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Dr John R Gibbins WESTERN CIVILISATION: From the Ancient Greeks to the Present. An intellectual and cultural history of the West Part III The Aristotelian revival and the High Medieval - St Thomas Aquinas and Scholasticism, John of Salisbury, Marsilus of Padua, William of Ockam, Dante and Petarach Questions What had happened to learning – science, history, literature and philosophy? How did the battle between Church and Empire go? How did theologians argue in this battle? Why and where did the new learning of Dante and Petrach emerge? Answers Learning only just survived – Gallen in science; Bede and Saxon Chronicles in history; Dante, Petrach, Chaucer in literature; Marsilius in philosophy The Papacy held their own against the Germanic kings (Diet and Treaty of Worms), rose in power then declined – from the rise of Hierocratic Doctrine to Conciliar Theory and Practice, Nobles divide Kingdoms Theologians discovered imagery e.g. the – The Hierocratic Doctrine’, Organic Analogy, Sun/Moon In Cities and Towns, by the emerging middle classes, burgers, lawyers, clerks, envoys, Courts and Gentlemen – decline of Castles and Abbeys Reflective Review Medieval economy, military and social life witnessed new stages of development up to 1300 But political, artistic and intellectual thinking had lagged behind The weight of Church Doctrine and institutions hampered thought and its expression This led to critique, opposition and a new balance with Families fighting for control of Kingdoms e.g. the Plantagenet's in England; War of the Roses We have to explore how civilisation developed and advanced between 1300-1500 – the period known as the High Medieval and how intellectuals faired. Dominance of Church Ideas Papacy, Clerical Orders of Archbishops, Bishops, Rectors, Cathedrals, Monasteries, Churches etc controlled all of learning – few alternatives e.g. Celts, Muslim and Judaic Scholars Their Libraries were closed and used censorship to control circulation of ideas – plus Latin Rules Papacy by C11th had invented Papal Infallibility to ensure no proper challenges could be made Excommunication for rule breakers and crimes of sacrilege, heresy, sacrilege Some Survivals In medicine even the Papacy wanted advances and adopted new ideas and practices – even from the East Rule of Galen (131-201AD) Born in Roman Greece he studied medicine in Alexandria and became physician to Gladiators at Pergamon. His success was reported to Marcus Aurellius who invited him to Rome and he became official Court doctor Wrote numerous Texts in use for 1500 years after on neurology, organic structure, physiology, pharmacology, philosophy Learned of Humours and Pathology from Hippocrates Created methodology of observation, trial, revision ‘The Best Physician is a Philosopher book (a Stoic and Platonist) Image of Galen who reused divination explanations and cures Life Travelled around all major Polis Most famous doctor and surgeon in his time Travelled to Gaul and Germany with Marcus Aurellius Served Commodus and family Observed the Antonine Plague that destroyed 10% of the population and maybe the Empire eventually Found forms of treatment but 3-4 million died - Emperor Like Smallpox – it killed him after infection via obsevation Performed cataract operations like today Medicine as multi – disciplinary, used complementary methods Gallen inventions Humours – the idea that there were several forces in the body (fluids) that had to be kept in balance otherwise illness would follow – Holistic medicine Melancholics/ia black bile – creative and kind Phlegmatics phlegm – dependable and honest Sanaguine blood – extrovert and social Choleric – yellow bile – passionate and energetic Neurology – advanced that the brain controlled the body by nerves likened to pulleys, and ropes Anatomy – dissected animals and operated on humans and drew precise images Good blood from heart/ bad blood from Liver (ok until Harvey 1656) Cosmopolitan influences Far east and Asia Middle east – Babylon Africa Balkans, Turkey and Byzantium Spain and Italy Gaul, Germany and Britain Pagan Plato and Cicero Plato because he directed attention to the Soul; to Reality not observable; to Forms and Ideals not Particulars and Actuals; for his moderation and sense of justice Cicero because of his Stoic and anti Epicurean ethics – based upon duty, virtue, excellence, perfectability Both identified transcendental origins to laws Arts survived in some form Art survived but as servant to the Church and Emperors Dominant ideology of iconograpy not representation; of Christian narratives only; of two dimensionality; of repetition, reinforcement and expected genuflection Only in pagan art and on inaccessible places did creativity, satire, humour and irreverence survive Gargoyles from Cathedrals in Europe New Thinking and Philosophy Questions How can we settle the Duality problem? What shall we do with Aristotle’s Works? Answers Carry on arguing or fighting Bring in Thomas Aquinas The Hierocratic Doctrine Several solutions were tried and hotly contested to the point of Wars with the Papacy and a Dual Papacy with one seated at Avignon, France from 1305: Two Swords – one each for Pope and Emperor Auctoritas/Church v Potestas/Emperor – Gelasius Divine Right of Papacy – Kings as Defenders of Pope Divine Right of Kings – Pope as Spiritual partner Cataclysm – German Emperors v Popes (1070-1122) Pope’s Version Pope Gregory VII, Nicholas II, Boniface II & III Pope is Peters descendent, ‘Thou art the rock on which I will build my church’ Vicar of the Earth Pope is Gods representative on earth not a king – his authority is Divine Pope has control of both swords and delegates the secular one to Kings Popes are infallible – invented in 1179 Boniface III Cannon and Divine laws trump Statute and Custom Popes have sacerdotium and regnum Manegold of Leutenbach C11th A Saxon Cleric and thinker – Augustinian Ad Gebehardum Liber – role of kings – legitimate if they keep to the social contract with their people from whom they get authority. Can be deposed if the break the contract, become heretic or tyrants Popes are like shepherds and kings are like swine Pope is the father and the king is a son, the citizens the family God appointed the Pope to rule on all earthly matters and hence kings should obey The Pope can advise, admonish, teach, warn and direct kings.If disobedient kings should be excommunicated as with King John of England; John of Salisbury 1115-1176 Advised Thomas Beckett and opposed Henry II Well connected at Paris ending as Bishop of Chartres Adviser to Pope Hadrian IV the only English Pope Humanist, author or Policratus and Metalogicon (Uses Greek and Classical sources on Gods and Myths) The Organic Analogy Pope is the controlling force There is one Realm – the Christian Commonwealth The Commonwealth is one body The brain and soul are the Church and Pope The body is ruled by the heart (kings), flanks (courtiers) nobles (muscles) and hands (managers) for the good of the body politic Tyranicide is just in God’s eyes e.g Emperor Julian Emperors Version C11th Henry III; Henry IV; Phillip I France – supported by anti Papal Catholic thinkers fed up with censorship God never mentioned the Papacy or Bishops Emperors have always selected which religion and elected its leaders ‘Render unto Caesar what is his..’ Popes are illegitimate, false ‘(a false man’), corrupt and acting as a king not a devout deferential Christian (1076 Diet of Worms) Wars against Gregory VII led to him fleeing into exile and being replaced by Henry’s appointment 1176 Treaty of Worms calls it a draw again - duality Aquinas and the New Solution 1225-1274, Aquino, Sicily rich and related to leading Bishops and Holy Roman Emperors Chose Dominican order not the family Benedictines, fled to Paris but captured and imprisoned by parents Dominican, Priest, Papal Adviser, Philosopher of Thomism and founded Scholasticism still supported Summa Theologica; Summa Contra Gentiles ‘The Church has declared Thomas doctrines to be her own’ Pope Benedict XV He baptised Aristotle and Hellenism and made then handmaidens of Christianity and the Church Normal image of Aquinas, one using perspective The Problem Papyrus texts of Aristotle found in the ruins of an Averroist Monastery in C11th, translated and interpreted in North Africa and then brought to Rome in early 1200’s The Pope called for Albert then Aquinas to advise He studied the texts and was massively impressed with Aristotle’s learning, methods, his system of ideas and ethical advice – mostly incontrovertible He re-read the Athenian philosophers in this light and context and re-estimated their value But they were Pagans. So what to do? How? To argue that the Ancient authors were right so far as they went, but as they failed to identify the true God and the Divine Cosmos, they did not go far enough Aristotle is the Master of all that can be known by reason and Jesus of the divine and all beyond reason Aristotle is right on metaphysics, epistemology, logic, science, politics and most of ethics, but Jesus completes him, makes knowledge and truth Absolute Aristotle is treated like John the Baptist – great but not perfect; crucial but not the missing link to God Comparisons of Jesus and Aristotle Both believe in the unity of soul and mind Both agree the soul is immortal, but differing on the afterlife Both agreed God was the ‘Prime Mover’ or the First Cause of every natural force But here are Contrasts No ideal of original sin – human nature is good to A No state of innocence/fall just human moral choice Faith and Doxa rule while Reason knows all to A No idea of Respublica Christiana – just the Polis Social and political life are an evil necessity to Augustine while they are natural and fulfil mans excellence and virtue to A Life is for the Polis to A and for God to Christians Virtue leads to happiness here - the Telos to A while to Augustine the telos is death and salvation in the after life Averrhoes versus the Pope Averrhoes Cordova (1126-98) in North Africa, commentaries on Aristotle’s works offered a new global synthesis of not only the Hellenist writers with Christianity but also Islamic thinkers: Pantheistic One world intellect; linking the heavens to earth; historical development; no assured providence with development determined by human endeavours; immortality of the soul; a Cosmopolitan global order Imagine if Averroe had triumphed over Aquinas – now Crusades, now Islamic wars Conservative reaction Both Aristotle and Averrhoe were to be feared. Papal power was based on maintaining difference not similarity; on exclusion not inclusion; on antithesis to pagans and the infidel - not synthesis To Averrhoists Faith and Reason; Religion and Philosophy are two distinct spheres and perspectives They do not have to coincide nor one defer. To the Pope everything had to defer to faith and religion Averrhoism became very popular at Paris and Bologna from 1265-77 Brabant and Boethius led to John of Paris and Marsilius later Aquinas deals more with attacking the Averrhoist Aristotle as dealing with Aristotle himself. The Papacy was in defensive mode Incorporation Aquinas mentor, Albert the Great (1206-1250) began the Papal task then handed it to Aquinas His idea was to set the division of reason and faith on a vertical axis and place faith above reason as higher Faith is fuelled by Revelation not Reason, and Reason/Logic can never trump faith So Averrhoist Dualism is supplanted by a hierarchy placing faith above reason and, ‘the metaphysics which treat of the divine, is the last point of philosophy to be learned’ SG 1.4 Aquinas The Thomist Knowledge Paradigm Divine Revelation – what revelation can tell, and so faith fulfils theology – the Order of Grace ^ Theology – Philosophy of religion (induction) meets deductions down from Revelation ^ Philosophy and Mathematics– what knowledge and reason can tell - The Order of Nature ^ Sciences – what observation of the senses can tell us by induction Revelation and Grace Power Aquinas point is that belief and faith in God allows you to ‘outrun reason’ Hierocratic Doctrine Supernatural vision takes you where knowledge of this world cannot – to ‘the after life The acquisition of Grace allows you glimpses of and some contact with God, in the sense that you can love him here and now even if you cannot know him What is significant though is that while Aquinas treats philosophy as true but incomplete he becomes a philosopher and does not reject it in favour of simple faith and fundamentalist belief. In the Church he is called ‘The Philosopher’ Thomism as a Complete System Not a set of scattered sayings as with most at the time but a complete system from foundations to hierarchy, from matter to the mind and the transcendental things it reveals Nothing is left out of philosophies compass and coverage. Philosophy can go anywhere now and be revealed not repressed, precisely because of faith that it can never undermine foundational beliefs and Revelation (Like a Tom Cat it can be let out because it has been neutered) What is revolutionary is that all Catholics are allowed to study and express the result of Philosophy without fear of accusations of heresy Reforming Catholicism Grounding Catholicism on Philosophy Putting Aristotle ahead of Plato – Why? Aristotle advances historical development or teleology He sees the Telos in Perfect Being Excellence He has a hierarchy from dumb to rational nature, onto human nature from basic to perfected Aristotle advances ethical life of virtue as the fulfilment of man’s potential He recognises man is a social and public being (not individual or private) who excels in these spheres He opposed tyranny, despotism, selfishness and injustice Jesus accounts of these is very thin, Aristotle fleshes them out Hierarchy of Existence Heaven with God Church with Grace on earth ^ Mind with Reason - Mind Material Nature - Body Hierarchy of Law and Politics ‘If we are to perfect the science of human wisdom, or philosophy, it is necessary to give an explanation of all that can be understood by reason. It is necessary then, for the completeness of philosophy, to institute a discipline which will study the city: and such a discipline is called politics or the science of statecraft’ Commentary of the Politics of Aristotle Aquinas not only engages with political theory, but with the entire political process and language, even using earth politics to throw light on heaven via analogy Consequences Aquinas and the Papacy sought to unite the Church Conservatives and Reformers divided the Church Conservatives tried 1267 to ban Averrhoism and Aristotle teaching in Europe as heretical – especially the Augustinians whose leader revered Plato Thomas tried to synthesise but had a breakdown Called to advise on how to heal the Schism with the Eastern Church (2nd Council of Lyon, 1274), travelling on a donkey he hit his head, and died shortly after Dante argues he was poisoned by his opponents Implications of Averoism God becomes the Prime Mover – not Reasoner Suggestions of Pantheism – God is in nature No state of innocence or fall of man No determination of sin from Adam and Eve Only God and animals live outside society and state Can survive without Revelation on Earth at least Man’s fate is in his own hands on Earth Dualism of Heaven/Earth and Grace/Reason not healed Controversy In 1277 his opponents listed 219 propositions advanced that questioned the omnipotence of God and the Pope and wanted him condemned and listed 1327 Pope John XXII in Avignon pronounced Thomas a Saint after lengthy investigations By 1567 Pius V ordains he is ‘Doctor of the Church’ Council of Trent Duns Scotus placed the Summa next to the Bible on the Alter 1879 Encyclical of Leo XIII ordains Thomism as the ‘definite exposition’ of Catholic Doctrine’ – Feast Day What does Thomas say? On the Order of Nature Aquinas follows Aristotle totally – all of science, medicine, he follows Nature he agrees is governed by knowable physical Laws, and organic nature by biological Laws He adds only that God ordained it this way, not some Prime Mover as for Aristotle Human nature likewise, he follows Book 1 of The Politics, adding only the capacity for Grace Politics is natural, a way to the Good Life and excellence. But The Church, by offering the Sacra ments, allows communion with another world Human Nature He accepts that man is a rational, social and political animal – centrally they have free will and have responsibility for their actions Reason and capacity for imagination of ideals, given by God, brings humans into conflict Ethics and Politics are the best human ways to resolve such conflicts, violence, force and oppression being evil Because it deals with human perfection not lowly nature it is ‘The Master Science’ , ‘the keystone’ God Works via Human Nature Men are left to complete God’s plan for them, and in this life humans have to arrange their own solutions Political life is no longer an evil; necessitated by sin; and ordained to reduce sin via oppression, as with Augustine, but an ethical and practical art Rulers and all citizens are obliged to participate and create the Good Life via Public Activity Reason can deliver this, but only Will and Faith can deliver us Grace and Salvation in our private lives Aquinas has no need for the Fall narrative, sin was error not predestination Hierarchy in the Order The higher trumps the lower in the Natural and Divine Orders Rulers should have more authority and power then the ruled Intelligent people should rule the less intelligent SG Bk3 Ch 81 The unintelligent and irrational should be excluded from rule Divine Law trumps civil law but he introduces the concept of a moral law analogous to physical laws – the Natural Law divined by God to direct our affairs On earth men get authority from other men not from God – he compares Types of Acquisition as Good or Bad Only rulers with good or legitimate acquisition is legitimate Bad or illegitimate rulers can be excommunicated and removed He does not flesh out cases of each unfortunately Best Form of Government That most natural for men – mmmm? That which succeeds in maintaining peace, unity and good government Normally Monarchy is best at unity, but a good monarch will rule for the common good not himself In exception he promulgates as the practically best Mixed Government, praising the Judaec tribes whose rulers ‘were elected from the people’ Just War if 1) your aim is just, 2) you can succeed, 3) the benefit is less than the cost Law To be legitimate a law must be rational and obeyed A rulers, ‘Will must be subject to reason when it commands’ ‘without reason ‘the will of the Prince becomes an evil rather than law’ Four levels of Law: Eternal Law of Gods reason in Revelation Natural Law or Gods law in nature Divine Law – Clergy’s interpretation of Gods will Human Law – application of Natural Law in local contexts Revelation Revelation to Thomas was certain and sure but utterly unprovable on rational or scientific grounds Natural Revelation plus Rational Revelation Via connection to Saints, Prophets, Scripture, and Magisterium Likened to knowing Jesus as Christ – seeing anew Revelation could neither be disproved or proved Only the recipient of Gods revelation can be sure False revelations should be unveiled Saints to be made only after rigorous testing Pandora’s Box Opened These authoritative propositions and theories opened Pandora’s Box for churchman and their opponets By the late C13th until C14th challenges emerged thick and fast, at the same time nobles and cities were challenging kings and clerics; and taxes were making the monastic world unpopular Passivity was not an option for the church – to defer or retreat into Abbeys would lead to decline – so it became overtly political and military By so doing the Church lost its status as Umpire Giles of Rome 1246-1316 Italian, intellectual, traveller Belonged to a break away community called the Herodians The Pope has jurisdiction over the whole world because Christ was an earthly king with a kingdom No property was legitimately inherited unless approved by the Church The non Baptised could not own property or wealth (hence exclusion of Jews) Church law is not prior in time but in hierarchy John of Paris 1255-1306 A French Dominican defended Phillip the Fair from Pope Boniface VIII – first a defence then challenge The Church gets and gives property for and by men without divine say so French kings property preceded the existence of the Papacy The church cannot deny inheritance to anyone The Pope is not a King nor an Emperor The Donation of Constantine was between two Romans and does not bind Frenchmen Thomas is right in saying the Regnum has its own rules and authority. Only in the after life dies God decree – not this one The Conciliar Movement This new theory replaces the Hierocratic Doctrine into the C15th – In England led by William of Ockham God gave reason, grace, authority and power to all of his faithful – the Papacy has stolen these Guidance of the Church should lie in a College of Cardinals, with regional and elected representatives Authority ascends to the Pope from the people and Church, his power is conditional upon good behaviour Now the Pope has no swords, one belongs to kings and prices, the other to the Church as Council Dante and the New Order Dante 1265-1321, Born in Florence and lived latter in Ravenna. Suffered, like John, from being undermined by Pope Bonniface VIII who had Dante banished from Florence after a Papal coup d’etat in 1302 A true citizen of Florence, a Guelf, he defended the independence of emerging City-States from Papal control. He wrote political and philosophical as well as poetic and allegorical tracts Most Famous the Divine Comedy, but more effectively De Monarchie attacking Papal claims Image of Pope Bonniface VIII Unrequited Love The existential tragedy that accompanied the political tragedy for Dante was his epic unrequited love, aged 9, Chivalric in quality, for a noble woman aged 8 named Beatrice – smitten when seen one day in a street Speaking to her only twice, he poured out his love and longing, admiration and worship, in epic love poems worthy of reading today As in the Greek Tragic and Ovidian traditions, the drama takes precedence over the meaning She died young, probably by plague, and as in Chaucer, the loss of love and beauty in youth is valorised (Dante by Giotto his friend Bargello Palace) Father of Italian Writing ‘The Supreme Poet’ Suffered exile, fines, threats Invited home to Florence but refuses After Death Florence repents and builds a grand tomb in Sainte Croce white church on the hill – still empty. He lies in Ravenna ‘Honour the most exalted Poet’ It makes you weep to look on it – even on muse hangs her head in loss The Divine Comedy Ironically, the Guelfs were pro-Papal and their enemies the Ghiberlens (Gibbins) pro Holy Roman Emperor in political wars He was a devout Christian, but called himself Roman. He sought to moderate the conflict by moderating Papal claims from inside their camp – and failed The Comedy of contemporary politics, social life, and his personal life are written up in the 3 volumes of his Divine Comedy, Hell/Inferno; Purgatory; Paradise We all suffer because of cupidity, lust and greed – the solution is a new order based upon love and reason Significance Build on Greek and Roman antiquity – Virgil his Guide Built upon Ciceronean ethics and ideas In the old Epic Tradition – but Comic as well The figures he meets are identifiable as past and present villain’s and hero’s known at the time ie the Popes; Bishops, kings, Greek Gods and Hero’s, Part of a wider ideas movement the Dolce Stil Nuvo Widely read and influential Pope Boniface ordered all copies of this and other works burned in the Cathedral Square Bologna Inspirational ever since – on Chaucer, Bunyan Milton and Shakespeare – a romantic inspiration Political Writings De Monarchia Books 1-2 critique of Hierocratic Doctrine – effective Book 3 – the correct relationship between Church and State, Pope and Emperor Claim 1 – the Pope is Peters successor – not true Claim 2 – God ordained kingship – not true Claim 3 – one or the few should rule each sphere –no All of the great theories – Two Swords; Donation, Hierocratic; Sun and Moon analogy are critiqued Used Later by Machiavelli to go even further No mention of any of these during the Creation nor in the 10 Commandments His theory God is like the sun, but other celestial bodies are independent of it (before Gallileo) Popes need Grace, rulers need authority (not power) Earthly Authority has many sources from the Emperor above, from Council here and the citizens below Bringing the separate spheres into order (like the planets) is the solution – Ordering of the separate His Universal Order would confer peace and justice It must be European in scale and authority Image of Dante between Purgatory and Florence, Dominico di Michelino, Florence, 1465 Quotations "The hottest places in hell are reserved for those who, in times of great moral crisis, maintain their neutrality." “O human race, born to fly upward, wherefore at a little wind dost thou so fall?" "The more a thing is perfect, the more if feels pleasure and pain." "Love insists the loved loves back" “Remember tonight, for it is the beginning of always“ The experience of this sweet life.“ "If you follow your natural bent;you will definitely go to heaven" Marsilius of Padua 1280-1343 From Padua a cleric who suffered attacks from Boniface – he was a Doctor Served Louis of Bavaria who protected him as did William of Ockham in England Aristotle is right – the Order of Nature is autonomous Each person, body and realm must seek ‘self sufficiency’ Defender of the Peace is the first Christian Book to defend the idea of life conducted upon Earth in purely human terms The State evolved from previous social units with no divine inspiration or involvement – it was natural Louis took Rome and exiled the Pope John XII as a Government Natural and needed because of plurality and conflicts Every social body is a Natural Organism made up of plural separate parts linked into the body whole Health requires balance as Galen tells, disease follows from in-balance – the Papacy has created this by his interference with the activities of kings, lawyers, property holder, churches, cities, guilds To get Balance you need Order and Peace – only Kings and Councils can give this – hence the name Conciliar Movement The ‘Human Legislator’ is key to the Good life not the Papacy and this is the Body Politic or People Wow Marsilius is identifying the Polity as sovereign, and within that the People as a whole, with the various powerful bodies deriving authority from them, and their power limited to their specific spheres – as in the body So Thomism is challenged – the Papacy and Church are not above Society and State, but one small but significant organ within the Body Politic that should keep to its own tasks and not seek to interfere with others doing their rightful and important jobs The Church should be run by a Council of the Faithful not one man (Marsillius, window Padua Cathedral) J D Morrall quote With the widespread acceptance of Marslius agreement, outside the elite Papal precincts, we have the ‘transfer of final power in both Sacerdotium and Regnum to the sovereign people (which) foreshadows the end of the distinctive political role which western Europe had conceded to the Church in varying degrees since the conversion of Constantine’ We can now say that with Marsilius we can identify the birth of the Modern State as a new sovereign political entity without bounds. Dualism is over Marsilius and Dante also mark the emergence of intellectuals as the arbiters of power and authority in Europe, and cultural movements as foci of cultural and political change Petrach 1304-1374 Poet, author, intellectual leader Father of Humanism – invented the term ‘Dark Ages’ Rivalled only by Dante and Boccaccio Born Arezo, near Florence; moved to Avignon, Provence, with Pope Clement V in 1309 lived at Carpentras nearby. Studied law at Montpellier and Bologna, but submerged himself in Hellenistic literature and Latin Revived Roman history as epic, writing books on Roman Africa and Scipio Africanus The First Flanneur, or Tourist Loved to travel, idling in streets and towns, looking, enjoying and soaking up the atmosphere He was also an Antiquarian Collector – he identified and recovered lost mss texts of Homer, Virgil, Cicero, Seneca and many other classical authors, then translated and edited them with friends The first modern Climber, scaling mountains for fun and excitement – eg Mount Ventoux (6263 ft) read Augustine on the summit and wrote a book on it and a guide book to Israel the Itinerarium (Rough Guide) A Sportsman and Aesthete – a model for Byron Re discovery of the inner life On the summit he redirected his ambitions towards the inner world – lost since the Greek and Roman writers had be silenced Supposedly not to marry for clerical reasons, he did secretly and fathered a loved daughter Like Dante he had an unrequited love for Laura which created the idea of romantic chivalric love and he a courtier Hiding from the plague he created an aesthetes dream at the Palazzo Molina, Venice before moving to Padua The Paduans stole his library on death, and sold it, when it was promised to Venice, in payment for the Books and Influence Canzoniere – Songbook of Triumphs Secretum – Secret Confessions in a dialogue with St Augustine De Remedius Utriusqua Fortuna – Remedies for Fortune Fair and Foul (like Erasmus In Praise of Folly) Letters, diaries, Mss, Edited Collections, poems Image the Frontispiece to Petrach’s edition of Virgils Works, by Simone Martin, Ambrosiane Biblioteca, Milan, 1340 The Medieval World Ending With these authors, we can see that the beliefs and ideas that had dominated the medieval world were coming to an end – the beginning of the end perhaps While the medieval lasted into the C19th in rural Russia and Ireland, and survived in some form until the C16th in central Europe, its institutions of feudalism, church, barons and Emperors are in decline The new order is emerging from freed intellectuals, lawyers, merchants, clerks, Princes and artists – as represented in Chaucer’s Canterbury Tales That is where we will begin again on 13 th June Next week Chivalry and Nobility Professor Anthony Pollard Meet again after the break on 13 th June at the Methodist Cottage Wharram Percy as it may have looked