Download Preliminary study on the diet composition of the leopard

Preliminary study on the diet composition of the
leopard (Panthera pardus fusca) in Sanjay
Gandhi National Park
CONTENTS
1. Abstract………………………………………………………………………….4
2. Introduction……………………………………………………………………...5
3. Current prey base of leopards
3.1 Methods……………………………………………………………13
3.2 Results……………………………………………………………..16
3.3 Discussion…………………………………………………………18
4. Survey to understand leopard-human interactions in communities surrounding
SGNP
4.1 Methods……………………………………………………………19
4.2 Results……………………………………………………………..21
4.3 Discussion…………………………………………………………23
5. Conclusion
5.1 Short-term management strategies…………………………….27
5.2 Ideas for further research………………………………………..28
6. Appendix…………………………………………………………………........30
7. References…………………………………………………………………….50
1
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
Name
Bombay Natural History Society
Forest Department
Sanjay Gandhi National Park
Tungareshwar Wildlife Sanctuary
Indian Forest Service
Range Forest Officer
Assistant Conservator of Forests
Conservator of Forests
Chief Conservator of Forests
Acronym
BNHS
FD
SGNP
TWLS
IFS
RFO
ACF
CF
CCF
GLOSSARY
Nagar
Pada
Marathi
Gao
Human settlement formed by non-indigenous people.
Indigenous Tribal settlement.
Local language of the State of Maharashtra
Village
2
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I gratefully acknowledge the Maharashtra State Forest Department for funding
this project and thanks also to Dr. P.N.Munde (IFS), Conservator and Director of
SGNP, for providing information and permission to do field work.
My sincere thanks to the Assistant Conservators of Forest Mr. D.L.Rathod & Mr.
Y.B.Patil; all the Range Forest Officers of SGNP for their kind assistance; and all
the office and field staff of SGNP for their generous support in field work and data
collection.
Special thanks to Shri S.A.Thorat, Chief Conservator of Forests (Wildlife,
Mumbai Division) for his moral support and guidance.
I also thank the locals and indigenous people for assisting with and cooperating
during data collection.
Thanks to Dr. A.R.Rahmani, Director of BNHS, Mr J.C.Daniel, Mr. Deepak Apte,
Principal Investigator of the City Forest Project, and Conservation Officer, Mr.
Rushikesh Chavan for their kind inputs.
My sincere thanks to Dr Santosh Gaikwad from Bombay Veterinary College for
valuable advice on analysis work.
This report could not have been produced on time if Ms. Karunya Prasad had not
put in her sincere efforts and I am very grateful to her for doing the analysis work
and report writing.
Cover photo courtesy of Mayur Kamath, Wildlife Images and Reflections.
3
1. Abstract
The leopard, a near threatened species, is the top predator in Sanjay Gandhi
National Park (SGNP), Mumbai. Its habitat is disappearing rapidly due to
encroachment from slums, residential complexes, religious architecture,
agriculture and quarries. This encroachment has greatly reduced the original
territory of leopards, encouraging a higher incidence of human-leopard conflict
when leopards stray from their home ranges in search of food. This study
focuses on identifying the main prey base of the leopard through scat analysis
and also understanding the leopard-human interactions that occur in and around
SGNP.
An analysis of 117 scats, collected between May 2008 and March 2009, indicate
that almost half of the prey detected in the scats was domestic dog. A
combination of dog, rodents and wild boar formed almost 90% of the results of
the prey base study. This finding correlated with the results of the human-leopard
interaction survey which indicated that dog / livestock lifting is common in areas
surrounding the Park. About three-quarters of the padas surveyed indicated that
they saw leopards on a frequent basis- once every week or fortnight.
Further studies on prey abundance and density within SGNP are required to
identify whether there is a lack of natural prey for the leopards in SGNP or if the
leopards are choosing dogs over natural prey on the basis of convenience and
abundance. Leopard attacks have reduced drastically due to mass trapping of
leopards in 2004 and also an ongoing leopard awareness campaign of the BNHS
with the locals and indigenous people. This educational program is a long-term
solution to promote the need for conservation of SGNP and its top predator.
4
2. Introduction
Leopards inhabit diverse habitats throughout most of Africa and Asia and hence
they are one of the most widespread species of large cats. However, conflict with
humans has meant that they are not commonly found in much of their range.
Leopard populations are declining mainly due to habitat loss, poaching and
hunting pressure on prey species (Khorozyan, 2001). In numerous unprotected
areas, the depleted prey base forces leopards to prey on livestock, which
subsequently leads to persecution of the big cats (Perez, Geffen & Mokady,
2006).
The area of the Sanjay Gandhi National Park is approximately 103 sq.kms and
spans over the Thane district (58.64 sq. km) and Mumbai suburban division
(44.45 sq. km) in the state of Maharashtra, India (Figures 1 & 2). The Park has
so far recorded 59 species of mammals, 155 species of butterflies, 52 species of
reptiles, 13 species of amphibians and more than 800 species of plants. The
leopard is the main predator of SGNP (Forest Department).
5
Figure 1: Location of SGNP in India. Source: BNHS.
6
Figure 2: Map of SGNP- a forest in the middle of a mega-city. Source: BNHS.
(Not to scale)
7
The leopard (Panthera pardus fusca) found in Sanjay Gandhi National Park
(SGNP) is one of nine subspecies of leopard (Uphyrkina & O'Brien, 2003). The
leopard is classified in the “Near threatened” category of the IUCN 2008 Red List
(Breitenmoser et. al., 2008). According to SGNP’s latest audit conducted by the
Forest Department in 2008, the Park is home to 24 leopards (Table 1).
Table 1: Leopard counts in SGNP. Source: State Forest Department.
Year
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
Leopard
count
42
42
38
33
25
23
20
24
Numerous illegal settlements- both shanties (Photo 1) and high-rise buildings
(Photo 2), plague the periphery of the Park. More than 54 nagars and padas and
the two revenue villages- Chena and Yeur- are situated inside the Park and the
total population exceeds 250,000. This high rate of encroachment has led to a
drastic reduction in habitat for the leopard and its prey base and thereby, the
predator inevitably wanders from the forest areas into these settlements. Human
habitat is attractive for the leopards because they provide abundant prey in the
form of dogs, chickens, goats and pigs. This interaction between humans and
leopards is responsible for the consequential human-leopard conflict that is everincreasing in and around SGNP. Leopard sightings in nagars, padas and
residential complexes are common and attacks have also been reported.
8
Photo 1: Nagars / padas encroaching SGNP. Source: K.Tiwari.
Photo 2: High-rise buildings- another form of illegal dwelling within the SGNP
boundary. Source: K.Tiwari.
9
Other types of encroachment also threaten the survival of the leopards in SGNP.
Ghodbunder Road cuts through the Park and is responsible for many leopard
road kills (Table 2, Figure 3).
Table 2: Count of unnatural leopard deaths from 2006-08. Source: Forest
Department.
Year
Unnatural leopard deaths
2006
2
2007
5
2008
3
10
Figure 3: Locations of leopard deaths along Ghodbunder Road. Source: BNHS.
(Not to scale)
11
The seriousness of this issue of encroachment calls for a detailed investigation
into the ecology of the leopards inhabiting the Park so that appropriate
management strategies can be formed to conserve this flagship species of
Mumbai’s last natural refuge.
The leopard’s morphology is specialized for killing prey larger than itself and its
prey base consists of cervids, bovids and suids (Karanth & Sunquist, 2000). A
commonly used field technique for investigating predator diets is the identification
of parts of prey that have passed through their digestive systems and the
comparison of these with reference collections of potential foodstuffs (Andheria,
Karanth & Kumar, 2007).
This study focuses on using the above mentioned technique of scat analysis in
order to identify the main prey base of the leopards in SGNP. A leopard-human
interactions survey was also conducted in the padas surrounding and closest to
the natural territory of the leopards.
12
3. Current prey base of leopards
3.1 Methods
More than 150 leopard scat samples (Photo 3) were collected from 17 routes in
SGNP (Figure 4). A previous study conducted by Edgaonkar and Chellam (1998)
suggested that around 55 scats are sufficient to obtain an accurate picture of the
diet of leopards in SGNP. Therefore, the 152 samples collected were more than
adequate for statistical reliability. Collection began on 6th of May 2008 and ended
on 9th March 2009. The routes were monitored regularly and other areas of the
Park were searched opportunistically. Altitude and GPS location of each scat
were noted at the time of collection. Scats were air dried and stored in numbered
polythene bags. Scats were identified as leopard scats based on their
appearance (lobes with tapering ends), size, distinctive smell and other clues
such as scrape marks near the location of the scats. The diameter of the scats
was measured around the thickest portion.
Standard microscopic slides were prepared from hair samples from the neck,
back and thigh regions of common prey species of leopards found in SGNP. The
hair samples were removed from preserved animals in the Collections
Department in BNHS. Photographs of the standard slides have been provided in
Appendix 1.
Slide preparation involved cleaning the hair in alcohol, removing any alcoholic
residue with xylene and then placing the hair on a thin layer of DPX Mountant
(Distyrene, plasticizer and xylene mixture) on a slide. The hair was then covered
with another thin layer of DPX before having a cover slip placed on it.
The leopard scat samples were teased apart and any hair, bone, claws and
feather samples were removed. Ten hair were randomly removed from each
scat. The hair were then washed in water and dried before being stored in a
paper envelope. From the 152 samples, 35 samples had to be discarded due to
fungal growth or lack of prey parts found in the samples and thus117 samples
were used for analysis. The hair samples were mounted on slides and examined
under a binocular microscope so comparisons could be made to the reference,
standard slides prepared earlier, in order to identify the origin of the hair.
Observations were also made on hair that could not be mounted, as well as any
feathers and bones that were found.
The statistical analysis involved calculating the proportion of hair of each species
found in the scats. The mean frequency, standard deviation and confidence
intervals of prey in scats was calculated by iterating different sub samples of the
same size 10,000 times using the bootstrapping method in the software program
SIMSTAT (Peladeau, 2006).
13
Photo 3: Leopard scat sample. Source: K.Tiwari.
14
Figure 4: Dirt trail routes used for scat collection. (Not to scale)
15
3.2 Results
The altitude range where the largest number of scats was found is 0 to 50m
(Figure 5). Four scats were also found at a height of more than 300 m.
Figure 5: Altitude of scat location
Altitude of scat location
80
70
No. of scats
60
50
40
30
20
10
>3
00
25
0
to
30
0
25
0
20
0
15
0
10
0
to
20
0
to
15
0
to
10
0
50
0
to
to
<0
50
0
Altitude (m)
92% of scats collected had hair, 67% had bones and 17% had remains of
feathers.
Figure 6 shows dog, rodents and wild boar as the most common prey species
found in the scats and they made up 87% of the hair identified from the scats.
The dog made up almost half (47%) of the prey detected.
Figure 6: Proportion of prey species found in scats.
Proportion of prey species found in scats
0.50
0.45
0.40
0.35
0.30
0.25
0.20
0.15
0.10
0.05
0.00
Domestic
dog
Rodents
Wild boar
Monkeys
Black naped
hare
Domestic
cat
Deer
Goat
16
The mean frequencies calculated from a bootstrapping simulation (Table 3), also
indicate a hierarchy of prey species most consumed, similar to that displayed in
Figure 6.
Table 3: Mean frequency of prey types found by scat analysis after bootstrapping
simulation with 95% confidence intervals and standard deviations.
SD
Prey
Mean
LCI
UCI
0.394
Domestic dog
3.905
3.145
4.692
0.351
Rodents
1.968
1.299
2.684
0.288
Wild boar
1.395
0.863
2
0.170
Monkeys
0.41
0.103
0.769
0.161
Black napped hare
0.358
0.085
0.701
0.119
Domestic cat
0.171
0
0.427
0.086
Deer
0.086
0
0.256
0.084
Goat
0.085
0
0.256
Figure 7 reveals that 66% of scats contained only one prey species and 29% had
two species. 5% of scats were found to contain three species.
Figure 7: Proportions of prey species combinations found in leopard scat
samples. (Only proportions greater than 2% of the sample size are shown).
0.40
0.35
0.30
0.25
0.20
0.15
0.10
0.05
Rodent-bird
Dog-bird
Dog-rodent
Dog-boar
Deer
Cat
Monkeys
Black naped hare
Wild Boar
Rodent
Dog
0.00
17
3.3 Discussion
Majority of the studies on food habits of leopards in Africa and Asia have found
that ungulates form the main prey base for leopards (Bailey, 1993). As with the
similar study conducted by Edgaonkar and Chellam (1998), this study is also an
exception as a large proportion of the diet consists of domestic dogs. A
reasonable number of rodents are preyed upon also but they are unlikely to
contribute a significant biomass to the diet because of their low weight
(Edgaonkar & Chellam, 1998).
As commonly suggested by literature, leopards have been known to be attracted
to prey near human habitations (Daniel, 1996). Leopards are well known to be
opportunistic hunters and due to the abundance of domestic dogs around SGNP,
the leopard seems to be largely surviving on small prey as a total of 81% of hairs
were identified as belonging to species weighing less than 20kg. In Royal
Chitawan National Park also, where the densities of domestic ungulates at the
boundaries are much higher than those of wild ungulates, livestock forms a major
component of the diets of leopards (Seidensticker, Sunquist & McDougal, 1990).
This is contradictory to the common belief by ecologists that leopards tend to
consume prey in the weight range of 20 to 70 kg (Schaller, 1972). Also, as
expected by leopards in the wild, arboreal prey is also consumed, as proven by
the 16% of scats that contained feathers.
Frequencies of species’ remains found in scats can be misleading as it does not
necessarily indicate the importance of that species in the leopard’s diet. This is
better described by calculating the relative biomass contributed by each species.
However, this is a complex study that involves feeding trials. Reliable estimates
of relative biomass can only be found if fairly accurate estimations of the mean
weight of each prey species can be identified and there is only a single prey item
per scat (Edgaonkar & Chellam, 1998). Since none of this extra information
required is available, this study could not include a biomass estimation.
Animal counts of cervids and monkeys conducted by the Forest Department are
only rough estimates and as Phase II of this study, more accurate, scientific, field
based studies need to be carried out in order to get a reliable picture of the prey
abundance and densities within the Park. Only then will it be possible to
understand whether the leopards are heavily depending on dogs as a functional
response to reduced wild ungulate prey density or because it is a more
convenient option to prey on domestic dogs.
18
4. Survey to understand leopard-human
interactions in communities surrounding SGNP
4.1 Methods
A leopard-human interactions survey (Appendix 2) was carried out in 40 nagars /
padas (details of padas in Appendix 3) around SGNP (Figure 8). On average,
four people were interviewed from every pada to get an overview of the impacts
that leopards have on the residents of the pada. These padas were chosen
because of their close proximity to the Park boundary. The padas in fact create
the boundary between the Park and urban development in the surrounding city
and therefore, they are generally the first point of attack by the leopards.
19
Figure 8: Map of padas surveyed. (Not to scale)
20
4.2 Results
Three quarters of the padas surveyed were witness to leopard sightings on a
frequent basis (about once a week / fortnight versus occasional which was
approximately once every 6 weeks).
However, more than three quarters of the padas (85%) felt the presence of
leopards frequently (mostly through dogs barking, roaring or vocalizations by
leopards, pugmarks and livestock lifting), even if sightings were not experienced
as often.
Most sightings (83%) occur through the evening and night (from 6:30pm to
dawn).
When asked about leopard sighting frequency over a period of approximately 5
years, more than half of the pada residents (55%) claimed that sightings had
been increasing (Figure 9).
Figure 9: Periodic change of leopard sighting frequency (over approximately 5
years).
The padas in the South of SGNP are more susceptible to seeing leopards as
83% of them claimed to be making frequent leopard sightings as compared to
71% in the north (Figure 10). Also, 65% of padas in the south have been
experiencing an increase in sightings over time as compared to 50% in the north.
Similarly, the number of padas and households are also greater in the south as
compared to the north.
21
Figure 10: North-south comparisons of leopard sightings, frequency of sightings
over time, number of padas and number of households.
North-south comparisons
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
North
0.4
South
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
Leopard sightings
Increasing leopard
sightings
Number of padas
Number of households
Figure 11 illustrates how 70% of the padas surveyed have lost livestock and
dogs to leopards.
Figure 11: Leopard predation on livestock and domestic species.
22
4.3 Discussion
The survey indicates that leopards are common visitors to the nagars / padas
surrounding SGNP. Their visiting periods are quite predictable- from dusk to
dawn. At times, even though their presence is felt, they are not actually seen and
this can be attributed to their behavioral characteristic of being solitary, stalk-andambush hunters (Karanth & Sunquist, 2000). They have been very successful in
predating on livestock and domestic species in the padas as only two of the forty
padas interviewed said that their animals were undisturbed by the leopards.
Findings suggest that there are more leopard sightings in areas where there is a
relatively higher human population or concentration of human settlements.
Since 2004, the number of leopard attacks and associated deaths on humans
has drastically reduced (Figure 12). This can be mainly attributed to the massive
trappings and imprisonment of 23 leopards in 2004 by the Forest Department
from the most affected areas of SGNP (Photo 4, Figure 13). Two leopards from
Thane and one from the Aarey Milk Colony were trapped from human
settlements in and around the Park from 2007-2008. However, despite this,
leopard sightings have been increasing in most of the padas (55%) since 2004.
Therefore, while the number of leopard attacks has reduced, the threat of
potential attacks is in fact increasing. The caging of leopards though is not a
long-term solution and a poor conservation strategy as SGNP is the leopard's
natural territory and it is only fair that the animals are allowed to inhabit the Park
freely.
Credit for the massive reduction in leopard attacks should partly go to the
education awareness campaign being carried out by BNHS since 2005. After a
series of leopard attacks in 2004, the Maharashtra State Forest Department in
association with BNHS and other experts formed a Leopard Study Committee
and as an outcome of the study, it was decided to address and resolve the issue
of human-leopard conflict through public awareness campaigns. BNHS conducts
educational campaigns in and around SGNP as part of the City Forest Project
and Urban Biodiversity Initiative.
Local community leaders and representatives help coordinate campaigns that
involve the display of educational posters and banners in simple Marathi text to
help locals understand ways in which they can avoid becoming victims of leopard
attacks. There is also a spokesperson from BNHS who interacts with the
audience about precautionary measures to be used to avert attacks (Photo 5).
These tactics include:
• Avoiding entering the Park between dawn and dusk
• Avoiding defecating in the open (more than 80% of attacks were on
squatting women and children)
• Not sleeping in the open or fetching water from water holes at dusk
• Being vigilant when dogs bark persistently as that is the best indicator for
leopard presence
• Venturing into the Park equipped with a stick and torch
23
•
In case of a leopard sighting, avoiding chasing or throwing anything at the
leopard; instead, leaving the place as quickly as possible.
The messages advocated in the awareness program directly relate to the
findings of the leopard-human interactions survey conducted in this study. The
timings of sightings (evening/night) and signs that indicate leopard presence
(such as dogs barking) coincide with the measures that should be used in order
to avoid adverse interactions between humans and the big cats. Since the padas
surrounding the southern part of SGNP are visited by leopards more frequently
and leopard sightings have been increasing in that region more than in the
northern area, it would be beneficial to make the southern padas a priority for
engaging in educational awareness programs. This program is an effective way
of raising awareness, preventing leopard attacks on humans, as well as creating
an understanding in locals to stop them from intentionally harming leopards and
thereby, conserving the leopards of SGNP.
Figure 12: Attacks by leopards and associated deaths from 2001 to 2008.
24
Photo 4: One of 23 leopard trappings in 2004. Source: Times of India, Mumbai,
28 Dec 2004.
Photo 5: A leopard awareness campaign in progress. Source: BNHS.
25
Figure 13: Locations where leopards were captured from 2004 to 2009. Source:
Forest Department. (Not to scale)
26
5. Conclusion
5.1 Short term management strategies
The proposed boundary wall is meant to span 32km in length and cover only a
small portion of the 98km periphery of SGNP. Fifteen kilometers of the wall has
been built to date. If an extension can be made on the proposal so that it can
completely surround the Park, it will define the Park’s official area, assist in
curbing further encroachment into the forest and help prevent both leopards and
humans moving across the Park boundary. Also, an evaluation on the
effectiveness of the wall is required as the section that has already been built is
not high enough and leopards and humans will be able to cross over it easily.
Leopard attacks on humans and domestic species can also be reduced by
installing night lamps (as leopards tend not to stray into brightly lit areas),
building enclosed latrines and having a person patrolling the padas at nights,
especially during the monsoon when there is reduced visibility (due to thick
vegetation). The padas in the southern region are particularly in need of these
simple but effective strategies.
The leopards that are trapped by forest officials are housed in unnatural
environments (small, concrete based cages), leading to a short and neglectful life
for the mammal. The leopard rescue centre which is being constructed by the
Forest Department needs to be completed as soon as possible in order to ensure
that the trapped leopards can benefit from a larger, more natural enclosure.
Additionally, the forest officials responsible for trapping stray leopards require
better training in humane treatment of the leopards.
27
5.2 Ideas for further research
Estimates of prey density and abundance are vital for correlating with the data
gathered in this study. Once statistics on prey species are known, it will be
possible to judge whether prey availability is sufficient within the Park or if
supplements are required to adequately support the nutritional base of the
leopard population in the Park.
An important point to consider with respect to the geographical characteristics of
SGNP is that the National Park is an island surrounded by settlements on three
sides and the Bassein Creek on the fourth side. While leopards are able to swim,
they are not inclined to do so and Bassein Creek is too large a distance to cross
in order for the leopards to reach another forest area. Consequently, the leopards
are trapped on the island and unless some sort of corridor is available for them to
access the northern part of SGNP (Nagla Block), the Reserve Forests to the
north or the Tugareshwar Wildlife Sanctuary (Figure 13), there is little hope for
the long-term survival of the leopard in SGNP. Therefore, the provision of a
corridor for the leopards is a must and further research on this management
strategy is necessary.
Radio collaring of leopards in the Park is another project which will be useful in
discovering the ranges of various leopards. It will be advantageous in identifying
which leopards tend to stray closer towards the boundary of SGNP and these
individuals can be monitored closely to avoid potential leopard-human conflicts.
Application of population genetics techniques will also assist in identifying
accurate population estimates of leopards in SGNP.
A study on tree density and stalking cover will also be useful in assessing
whether SGNP is an appropriate habitat for the long-term survival of the leopard.
28
Figure 13: Map of National Parks and Sanctuaries (dark green) and Reserve
Forests (light green). Source:BNHS.
29
6. Appendix
APPENDIX 1- Photographs of standard slides of common leopard prey in SGNP.
Photos of the proximal, medial and distal sections of the hairs from the neck,
back and thigh of various prey species are displayed below. Multiple photographs
of the three different parts were taken when different views or images were seen.
Bandicoot
Proximal
Neck
Medial
Neck
Distal
Neck
Neck
Thigh
30
Barking Deer
Proximal
Medial
Distal
Neck
Neck
Neck
Back
Back
Back
Thigh
31
Black naped hare
Proximal
Neck
Medial
Neck
Distal
Neck
Neck
Back
Back
Back
32
Bonnet Macaque
Proximal
Medial
Distal
Neck
Thigh
Thigh
Thigh
33
Cat
Proximal
Back
Medial
Back
Distal
Back
34
Chital
Proximal
Medial
Distal
Neck
Neck
Neck
Back
Back
Back
Thigh
35
Civet
Proximal
Medial
Neck
Back
Back
Thigh
Thigh
Distal
Neck
Thigh
36
Dog
Proximal
Back
Medial
Back
Distal
Back
Notes: Small, dark, ovoid bodies around the medulla are a distinguishing
characteristic of dog hair.
37
Goat
Proximal
Back
Medial
Back
Distal
Back
Back
38
Hanuman langur
Proximal
Medial
Distal
Neck
Notes: Medulla is rarely visible in hanuman langur hair.
39
Jungle cat
Proximal
Back
Medial
Back
Distal
Back
Back
Back
40
Leopard
Proximal
Back
Medial
Distal
Back
Back
Back
Back
41
Mongoose
Proximal
Neck
Medial
Distal
Neck
Back
Back
Thigh
Thigh
42
Mouse deer
Proximal
Medial
Distal
Neck
Neck
Neck
Back
Back
Back
Thigh
Thigh
43
Rhesus macaque
Proximal
Medial
Neck
Back
Distal
Neck
Back
Thigh
44
Sambar
Proximal
Neck
Medial
Neck
Distal
Neck
Neck
45
Squirrel
Proximal
Back
Back
Medial
Back
Distal
Back
Back
Thigh
46
Wild boar
The hairs were too long and thick to mount. During the scat analysis, wild boar
hairs were distinguished by their external appearance and texture. If short wild
boar hair specimens were mounted during analysis, they were distinguished by
the fact that the hair was seen as one thick band and no medulla / medullary
pattern was visible.
47
APPENDIX 2- Questionnaire used in the leopard-human interaction survey.
Name of the area / pada
Dog lifting / livestock lifting
Date of visit
Number of houses in the area / pada
Distance form the forest
Type of Vegetation
A. Dry-Deciduous
B. Mixed forest
C. Moist
D. Scrub/ Thorn forest
E. Others
Leopard sightings in the area
A. Frequent
B. Occasional
Remarks
C. Rare
D. Never
E. Others
Presence of leopards in the area
A. Frequent
B. Occasional
C. Rare
D. Never
E. Others
Time of sightings
A. Morning
B. Afternoon
C. Evening
D. Midnight
E. Others
Livestock number
A. Cattle
B. Goats
C. Chickens
D. Dogs
E. Pigs
F. Others
Leopard sightings in the area over time
A. Increasing
B. Decreasing
C. Stable
D. Unknown
48
APPENDIX 3- Details of padas that claimed that leopard sightings were
increasing with time.
Pada Name
Akhrachi bhatti
Amar nagar
Baarik pahiri
Bhata cha pani
Chinch
Devi
Dharkhadi
Janu
Juna gao
Kalmacha konda
Kesari
Ketki
Lahan
Nimboni
Palas
Pankhanda
Patil
Sai bangoda
Shambhar
Ultan
Warli
Yeur village
No. of houses in the pada
50
550
200
55
300
25
700
300
375
45
20
1300
15
40
50
55
60
150
15
60
400
2000
49
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50