 330
B.F. Skinner (1904-1990) 330
Skinner's Life 331
Skinner's Behaviorism 333
In Their Own Words: Original Source
Material from Science and Human
Behavior (1953), by B. F. Skinner 334
Operant Conditioning 336
Schedules of Reinforcement 337
Verbal Behavior 338
Aircribs, Teaching Machines, and PigeonGuided Missiles 339
Walden Two—A Behaviorist Society 340
Behavior Modification 341
Applied Animal Psychology: The IQ Zoo 342
Criticisms of Skinner's Behaviorism 343
Contributions of Skinner's Behaviorism 344
Sociobehaviorism: The Cognitive
Challenge 345
Albert Bandura (1925 - ) 345
Social Cognitive Theory 345
Self-Efficacy 347
Behavior Modification 348
Comment 349
Julian Rotter (1916-) 349
Cognitive Processes 350
Locus of Control 351
Comment 353
The Fate of Behaviorism 354
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 354
SUGGESTED READINGS 355
Chapter 12
GESTALT PSYCHOLOGY
357
The Gestalt Revolt 357
More to Perception than Meets the Eye 358
Antecedent Influences on Gestalt
Psychology 360
The Changing Zeitgeist in Physics 361
The Phi Phenomenon: A Challenge
to Wundtian Psychology 362
Max Wertheimer (1880-1943) 363
Kurt Koffka (1886-1941) 365
Wolfgang Kohler (1887-1967) 367
The Nature of the Gestalt Revolt 369
Gestalt Principles of Perceptual
Organization 370
Gestalt Studies of Learning: Insight and
the Mentality of Apes 3 73
In Their Own Words: Original Source
Material on Gestalt Psychology from
The Mentality of Apes (1927), by
Wolfgang Kohler 374
Comment 377
Productive Thinking in Humans 378
Isomorphism 379
The Spread of Gestalt Psychology 380
The Battle with Behaviorism 381
Gestalt Psychology in Nazi Germany 382
Field Theory: Kurt Lewin (1890-1947) 382
Lewin's Life 383
The Life Space 384
Motivation and the Zeigarnik Effect 385
Social Psychology 386
Criticisms of Gestalt Psychology 387
Contributions of Gestalt Psychology 388
CONTENTS
Criticisms of Psychoanalysis 430
Contributions of Psychoanalysis 432
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 433
SUGGESTED READINGS 434
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 388
SUGGESTED READINGS 389
Chapter 13
PSYCHOANALYSIS: THE BEGINNINGS
391
The Development of Psychoanalysis 391
Antecedent Influences on
Psychoanalysis 393
Theories of the Unconscious Mind 393
Early Ideas about Psychopathology 394
The Influence of Charles Darwin 399
Additional Influences 400
Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) and the
Development of Psychoanalysis 401
The Case of Anna O. 403
The Sexual Basis of Neurosis 405
Studies on Hysteria 406
The Childhood Seduction Controversy 407
Dream Analysis 410
The Pinnacle of Success 410
In Their Own Words: Original Source
Material on HysteriafromSigmund
Freud's First Lecture at Clark University,
September 9, 1909 414
Psychoanalysis as a Method of
Treatment 417
Psychoanalysis as a System of
Personality 420
Instincts 420
Levels of Personality 421
Anxiety 423
Psychosexual Stages of Personality
Development 423
Mechanism and Determinism
in Freud's System 426
Relations between Psychoanalysis
and Psychology 426
The Scientific Validation of Psychoanalytic
Concepts 428
Chapter 14
PSYCHOANALYSIS:
AFTER THE FOUNDING
436
Competing Factions 436
The Neo-Freudians and Ego
Psychology 437
Anna Freud (1895-1982) 437
Child Analysis 438
Comment 439
Object Relations Theories 440
Melanie Klein (1882-1960) 440
Heinz Kohut (1913-1981) 441
Carl Jung (1875-1961) 441
Jung's Life 442
Analytical Psychology 444
The Collective Unconscious 445
Archetypes 445
Introversion and Extroversion 447
Psychological Types: The Functions and
Attitudes 447
Comment 447
Social Psychological Theories:
The Zeitgeist Strikes Again 449
Alfred Adler (1870-1937) 449
Adler's Life 449
Individual Psychology 451
Inferiority Feelings 451
Style of Life 452
The Creative Power of the Self 452
Birth Order 452
Comment 453
xiii
xiv
CONTENTS
Karen Horney (1885-1952) 455
Homey's Life 455
Disagreements with Freud 456
Basic Anxiety 456
Neurotic Needs 457
The Idealized Self-Image 458
Comment 458
The Evolution of Personality Theory:
Humanistic Psychology 459
Antecedent Influences on Humanistic
Psychology 460
The Nature of Humanistic Psychology 461
Abraham Maslow (1908^1970) 461
Maslow's Life 462
Self-Actualization 463
In Their Own Words: Original Source
Material on Humanistic Psychology from
Motivation and Personality (1970),
by Abraham Maslow 464
Comment 466
Carl Rogers (1902-1987) 467
Rogers'sLife 468
Self-Actualization 468
Comment 469
The Fate of Humanistic Psychology 470
Positive Psychology 471
The Psychoanalytic Tradition in
History 473
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 474 '
SUGGESTED READINGS 475
Chapter 15
CONTEMPORARY DEVELOPMENTS
IN PSYCHOLOGY 477
Schools of Thought in Perspective
The Cognitive Movement
in Psychology 480
477
Antecedent Influences on Cognitive
Psychology 481
The Changing Zeitgeist in Physics 482
The Founding of Cognitive Psychology 483
George Miller (1920-) 484
The Center for Cognitive Studies 485
UlricNeisser(1928-) 486
The Computer Metaphor 488
The Development of the Modern
Computer 489
Artificial Intelligence 489
The Nature of Cognitive Psychology 492
Cognitive Neuroscience 493
The Role of Introspection 493
Unconscious Cognition 494
Animal Cognition 495
Current Status 497
Evolutionary Psychology 499
Antecedent Influences on Evolutionary
Psychology 500
The Influence of Sociobiology 501
Current Status of Evolutionary
Psychology 502
Comment 503
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 504
SUGGESTED READINGS 504
Glossary 506
References 510
Name Index 526
Subject Index 531