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By Dr Rosy Walia MEANING AND CONCEPT Personality is one of the major psychological factors affecting the human behaviour A very common meaning of the word personality is the role which a person displays to the public. Personality represents the sum total of several attributes which manifest themselves in an individual, the ability of the individual to organise and integrate all the qualities so as to give meaning to life and the uniqueness of the situation which influences behaviour of an individual. According to Fred Luthans ” Personality means how a person affects others and how he understands and views himself as well as the pattern of inner and outer measurable traits and the person-situation interaction” According to Carl Rogers” Personality in terms of self is an organised, permanent, subjectively perceived entity which is at the heart of all our experience” 4 CHARACTERISTICS OF PERSONALITY Some of the fundamental characteristics of personality include: Consistency - There is generally a recognizable order and regularity to behaviors. Essentially, people act in the same ways or similar ways in a variety of situations. Psychological and physiological - Personality is a psychological construct, but research suggests that it is also influenced by biological processes and needs. Impact behaviors and actions - Personality does not just influence how we move and respond in our environment; it also causes us to act in certain ways. Multiple expressions - Personality is displayed in more than just behavior. It can also be seen in out thoughts, feelings, close relationships and other social interactions. DETERMINANTS OF PERSONALITY CULTURE FAMILY SOCIAL PERSONALITY ENVIRONMENT SITUATIONAL BIOLOGICAL Biological Factors HEREDITY BRAIN BIOFEEDBACK PHYSICAL FEATURES HEREDITY • It refers to physical,stature,facial,attractiveness,sex,temperament, muscle composition and reflexes, energy level, and biological rhythms are characteristics that are considered to be inherent. • It plays an important part in determining an individual's personality. • Heredity approach argues that the ultimate explanation of an individual's personality is the molecular structures of the genes, which are located in the chromosomes. • Recent research studies shows that young children lend strong support to the power of heredity and finding shows that some personality traits may be built into the same genetic code that affects factors like height and hair color BRAIN • Brain is the second biological approach to determine personality. • It plays an important role in determining personality. • Electrical Stimulation of the Brain (ESB) and Split brain psychology results indicates that a better understanding of human personality and behavior might come from a closer study of the brain. • The definite areas of the human brain are associated with pain and pleasure. Research study shows that these things are true. BIOFEEDBACK • It is third biological approach to determine personality. • Physiologists and psychologists felt that biological functions like brainwave patterns, gastric and hormonal secretions, and fluctuations in blood pressure and skin temperature were beyond conscious control. Recent research shows that these functions can be consciously controlled through biofeedback techniques. • For this purpose, individual can learns the internal rhythms of a particular body process through electronic signals that are feedback from equipment which is wired to body. • In this process, the person can learn to control the body process through questions. • It is one of the interesting topics to do future research work in personality. PHYSICAL FEATURES • It is vital ingredient of the personality, it focus an individual person's external appearance which also determined the personality. • Physical features like tall or short, fat or skinny, black or white. These physical features will be influenced the personal effect on others and also affect self concept of individual. • Recent research studies shows that definitely this features influence to individual personality in an organization. In totally, heredity would be fixed at birth and no amount of experience can be altering them through creation of suitable environment. Apart from this, personality characteristics are not completely dictated by heredity. There are other factors also influenced to determining personality. CULTURAL FACTORS "Each culture expects, and trains, its members to behave in ways that are acceptable to the group. To a marked degree, the child's cultural group defines the range of experiences and situations he is likely to encounter and the values and personality characteristics that will reinforced and hence learned". -Paul H Mussen • Cultural factors are also major factors which influence to determine individual personality. • It refers to traditional practice, customs, procedure, norms and rules and regulation followed by the society. • It significantly influence to individual behavior compare to biological factors. • Cultural factors determine attitudes towards independence,aggression, competition, cooperation, positive thinking, team spirit, and a host of the human being and discharge his/her duties towards valuable responsibilities to society. • Western culture influence to Indian society. It is best example of the cultural factors also determine the personality. FAMILY FACTORS • Family factors are also major factors which influence to determine individual personality. • Family consists of husband and wife and their children's. • Family role is very important for nurturing and personality development of their children. • Family will be guided, supervised, take care of all family members, cooperation, coordination and cooperation in work and also explained the role and responsibilities towards the family, society and real life. • Family either directly or indirectly influence to person for development of individual personality. SOCIAL FACTORS • Social factors are also major factors which influence to determine individual personality. • It involves the reorganization of individual's in an organization or society. • It refers to acquiring of wide range of personality by acquiring and absorbed by themselves in the society or an organization. • Socialization process is starting from home and extending to work environment in an organization or society. • It focuses on good relationships, cooperation, coordination and interaction among the members in the society or an organization or a family. In totally, environment factors consist of cultural factors, family factors, and social factors. SITUATIONAL FACTORS • Situational factors also influence to determine of personality. • Situational factors are very important to change the individual behavior in a different circumstance at different situations, it also influence to personality of individual person. • In general term, personality is stable and consistent and it does change in different situations. THE INTERACTION OF PERSONALITY AND SITUATIONAL FACTORS ARE OUTLINED: • Strong situational pressures • Personality may not predict behavior • Example: enforcement of rules • Weak Situational pressures • Personality may predict behavior • Example: Customer sales representative • A strong situation can overwhelm the effects of individual personalities by providing strong cues for appropriate behavior. THEORIES OF PERSONALITY The prominent psychologists who have contributed to theories of personality are: Sigmund Freud Erikson Alfred Alder Carl Jung FREUD’S PSYCHOANALYTICAL THEORY Psychoanalytic theory, as devised by Freud, attempts to explain personality on the basis of unconscious mental forces Levels of consciousness: We are unaware of some aspects of our mental states Freud argued that personality is made up of multiple structures, some of which are unconscious Freud argued that as we have impulses that cause us anxiety; our personality develops defense mechanisms to protect against anxiety Freudian Theory Levels Of consciousness Conscious What we’re aware of Preconscious Memories etc. that can be recalled Unconscious Wishes, feelings, impulses that lies beyond awareness Structures of Personality Id Operates according to the “pleasure principle” Ego Operates according to the “reality” principle Superego Contains values and ideals Id Basic psychic energy and motivations Operates to demands of Pleasure Principle - strive to satisfy desires and reduce inner tension Sea around an Island Ego Deals with real world Operates to demands of Reality Principle solves problems by planning & acting City Hall on island roots and foundation in sea - id Superego Internalized social norm & moral forces pressing on and constraining individual action The “over-I” over ego Church on island roots and foundation in sea - id Freudian Theory Anxiety occurs when: - Impulses from the id threaten to get out of control - The ego perceives danger from the environment The ego deals with the problem through: - coping strategies - defense mechanisms Defense Mechanisms Defense mechanisms refer to unconscious mental processes that protect the conscious person from developing anxiety Sublimation: person channels energy from unacceptable impulses to create socially acceptable accomplishments Denial: person refuses to recognize reality Projection: person attributes their own unacceptable impulses to others Repression: anxiety-evoking thoughts are pushed into the unconscious Defense Mechanisms Rationalization: Substituting socially acceptable reasons Intellectualization: Ignoring the emotional aspects of a painful experience by focusing on abstract thoughts, words, or ideas Reaction formation: Refusing to acknowledge unacceptable urges, thoughts or feelings by exaggerating the opposite state Regression: Responding to a threatening situation in a way appropriate to an earlier age or level of development Displacement: Substituting a less threatening object for the original object of impulse Contributions of Freud First personality & psychotherapy theory Importance of early childhood experience Concept of unconscious Emphasis on Helper Role in therapeutic relationship Scientific approach to mental health on continuum from physical health Limitations of Freud’s Work Pessimistic and deterministic approach to personality Pathology based theory Hydraulic model of psychic energy exaggerated No controlled studies-poor research Overemphasis on differences between men and women Unconcerned with interpersonal relations, individual identity and adaptation over one’s lifetime ERIK ERIKSON ‘S THEORY OF PERSONALITY Focus on psychosocial development throughout the life cycle 8 Stages of ego development Last stage: ego integrity vs. despair Purpose: to establish a sense of meaning in one’s life, rather than feeling despair or bitterness that life was wasted; to accept oneself and one’s life without despair Erikson's Stages of Development (Personality development as epigenetic stages) • Developmental processes of socialization 8 stages of development • We develop through a predetermined unfolding of our personalities in eight stages • Progress through each stage is in part determined by our success, or lack of success, in all the previous stages •A little like the unfolding of a rose bud, each petal opens up at a certain time, in a certain order • If we interfere in the natural order of development by pulling a petal forward prematurely or out of order, we ruin the development of the entire flower. Erik Erikson’s 8 Stage of Man (woman!) • trust vs. mistrust (0-1 infant) • autonomy vs. shame (2-3 toddler) • initiative vs. Guilt (3-6 preschooler) • industry vs. inferiority (7-12 School age) • identity vs. confusion (12-18 Adolescence) • intimacy vs. isolation (20s Young adult) • generativity vs. stagnation (late 20s to 50s middle Adult) • integrity vs. despair (50 + Old Adult) Stage 7 - Generativity vs. Stagnation - middle adulthood. To establish a sense of care and concern for the well being of future generations; to look toward the future and not stagnate in the past (20 -50’s) Stage 8 - Integrity vs. Despair - old age. To establish a sense of meaning in one's life, rather than feeling despaired or bitterness that life was wasted; to accept oneself and one's life without despair (50 & up) CHRIS ARGYRIS'S IMMATURITYMATURITY THEORY In a departure from the strict stage approach, well known organisational behaviour theorist Chris Argyris has identified specific dimensions of the human personality as it develops. Argyris proposes that a human personality rather than going through precise stages, progresses along a continuum from immaturity as an infant to maturity as an adult. However, at any age, people can have their degree of development plotted according to seven dimensions THE ARGYRIS IMMATURITYMATURITY CONTINUUM Immaturity Characteristics Passivity Dependence Few ways of behaving Shallow interests Short-time perspective Subordinate position Lack of self awareness Maturity Characteristics Activity Independence Diverse behaviour Deep interests Long-time perspective Super ordinate position Self awareness and control ( i ) The seven dimensions represent only one aspect of the total personality. Much also depends upon the individual's perception, self concept and adaptation and adjustment. (ii) The seven dimensions continually change in degree from the infant to the adult end of the continuum. (iii) The model, being only a construct, cannot product specific behaviour. However, it does provide a method of describing and measuring the growth of any individual in the culture. (iv) The seven demenions are based upon latent characteristics of the personality, which may be quite different from the observable behaviour. TRAITS THEORY Understands individuals by breaking down behavior patterns into observable traits (instead of observable behavior) TRAITS THEORY Assumption of trait stability has led researchers to examine personality traits longitudinally McCrae and Costa (1984, 1990) proposed 5factor model of personality traits: Neuroticism Extraversion Openness to experience Agreeableness Conscientiousness “Big Five” Personality Traits Costa and McCrae (1992) - Broad dimensions Neuroticism- individuals who experience negative affects (tense, moody, anxious) tendency to easily experience unpleasant emotions Extroversion – individuals who are sociable (talkative, energetic, assertive) a tendency to seek stimulation and the company of others Openness to Experience – individuals who have have active imaginations and are attentive to their inner feelings a tendency to enjoy art, new intellectual experiences, and ideas Agreeableness - individuals who are fundamentally altruistic, (sympathetic, kind, affectionate) tendency to be compassionate rather than antagonistic towards others Conscientiousness - individuals who are purposeful (organized, thorough & planful) a tendency to show self-discipline, act dutifully, and aim for achievement Allport’s Traits TheoryDistinctive & personal forms of behaviors Cardinal Traits- Dominant and all individual action can be traced to them Central Traits- Characterizing an individual’s behavior to some extent but not in such a complete way as cardinal traits Secondary traits-influential but only within a narrow range Carl Gustav Jung Wholly unprepared, we embark upon the second half of life . . . we take the step into the afternoon of life . . . with the false assumption that our truths and ideals will serve as before. But we cannot live the afternoon of life according to the program of life’s morning—for what was great in the morning will be little at evening, and what in the morning was true will at the evening have become a lie. For a young person it is almost a sin, or at least a danger to be too preoccupied with [the] self; but for the aging person it is a duty and a necessity to devote serious attention to [the] self. Carl Jung (1933) Jung’s Psychoanalytic Perspective Carl Jung’s model of personality assumes changes throughout life Model emphasizes stages in the development of consciousness and the ego Focus early in life (youth and middle age) is extraversion (focus on external world) to introversion (focus on one’s inner world in old age) – Life must contract and attention needs to be paid to inner life. 3 Levels of Consciousness Ego: conscious level; carries out daily activities; like Freud’s Conscious Personal Unconscious: individual’s thoughts, memories, wishes, impulses; like Freud’s Preconscious + Unconscious Collective Unconscious: storehouse of memories inherited from the common ancestors of the whole human race; no counterpart in Freud’s theory CARL JUNG Theory of Individualism: People either introverted or extroverted…If balanced = good mental health Major focus of the second half of life should be mortality and that anything that took away from that was in the direction of not being mentally healthy • 2 shifts in personality Extroversion-introversion Masculinity-femininity (anima-animus) anima (Latin for “soul”) a wildly imaginative and seductive feminine power within man; eros... animus (Latin for “spirit”) a fiercely willful and visionary masculine luminosity within woman; logos... feminine side of a male's unconscious mind a set of unconscious masculine attributes and potentials for females Masculinity/Femininity less differentiated in late life woman assertiveness, more dominant men nurturing, expressive qualitiesTurning Inwardness OTHER IMPORTANT PERSONALITY TRAITS Social traits. Surface-level traits that reflect the way a person appears to others when interacting in various social settings. An important social trait is problem-solving style. 46 Problem-solving styles. Sensation-feeling (SF). Intuitive-thinking (IF). Sensation-thinking (ST). Intuitive-thinking (IT). 47 Personal conception traits. The way individuals tend to think about their social and physical settings as well as their major beliefs and personal orientation. Key Traits: Locus of control. Authoritarianism/dogmatism. Machiavellianism. Self-monitoring. 48 Locus of control. The extent to which a person feels able to control his/her own life. Internal locus of control. People believe they control their own destiny. External locus of control. People believe that much of what happens to them is determined by environmental forces. 49 Authoritarianism/dogmatism. Authoritarianism. Tendency to adhere rigidly to conventional values and to obey recognized authority. Dogmatism. Tendency to view the world as a threatening place. 50 Machiavellianism. Rooted in Niccolo Machiavelli’s The Prince. Evokes images of guile, deceit, and opportunism. Tendency to view and manipulate others purely for personal gain. 51 Machiavellianism — cont. People with a high-Mach personality: Approach situations logically and thoughtfully. Are capable of lying to achieve personal goals. Are rarely swayed by loyalty, friendships, past promises, or others’ opinions. Are skilled at influencing others. Try to exploit loosely structured situations. Perform in a perfunctory or detached manner in highly structured situations. 52 Machiavellianism — cont. People with a low-Mach personality: Accept direction imposed by others in loosely structured situations. Work hard to do well in highly structured situations. Are strongly guided by ethical considerations. Are unlikely to lie or cheat. 53 Self-monitoring. A person’s ability to adjust his/her behavior to external, situational factors. High self-monitors: Sensitive to external cues. Behave differently in different situations. Low self-monitors: Not sensitive to external cues. Are not able to disguise their behaviors. 54 Emotional adjustment traits. How much an individual experiences distress or displays unacceptable acts. Type A orientation. Characterized by impatience, desire for achievement, and perfectionism. Type B orientation. Characterized as more easygoing and less competitive in relation to daily events. 55 Personality and self-concept. Personality dynamics. The ways in which an individual integrates and organizes personality dimensions and traits. Self-concept. The view individuals have of themselves as physical, social, and spiritual beings. 56 Two aspects of self-concept. Self-esteem. A belief about one’s worth based on an overall self-evaluation. Self-efficacy. An individual’s belief about the likelihood of successfully completing a specific task. 57