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The Concept of Intelligence
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Controversies and Group Comparisons
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The Development of Intelligence
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The Extremes of Intelligence and Creativity
The Concept of Intelligence
What Is Intelligence?
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Similar to thinking and memory skills.
Cannot be directly measured.
Ability to solve problems; adapt to and learn from
everyday experiences.
Individual differences are stable, consistent.
The Concept of Intelligence
Intelligence Tests
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The Binet Test:
 Mental age (MA)○ Individual’s level of mental development relative to others.
 Chronological age (CA)○ Age from birth.
 Intelligence quotient (IQ)○ Individual’s MA divided CA, multiplied by 100.
The Concept of Intelligence
The Normal Curve and Stanford-Binet IQ Scores
The Concept of Intelligence
The Wechsler Scales
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WAIS-IV — For adults.
WISC-IV — For children.
 Provides overall IQ
 Measures verbal IQ
○ Six verbal subscales
 Measures performance IQ
○ Five performance subscales
The Concept of Intelligence
The Use and Misuse of Intelligence Tests
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Intelligence tests:
 Tools dependant upon user skill and knowledge.
 Substantially correlated with school performance.
 Moderately correlated with work performance; correlation
decreases as experience increases.
 IQ tests can easily lead to false expectations and
generalizations; self-fulfilling prophecies.
 Measures only current performance.
The Concept of Intelligence
Theories of Multiple Intelligences
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Controversy over breaking intelligence down into multiple abilities:
 Spearman’s Two-Factor Theory:
○ Factor analysis correlates test scores into clusters or factors.
 Thurstone’s Multiple-Factor Theory:
○ Seven abilities.
 Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences:
○ Certain cognitive abilities can survive brain damage.
The Concept of Intelligence
Theories of Multiple Intelligences
Two-factor
theory
Individuals have both general intelligence
and specific intelligences.
Multiplefactor
theory
Intelligence is seven primary mental
abilities:
1) Verbal comprehension 2) Word fluency
3) Number ability 4) Spatial visualization
5) Associative memory 6) Reasoning
7) Perceptual speed.
Gardner’s
Theory
Eight types of intelligence:
1)Verbal 2)Math 3)Spatial 4)Interpersonal
5)Bodily-kinesthetic 6)Musical
7)Intrapersonal 8)Naturalist skills
The Concept of Intelligence
Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom
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Allow students to discover and explore domains in
which they have natural curiosity and talent.
Attention given to understanding oneself and others.
The Concept of Intelligence
Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory
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Three main types of intelligence:
 Analytic
 Creative
 Practical
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Concerns about Traditional Classroom:
 Analytic ability favored in conventional schools.
 Creative students may be reprimanded or marked down for
nonconformist answers.
 Practical students may do better outside school.
The Concept of Intelligence
Emotional Intelligence
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Perceive and express emotions accurately and adaptively.
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Four aspects:
 Perceiving and expressing emotions.
 Understanding emotions.
 Facilitating thought and affect of moods.
 Managing emotions.
The Concept of Intelligence
Comparing the Intelligences
The Concept of Intelligence
The Influence of Heredity and Environment
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Controversies and Group Comparisons:
 Genetic Influences
 Adoption studies○
Educational levels of biological parents better predictor of IQ.
 Heritability
○ Influence increases in aging.
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Environmental Influences:
 Modifications in environment can change IQ scores considerably; very
complex○ Socioeconomic status
○ Parent communication
○ Schooling
 Flynn Effect:
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Intelligence test scores increase each year around the world; effects of technology?
The Concept of Intelligence
Group Comparisons and Issues
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Cross-cultural comparisons problematic:
 Different cultures define intelligence differently
 Practical and academic intelligence can develop independently
 Predictive validity affected by ethnicity
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Cultural bias in testing:
 Culture-fair tests:
○ Intelligence tests intended not to be culturally biased
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The Bell Curve:
 African American students average lower intelligence test scores than
White students.
 Individual scores vary considerably
Ethnic and Gender Comparisons
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Stereotype threat:
 Fear of confirming negative stereotypes raises anxiety in testing○ Some studies confirm existence
○ Others believe stereotype threat is exaggerated to explain gap
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Gender differences in intellectual abilities:
 Males more likely to have extremely high or low scores; controversy
over gender differences.
The Development of Intelligence
Tests of Infant Intelligence
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Gesell:
 Distinguishes normal from abnormal infants
 Four categories of behavior○ Motor
○ Language
○ Adaptive
○ Personal-social
 Combined overall score is developmental
quotient (DQ)
The Development of Intelligence
Tests of Infant Intelligence
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Bayley Scales of Infant Development:
 Three components○ Mental scale
○ Motor scale
○ Infant behavior profile
 Diagnoses developmental delays
 Overall scores do not correlate highly with
IQ scores obtained later in childhood
The Development of Intelligence
Tests of Infant Intelligence
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Fagan Test of Infant Intelligence:
 Increasingly being used
 Focuses on infant’s ability to process information
 Obtains similar results cross-culturally
 Correlated with measures of intelligence in older children
The Development of Intelligence
Stability and Change in Intelligence through
Adolescence
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Group scores remain stable:
 Strong relation between IQ scores obtained at ages 6, 8, and 9 and
IQ scores obtained at 10.
 Correlation between IQ in preadolescent years and 18 still
statistically significant.
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Individual scores vary more:
 Children are adaptive
 IQ scores fluctuate dramatically in childhood
The Development of Intelligence
Intelligence in Adulthood
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Fluid and Crystallized Intelligence:
 Crystallized intelligence○ Accumulated information and verbal skills, which increase
with age.
 Fluid intelligence○ Ability to reason abstractly, which steadily declines from
middle adulthood on.
The Development of Intelligence
Fluid and Crystallized Intellectual
Development Across the Life Span
The Development of Intelligence
Longitudinal Changes in Six
Intellectual Abilities
The Development of Intelligence
Cognitive Functioning
Cognitive Mechanics:
 Hardware of the mind
 Speed and accuracy of processes involved in sensory input, attention, memory,
organizing, and discrimination
 Strong influence of biology and heredity
 Declines with age
Cognitive Pragmatics:
 Culture-based software of the mind
 Skills include:
 Reading and writing skills
 Language comprehension
 Educational qualifications
 Professional skills
 Knowledge about self and life skills
 Can improve with aging
The Extremes of Intelligence and Creativity
Mental Retardation
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Condition of limited mental ability:
 Low IQ on traditional test of intelligence
 Difficulty adapting to everyday life
 Onset of characteristics by age 18
 Range of impairments vary
The Extremes of Intelligence and Creativity
Giftedness
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Above-average intelligence; IQ averaged 150 on Stanford-Binet Precocity
 March to their own drummer
 Passion to master
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Intelligence and creativity not same thing; most creative people are
quite intelligent but reverse not necessarily true
The Extremes of Intelligence and Creativity
Creative Thinking
Creativity
Ability to think in novel and unusual
ways and come up with unique
solutions to problems
Convergent
thinking
Gives one correct answer; is
characteristic of thinking tested
by standardized intelligence tests
Divergent
thinking
Produces many answers to the
same question and is characteristic
of creativity
The Extremes of Intelligence and Creativity
Creative Thinkers
Characteristics:
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Flexibility and playful thinking
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Brainstorming
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Inner motivation
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Willingness to risk
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Objective evaluation of work
Changes in Adulthood:
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Individuals’ most creative products were generated in their thirties
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80% of most important creative contributions completed by age 50
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Researchers found creativity often peaks in forties before declining
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Age of decline varies by domain
The Extremes of Intelligence and Creativity
Living a More Creative Life
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Try to be surprised by something every day
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Try to surprise at least one person every day
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Write down the surprises of each day
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Follow sparked interests
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Wake up in the morning with a specific goal
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Take charge of your schedule
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Spend time in stimulating settings