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CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1
OCEAN IN THE EARTH SYSTEM
1
Case-in-Point 1
Driving Question 3
Earth as a System 3
Hydrosphere 3
Atmosphere 6
Geosphere 8
Biosphere 10
Biogeochemical Cycles 12
The Ocean in the Global Water Cycle 14
Observing the Ocean 16
In Situ Monitoring of the Ocean’s Depths 17
Remote Sensing by Satellite 18
Modeling the Ocean 21
Humans and the Ocean 22
Conclusions/Basic Understandings/Enduring Ideas 23
Review/Critical Thinking 26
ESSAY: Asteroids, Climate Change, and Mass Extinctions 27
ESSAY: Where Did the Water Come From? 29
ESSAY: Co-Evolution of the Ocean, Atmosphere, and Life 31
CHAPTER 2
OCEAN BASINS AND PLATE TECTONICS
Case-in-Point 33
Driving Question 35
Distribution of the World Ocean 35
Oceanic Crust and Continental Crust 36
Earth Materials 36
Rock Cycle 38
Ocean Bottom Profile 39
Continental Margins 39
Ocean Basins 41
Plate Tectonics and Ocean Basin Features 41
Evidence for Plate Tectonics 41
Divergent Plate Boundaries 44
Convergent Plate Boundaries 46
Transform Plate Boundaries 47
Mantle Convection and Sea Level 48
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Marine Volcanism 48
Hydrothermal Vents 49
Spreading and Closing Cycles 51
Conclusions/Basic Understandings/Enduring Ideas 53
Review/Critical Thinking 56
ESSAY: Investigating the Ocean Floor 57
ESSAY: Hotspot Volcanism and the Hawaiian Islands 60
CHAPTER 3
PROPERTIES OF OCEAN WATER
63
Case-in-Point 63
Driving Question 64
The Water Molecule and Hydrogen Bonding 65
Water as Ice, Liquid, and Vapor 65
Temperature and Heat 67
Changes in Phase of Water 68
Specific Heat of Water 69
Maritime Influence on Climate 70
Chemical Properties of Seawater 71
Water as a Solvent 71
Sea Salts 72
Variations in Salinity 74
Dissolved Gases 74
Seawater pH 76
Physical Properties of Seawater 77
Water Density and Temperature 77
Pressure 79
Sea Ice 79
Sound Transmission 81
Conclusions/Basic Understandings/Enduring Ideas 82
Review/Critical Thinking 85
ESSAY: Desalination 86
ESSAY: Ocean Acidification 88
ESSAY: Sea Ice Terminology 91
CHAPTER 4
MARINE SEDIMENTS
Case-in-Point 93
Driving Question 94
Classification of Marine Sediment by Size 95
Size and Sorting 95
Terminal Velocity 96
Classification of Marine Sediments by Source 97
Lithogenous Sediment 97
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93
Biogenous Sediment 100
Hydrogenous Sediment 102
Cosmogenous Sediment 103
Marine Sedimentary Deposits 103
Continental-Margin Deposits 103
Deep-Ocean Deposits 105
Marine Sedimentary Rock 107
Resources of the Seafloor 108
Oil and Natural Gas 108
Mineral Resources 108
Exclusive Economic Zone 110
Conclusions/Basic Understandings/Enduring Ideas 111
Review/Critical Thinking 113
ESSAY: Heinrich Events 114
ESSAY: Future of the Nile Delta 116
ESSAY: Burgess Shale: A Glimpse into Ancient Marine
Life 118
CHAPTER 5
THE ATMOSPHERE AND OCEAN
Case-in-Point 121
Driving Question 122
Weather and Climate 123
Heating and Cooling Earth’s Surface 123
Solar Radiation 123
Solar Radiation Budget 127
Solar Radiation and the Ocean 128
Infrared Radiation and the Greenhouse Effect 129
Heating Imbalances: Earth’s Surface versus Atmosphere 131
Latent Heating 132
Sensible Heating 134
Heating Imbalances: Tropics versus High Latitudes 135
Heat Transport by Air Mass Exchange 135
Heat Transport by Storms 136
Heat Transport by Ocean Circulation 137
Meridional Overturning Circulation 137
Circulation of the Atmosphere: The Forces 138
Pressure Gradient Force 138
Coriolis Effect 139
Circulation of the Atmosphere: Patterns of Motion 140
Planetary-Scale Circulation 140
Synoptic-Scale Weather Systems 142
Conclusions/Basic Understandings/Enduring Ideas 144
Review/Critical Thinking 147
ESSAY: Location at Sea, A Historical Perspective 148
ESSAY: The Stratospheric Ozone Shield and Marine Life 150
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121
CHAPTER 6
OCEAN CURRENTS
155
Case-in-Point 155
Driving Question 157
Ocean’s Vertical Structure 157
Ocean in Motion: The Forces 159
Wind-Driven Currents and Ekman Transport 159
Geostrophic Flow 160
Wind-Driven Surface Currents 161
Subtropical and Sub-Polar Gyres 162
Equatorial Currents 163
Boundary Currents 164
Ocean Rings 165
Upwelling and Downwelling 167
Monitoring the Ocean Depths 169
Large-Scale Ocean Circulation 169
Formation of Deep Water 171
Water Masses 171
Implications for Climate 172
Conclusions/Basic Understandings/Enduring Ideas 173
Review/Critical Thinking 176
ESSAY: Global Positioning System 177
ESSAY: Profiling the Ocean Depths 179
ESSAY: Bottles and Rubber Duckies, Tracking Currents
with Flotsam and Jetsam 182
CHAPTER 7
OCEAN WAVES AND TIDES
Case-in-Point 183
Driving Question 184
Water Waves 185
Wind-Wave Generation 185
Deep-Water and Shallow-Water Waves 187
Seiche 189
Wave Mediated Atmosphere-Ocean Transfer 190
Internal Waves 191
Ocean Tides 191
Tide-Generating Forces 192
Types of Tides 193
Tides in Ocean Basins 194
Tidal Currents 197
Observing and Predicting Tides 197
Open-Ocean Tides 198
The Tsunami Hazard 199
Conclusions/Basic Understandings/Enduring Ideas 204
Review/Critical Thinking 207
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183
ESSAY: The State of the Sea 208
ESSAY: Monitoring Sea Level from Space 211
ESSAY: Power Generation from Ocean Tides and Waves 213
CHAPTER 8
THE DYNAMIC COAST
215
Case-in-Point 215
Driving Question 216
Coastline Formation 217
Coastal Features 219
Beaches 219
Barrier Islands 221
Rip Currents 223
Salt Marshes and Wetlands 223
Human Alterations 224
Estuaries 227
Coastal Storms and Storm Surge 229
Tropical Cyclones 230
Hurricane Characteristics 232
Where and When 232
Hurricane Life Cycle 235
Hurricane Hazards 236
Evacuation 237
Extratropical Cyclones 239
Conclusions/Basic Understandings/Enduring Ideas 241
Review/Critical Thinking 244
ESSAY: The Great Lakes and the Ocean 245
ESSAY: Venice, Italy, and the Encroaching Sea 250
ESSAY: Moving the Cape Hatteras Lighthouse 252
CHAPTER 9
MARINE ECOSYSTEMS
Case-in-Point 253
Driving Question 255
Requirements for Marine Life 255
Structure of Marine Ecosystems 256
Producers 257
Consumers 258
Decomposers 259
Trophic Structure of Ecosystems 259
Bioaccumulation 261
Ecosystem Processes 261
Energy for Growth and Reproduction 262
Production in the Photic Zone 263
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253
Nutrients and Trace Elements as Limiting
Factors 264
Microbial Marine Ecosystems 265
Ocean’s Role in the Global Carbon Cycle 267
Physical Pump 267
Biological Pump 268
Ecosystem Observations and Models 270
Conclusions/Basic Understandings/Enduring Ideas 271
Review/Critical Thinking 274
ESSAY: Ocean Iron Fertilization and Climate Change 275
ESSAY: Methane Hydrates 277
ESSAY: Ocean Color and Marine Production 281
CHAPTER 10
LIFE IN THE OCEAN
Case-in-Point 283
Driving Question 284
Marine Habitats 284
Oceanic Life Zones 285
Plankton in the Pelagic Zone 286
Nekton in the Pelagic Zone 287
Life Strategies and Adaptations 288
Vertical Migration 288
Light and Vision 289
Sound 290
Feeding Strategies 290
Life at the Ocean’s Edge 291
Intertidal Zone 292
Sea Grass Beds and Salt Marshes 293
Kelp Forests 295
Coral Reefs 296
Benthic Feeding Habits 299
Life on the Deep-Sea Floor 300
Marine Animals 300
Fishes 300
Marine Mammals 304
Marine Reptiles 305
Sea Birds 306
Conclusions/Basic Understandings/Enduring Ideas 307
Review/Critical Thinking 311
ESSAY: Life and Sea Ice 312
ESSAY: Coastal Dead Zones 314
ESSAY: Marine Protected Areas 316
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CHAPTER 11
THE OCEAN, ATMOSPHERE, AND CLIMATE VARIABILITY
319
Case-in-Point 319
Driving Question 320
Earth’s Climate System 321
Climate Controls 321
Role of the Ocean 321
Tropical Pacific Ocean/Atmosphere 323
Historical Perspective 323
Neutral Conditions in the Tropical Pacific 325
El Niño, The Warm Phase 326
The 1997-98 El Niño 328
La Niña, The Cold Phase 330
Predicting and Monitoring El Niño and La Niña 330
Frequency of El Niño and La Niña 333
North Atlantic Oscillation 334
Arctic Oscillation 335
Pacific Decadal Oscillation 336
Conclusions/Basic Understandings/Enduring Ideas 336
Review/Critical Thinking 340
ESSAY: Atacama Hyper-arid Coastal Desert 341
ESSAY: El Niño in the Past 344
CHAPTER 12
THE OCEAN AND CLIMATE CHANGE
Case-in-Point 346
Driving Question 347
The Climate Record 347
Historical Documents 347
Marine Sediments and Climate 348
Other Proxy Climatic Data Sources 349
Geologic Time 350
Past Two Million Years 353
Instrument-Based Temperature Trends 355
Lessons of the Climate Past 357
Factors Contributing to Climate Change 357
Climate and Solar Variability 359
Climate and Earth’s Orbit 360
Climate and Plate Tectonics 362
Climate and Volcanoes 362
Climate and Earth’s Surface Properties 365
Climate and Human Activity 365
The Climate Future 367
Global Climate Models 367
Feedback 367
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Search for Cycles and Analogs 368
Enhanced Greenhouse Effect and Global Warming 369
Global Warming and Rising Sea Level 370
Shrinking Ice Sheets 371
Melting Mountain Glaciers 375
Ocean Warming 375
Implications 376
Arctic Sea Ice Cover 377
Marine Life 379
Conclusions/Basic Understandings/Enduring Ideas 380
Review/Critical Thinking 384
ESSAY: Climate Rhythms in Glacial Ice Cores 385
ESSAY: The Drying of the Mediterranean Sea 387
ESSAY: Sea Level Rise and Saltwater Intrusion 390
CHAPTER 13
THE FUTURE OF OCEAN SCIENCE
391
Case-in-Point 391
Driving Question 393
Investigating the Ocean 393
Voyages of Exploration 393
Challenger Expedition (1872-1876) 397
Modern Ocean Studies 398
Technological Innovations 398
Remote Sensing 401
Scientific Ocean Drilling 402
Ships of Opportunity 403
International Cooperation 403
Emerging Ocean-Sensing Technologies 404
Autonomous Instrumented Platforms and Vehicles 404
Ocean Floor Observatories 406
Computers and Numerical Models 407
Challenges in Ocean-Sensing Technologies 407
Conclusions/Basic Understandings/Enduring Ideas 410
Review/Critical Thinking 413
ESSAY: Monitoring the Ocean using Animal-Borne Instruments 414
CHAPTER 14
OCEAN STEWARDSHIP
Case-in-Point 417
Driving Question 418
Stewardship of Ocean Life 419
Fisheries and Sustainable Exploitation 419
Overfishing 420
Maximum Sustainable Yield 423
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Ecologically Sustainable Yield 424
Bycatch 426
Restoring Fisheries 428
Habitat Destruction and Restoration 429
Recreational Fisheries 430
Protecting Endangered Marine Species 430
Sea Turtles 430
Whales 432
Water Birds 434
Mariculture 435
Marine Exotic Species 436
Conclusions/Basic Understandings/Enduring Ideas 437
Review/Critical Thinking 440
ESSAY: Determining the Age of a Fish 441
ESSAY: Loss and Restoration of Coastal Wetlands 442
CHAPTER 15
OCEAN PROBLEMS AND POLICY
445
Case-in-Point 445
Driving Question 446
Milestones in Ocean Governance 447
Freedom of the Seas 447
Antarctic Treaty 448
Human Impact in the Coastal Zone 449
Human Population Trends 449
Environmental Pollution 450
Coastal Zone Management 451
Marine Oil Spills 452
Dams and Marine Habitats 455
Restoring Chesapeake Bay 457
Waste Disposal in the Ocean 460
Deep-Ocean Carbon Storage 462
Obstacles to Ocean Policy Making 463
Conclusions/Basic Understandings/Enduring Ideas 464
Review/Critical Thinking 467
ESSAY: Pathogens in the Coastal Zone 468
ESSAY: Predicting Oil-Spill Trajectories 470
Appendix I: Conversion Factors
471
Appendix II: Ocean Timeline
473
Glossary
483
Index
503
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