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Chapter 5. Between the Wars and World War Two
5.17 American Response to the Holocaust
THE UNITED STATES SEARCHES FOR UNDERSTANDING
MEDIA
Click image to the left or use the URL below.
URL: http://www.ck12.org/flx/render/embeddedobject/135927
• The United States and the Holocaust
• Holocaust: Learning Site for Students
• American Response to the Holocaust
AMERICAN RESPONSE TO THE HOLOCAUST WEBQUEST
Your task is to research the American response to the Holocaust and:
1. Create a Google Presentation of your research. You will share with the rest of the class the information you
decide is important.
2. Find out about the historical events that were happening during this time period. Explain how American Jews
were blamed for the execution of European Jews. Obtain enough information to help the group understand the
time period and the historical events.
3. Find information on the response to the Holocaust by Americans at home and those abroad (soldiers) as well
as factual information.
4. Focus a portion of your research on a single individual and their personal story.
5. Provide visual information to accompany your research presentation.
6. Actively participate in all the discussions, activities and final presentations.
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5.18. Yalta and Potsdam Conferences
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5.18 Yalta and Potsdam Conferences
THE YALTA CONFERENCE, 1945
The Yalta Conference took place in a Russian resort town in the Crimea from February 4–11, 1945, during World
War Two. At Yalta, U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt, British Prime Minister Winston Churchill, and Soviet
Premier Joseph Stalin made important decisions regarding the future progress of the war and the postwar world.
FIGURE 5.109
World Leaders at the Yalta Conference,
Churchill, FDR, Stalin
The Allied leaders came to Yalta knowing that an Allied victory in Europe was practically inevitable but less
convinced that the Pacific war was nearing an end. Recognizing that a victory over Japan might require a protracted
fight, the United States and Great Britain saw a major strategic advantage to Soviet participation in the Pacific theater.
At Yalta, Roosevelt and Churchill discussed with Stalin the conditions under which the Soviet Union would enter
the war against Japan and all three agreed that, in exchange for potentially crucial Soviet participation in the Pacific
theater, the Soviets would be granted a sphere of influence in Manchuria following Japan’s surrender. This included
the southern portion of Sakhalin, a lease at Port Arthur (now Lüshunkou), a share in the operation of the Manchurian
railroads, and the Kurile Islands. This agreement was the major concrete accomplishment of the Yalta Conference.
The Allied leaders also discussed the future of Germany, Eastern Europe and the United Nations. Roosevelt,
Churchill, and Stalin agreed not only to include France in the postwar governing of Germany, but also that Germany
should assume some, but not all, responsibility for reparations following the war. The Americans and the British
generally agreed that future governments of the Eastern European nations bordering the Soviet Union should be
“friendly” to the Soviet regime while the Soviets pledged to allow free elections in all territories liberated from
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Chapter 5. Between the Wars and World War Two
Nazi Germany. Negotiators also released a declaration on Poland, providing for the inclusion of Communists in
the postwar national government. In discussions regarding the future of the United Nations, all parties agreed to an
American plan concerning voting procedures in the Security Council, which had been expanded to five permanent
members following the inclusion of France. Each of these permanent members was to hold a veto on decisions
before the Security Council.
Initial reaction to the Yalta agreements was celebratory. Roosevelt and many other Americans viewed it as proof that
the spirit of U.S.-Soviet wartime cooperation would carry over into the postwar period. This sentiment, however,
was short lived. With the death of Franklin D. Roosevelt on April 12, 1945, Harry S. Truman became the thirtythird president of the United States. By the end of April, the new administration clashed with the Soviets over their
influence in Eastern Europe, and over the United Nations. Alarmed at the perceived lack of cooperation on the part
of the Soviets, many Americans began to criticize Roosevelt’s handling of the Yalta negotiations. To this day, many
of Roosevelt’s most vehement detractors accuse him of “handing over” Eastern Europe and Northeast Asia to the
Soviet Union at Yalta despite the fact that the Soviets did make many substantial concessions.
THE POTSDAM CONFERENCE, 1945
The Big Three—Soviet leader Joseph Stalin, British Prime Minister Winston Churchill (replaced on July 26 by Prime
Minister Clement Attlee), and U.S. President Harry Truman—met in Potsdam, Germany, from July 17 to August 2,
1945, to negotiate terms for the end of World War II. After the Yalta Conference of February 1945, Stalin, Churchill,
and U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt had agreed to meet following the surrender of Germany to determine the
postwar borders in Europe. Germany surrendered on May 8, 1945, and the Allied leaders agreed to meet over the
summer at Potsdam to continue the discussions that had begun at Yalta. Although the Allies remained committed
to fighting a joint war in the Pacific, the lack of a common enemy in Europe led to difficulties reaching consensus
concerning postwar reconstruction on the European continent.
FIGURE 5.110
Soviet Leader Joseph Stalin and President Harry Truman
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The major issue at Potsdam was the question of how to handle Germany. At Yalta, the Soviets had pressed for heavy
postwar reparations from Germany, half of which would go to the Soviet Union. While Roosevelt had acceded
to such demands, Truman and his Secretary of State, James Byrnes, were determined to mitigate the treatment of
Germany by allowing the occupying nations to exact reparations only from their own zone of occupation. Truman
and Byrnes encouraged this position because they wanted to avoid a repetition of the situation created by the Treaty
of Versailles, which had exacted high reparations payments from Germany following World War One. Many experts
agreed that the harsh reparations imposed by the Versailles Treaty had handicapped the German economy and fueled
the rise of the Nazis.
Despite numerous disagreements, the Allied leaders did manage to conclude some agreements at Potsdam. For
example, the negotiators confirmed the status of a demilitarized and disarmed Germany under four zones of Allied
occupation. According to the Protocol of the Conference, there was to be “a complete disarmament and demilitarization of Germany”; all aspects of German industry that could be utilized for military purposes were to be dismantled;
all German military and paramilitary forces were to be eliminated; and the production of all military hardware in
Germany was forbidden. Furthermore, German society was to be remade along democratic lines by repeal of all
discriminatory laws from the Nazi era and by the arrest and trial of those Germans deemed to be “war criminals.”
The German educational and judicial systems were to be purged of any authoritarian influences, and democratic
political parties would be encouraged to participate in the administration of Germany at the local and state level.
The reconstitution of a national German Government was, however, postponed indefinitely, and the Allied Control
Commission (which was comprised of four occupying powers, the United States, Britain, France, and the Soviet
Union) would run the country during the interregnum.
One of the most controversial matters addressed at the Potsdam Conference dealt with the revision of the GermanSoviet-Polish borders and the expulsion of several million Germans from the disputed territories. In exchange for
the territory it lost to the Soviet Union following the readjustment of the Soviet-Polish border, Poland received
a large swath of German territory and began to deport the German residents of the territories in question, as did
other nations that were host to large German minority populations. The negotiators at Potsdam were well-aware of
the situation, and even though the British and Americans feared that a mass exodus of Germans into the western
occupation zones would destabilize them, they took no action other than to declare that “any transfers that take place
should be effected in an orderly and humane manner” and to request that the Poles, Czechoslovaks and Hungarians
temporarily suspend additional deportations.
In addition to settling matters related to Germany and Poland, the Potsdam negotiators approved the formation
of a Council of Foreign Ministers that would act on behalf of the United States, Great Britain, the Soviet Union,
and China to draft peace treaties with Germany’s former allies. Conference participants also agreed to revise the
1936 Montreux Convention, which gave Turkey sole control over the Turkish Straits. Furthermore, the United
States, Great Britain, and China released the “Potsdam Declaration,” which threatened Japan with “prompt and utter
destruction” if it did not immediately surrender (the Soviet Union did not sign the declaration because it had yet to
declare war on Japan).
The Potsdam Conference is perhaps best known for President Truman’s July 24, 1945 conversation with Stalin,
during which time the President informed the Soviet leader that the United States had successfully detonated the
first atomic bomb on July 16, 1945. Historians have often interpreted Truman’s somewhat firm stance during
negotiations to the U.S. negotiating team’s belief that U.S. nuclear capability would enhance its bargaining power.
Stalin, however, was already well-informed about the U.S. nuclear program thanks to the Soviet intelligence network;
so he also held firm in his positions. This situation made negotiations challenging. The leaders of the United States,
Great Britain, and the Soviet Union, who, despite their differences, had remained allies throughout the war, never
met again collectively to discuss cooperation in postwar reconstruction.
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Chapter 5. Between the Wars and World War Two
5.19 Formation of the United Nations and
Cordell Hull
THE UNITED NATIONS
FIGURE 5.111
Eleanor Roosevelt became head of the UN’s Commission on Human
Rights in 1946. Here she holds a copy of the "Declaration of Human
Rights," which she considered to be her greatest achievement.
The Allies had won the war, but would they be able to keep the peace? An examination of the period between
WWI and WWII showed a lack of commitment to the spirit of internationalism. The old League of Nations proved
too weak in structure to fill this void. Perhaps a stronger international body, as envisioned by Woodrow Wilson,
was necessary to keep the world powers from tearing each other apart. It was in this spirit that Franklin Roosevelt
championed the creation of a United Nations.
The big three of Churchill, Roosevelt, and Stalin had devoted hours of dialogue to the nature of a United Nations.
After agreeing on the general principles at the Dumbarton Oaks and Yalta Conferences, delegates from around the
world met in San Francisco to write a charter. With the nation still mourning the recent death of Franklin Roosevelt,
his wife Eleanor addressed the delegates. Despite considerable enmity and conflicts of interest among the attending
nations, a charter was ultimately approved by unanimous consent.
Despite the ideological animosity spawned by the Cold War, a new spirit of globalism was born after WWII. It was
based, in part, on the widespread recognition of the failures of isolationism. The incarnation of this global spirit
came to life with the establishment of the United Nations in 1945 with its headquarters in New York City.
FIGURE 5.112
The United Nations headquarters complex, consisting of four buildings,
occupies 18 acres in New York City.
The UN charter called for the establishment of a Security Council, or "upper house." The Security Council serves
as the executive branch of the United Nations. The Security Council must authorize any actions, such as economic
sanctions, the use of force, or the deployment of peacekeeping troops.
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Each of the “Great Powers” — the United States, Great Britain, France, China, and the Soviet Union — holds
a permanent seat on the Security Council. The remaining ten seats are elected to two-year terms by the General
Assembly. Each permanent member holds the power of veto. No action can go forth if any one of the five objects.
As the Cold War crystallized, the countervailing veto powers of the United States and the Soviet Union served often
to inhibit the Security Council from taking any forceful or meaningful action.
The main body of the United Nations is called the General Assembly. Every member nation holds a seat in the
General Assembly, which is often described as a town meeting for the world. The General Assembly has standing
committees to address ongoing issues such as economics and finance, social, cultural and humanitarian concerns,
and legal problems. The General Assembly passes resolutions and has the power to make recommendations to the
Security Council, but has no power to require any action. In addition to the General Assembly, and Economic
and Social Council has committees designed to address a wide array of topics from the status of women to the
environment.
FIGURE 5.113
World leaders met at Dumbarton Oaks,
Washington, D.C., in August 1944 to formulate plans for a new organization to
promote international cooperation. The
general principles established there provided the foundation for the United Nations charter.
A Trusteeship Council was designed to oversee the transition of states from colonies to independent nations. The
Secretariat manages the day-to-day operations of the United Nations. An International Court of Justice was also
created.
The UN can point to many solid accomplishments. Among them: sending peacekeepers to war-stricken areas,
making recommendations on how to raise literacy and health rates in the Third World, and even authorizing the use
of force against aggressor nations.
In 1945 as well as today the UN gives cause for belief that nations can get along together. In a world with conflicting
histories, agendas, and political posturing, one international group — the United Nations — remains above the
day-to-day fray.
When the Cold War ended in the 1990s, many citizens around the globe once again looked to the United Nations
with renewed hope of building a safer, stronger planet.
CORDELL HULL
Cordell Hull was appointed Secretary of State by President Franklin D. Roosevelt on March 4, 1933, and served
until November 20, 1944. Hull holds the distinction of being the longest-serving U.S. Secretary of State.
Rise to Prominence
Hull was born on October 2, 1871, near Byrdstown, Tennessee. Although Hull gained admission to the Tennessee
bar in 1892 and was appointed a circuit judge in 1903, his great passion was politics.
Following service on his county’s Democratic Party Executive Committee and in the Tennessee State legislature,
Hull was elected to the U.S. House of Representatives in 1906. Hull’s career was nearly derailed when he lost
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FIGURE 5.114
Cordell Hull, 47th Secretary of State
his congressional seat during the Republican Party landslide of 1920. Nevertheless, Hull remained at the center of
national politics by becoming Chairman of the Democratic National Committee in 1921 and returned to Congress
after a two-year absence.
In 1928, Hull sought the Democratic Party’s Vice Presidential nomination. Although his bid was unsuccessful, he
did secure the support of the Democratic nominee for the governorship of New York, Franklin Delano Roosevelt.
Four years later, as a U.S. Senator, Hull repaid the favor when Roosevelt sought the Presidential nomination. In return
for his backing and in order to firm up his support amongst Southern Democrats, President Roosevelt appointed Hull
as his Secretary of State.
Influence on American Diplomacy
As Secretary of State, Hull’s role in U.S. foreign policymaking was greatly circumscribed by President Roosevelt.
Hull nonetheless achieved prominence as an advocate of trade liberalization, closer relations with Latin America,
and a postwar multinational institution to promote peace and security.
Although President Roosevelt typically represented the United States at the major conferences with Allied leaders
during the Second World War, Hull took the lead in attempting to delay war with Japan following its invasion of
China. He was also a strong supporter of President Roosevelt’s “Good Neighbor’’ policy and became the first
sitting Secretary of State to attend the International Conference of American States (precursor to the Organization of
American States). At the December 1933 meeting in Montevideo, Uruguay, he announced that the U.S. Government
would henceforth observe a policy of “non-intervention” in the affairs of its neighbors in the Western Hemisphere.
His greatest contribution to the postwar world came within the realm of international trade. As a firm believer in
Woodrow Wilson’s vision of liberal internationalism, Hull believed that free trade promoted international peace and
prosperity. He considered high tariff barriers a pressing issue that had contributed to the economic decline leading
to the Great Depression and the rise of fascism.
In 1934, Hull helped secure the passage of the Reciprocal Trade Agreements Act (RTAA), which gave the President
the authority to personally negotiate bilateral tariff reductions.
Hull also championed the creation of the United Nations. For his efforts in creating the United Nations, Hull was
honored with the Nobel Peace Prize in 1945.
Cordell Hull resigned as Secretary for health reasons on November 30, 1944, but served as a delegate to the United
Nations Conference in San Francisco in 1945. He died in Washington, D.C., on July 23, 1955.
• Cordell Hull Birthplace State Park
• Cordell Hull Biography - Nobel Prize
• Cordell Hull - Secretary of State
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Chapter 5. Between the Wars and World War Two
5.20 References
1.
2.
3.
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5.
6.
Tennessee State Library and Archives. .
Tennessee State Library and Archives, Paul A. Moore. .
Tennessee State Library and Archives. .
Tennessee State Library and Archives. .
Tennessee State Library and Archives. .
Tennessee State Library and Archives. .
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