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By
Dr Rosy Walia
MEANING AND CONCEPT
 Personality is one of the major psychological factors
affecting the human behaviour
 A very common meaning of the word personality is the
role which a person displays to the public.
Personality represents the sum total of several
attributes which manifest themselves in an individual,
the ability of the individual to organise and integrate
all the qualities so as to give meaning to life and the
uniqueness of the situation which influences
behaviour of an individual.
According to Fred Luthans ” Personality means how a
person affects others and how he understands and
views himself as well as the pattern of inner and outer
measurable
traits
and
the
person-situation
interaction”
According to Carl Rogers” Personality in terms of self
is an organised, permanent, subjectively perceived
entity which is at the heart of all our experience”
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CHARACTERISTICS OF PERSONALITY
Some of the fundamental characteristics of personality include:
 Consistency - There is generally a recognizable order and regularity to
behaviors. Essentially, people act in the same ways or similar ways in a variety
of situations.
 Psychological and physiological - Personality is a psychological construct,
but research suggests that it is also influenced by biological processes and
needs.
 Impact behaviors and actions - Personality does not just influence how we
move and respond in our environment; it also causes us to act in certain ways.
 Multiple expressions - Personality is displayed in more than just behavior. It
can also be seen in out thoughts, feelings, close relationships and other social
interactions.
DETERMINANTS OF PERSONALITY
CULTURE
FAMILY
SOCIAL
PERSONALITY
ENVIRONMENT
SITUATIONAL
BIOLOGICAL
Biological Factors
 HEREDITY
 BRAIN
 BIOFEEDBACK
 PHYSICAL FEATURES
HEREDITY
 • It refers to physical,stature,facial,attractiveness,sex,temperament,
muscle composition and reflexes, energy level, and biological rhythms
are characteristics that are considered to be inherent.

• It plays an important part in determining an individual's personality.

• Heredity approach argues that the ultimate explanation of an
individual's personality is the molecular structures of the genes, which
are located in the chromosomes.

• Recent research studies shows that young children lend strong
support to the power of heredity and finding shows that some
personality traits may be built into the same
genetic code that affects factors like height and hair color
BRAIN
 • Brain is the second biological approach to determine
personality.

• It plays an important role in determining personality.

• Electrical Stimulation of the Brain (ESB) and Split brain
psychology results indicates that a better understanding of
human personality and behavior might come from a closer
study of the brain.

• The definite areas of the human brain are associated with
pain and pleasure. Research study shows that these things
are true.
BIOFEEDBACK
 • It is third biological approach to determine personality.

• Physiologists and psychologists felt that biological functions like
brainwave patterns, gastric and hormonal secretions, and fluctuations
in blood pressure and skin temperature were beyond conscious control.
Recent research shows that these
functions can be consciously controlled through biofeedback
techniques.

• For this purpose, individual can learns the internal rhythms of a
particular body process through electronic signals that are feedback
from equipment which is wired to body.

• In this process, the person can learn to control the body process
through questions.

• It is one of the interesting topics to do future research work in
personality.
PHYSICAL FEATURES
 • It is vital ingredient of the personality, it focus an individual
person's external appearance which also determined the
personality.

• Physical features like tall or short, fat or skinny, black or white.
These physical features will be influenced the personal effect on
others and also affect self concept of individual.

• Recent research studies shows that definitely this features
influence to individual personality in an organization.
In totally, heredity would be fixed at birth and no amount of
experience can be altering them through creation of suitable
environment. Apart from this, personality characteristics are not
completely dictated by heredity. There are other factors also
influenced to determining
personality.
CULTURAL FACTORS
"Each culture expects, and trains, its members to behave in ways that are
acceptable to the group. To a marked degree, the child's cultural group
defines the range of experiences and situations he is likely to encounter
and the values and personality characteristics that will reinforced and
hence learned". -Paul H Mussen
• Cultural factors are also major factors which influence to determine
individual personality.
• It refers to traditional practice, customs, procedure, norms and rules and
regulation followed by the society.
• It significantly influence to individual behavior compare to biological factors.
• Cultural factors determine attitudes towards independence,aggression,
competition, cooperation, positive thinking, team spirit, and a host of the
human being and discharge his/her duties towards valuable responsibilities to
society.
• Western culture influence to Indian society. It is best example of the cultural
factors also determine the personality.
FAMILY FACTORS
• Family factors are also major factors which influence to determine
individual personality.
• Family consists of husband and wife and their children's.
• Family role is very important for nurturing and personality
development of their children.
• Family will be guided, supervised, take care of all family members,
cooperation, coordination and cooperation in work and also explained
the role and responsibilities towards the family, society and real life.
• Family either directly or indirectly influence to person for
development of individual personality.
SOCIAL FACTORS
 • Social factors are also major factors which influence to
determine individual personality.

• It involves the reorganization of individual's in an organization
or society.

• It refers to acquiring of wide range of personality by acquiring
and absorbed by themselves in the society or an organization.

• Socialization process is starting from home and extending to
work environment in an organization or society.

• It focuses on good relationships, cooperation, coordination and
interaction among the members in the society or an organization
or a family.

In totally, environment factors consist of cultural factors,
family factors, and social factors.
SITUATIONAL FACTORS
• Situational factors also influence to determine of personality.
• Situational factors are very important to change the individual behavior in a
different circumstance at different situations, it also influence to personality of
individual person.
• In general term, personality is stable and consistent and it does change in different situations.
THE INTERACTION OF PERSONALITY AND SITUATIONAL FACTORS ARE OUTLINED:
• Strong situational pressures
• Personality may not predict behavior
• Example: enforcement of rules
• Weak Situational pressures
• Personality may predict behavior
• Example: Customer sales representative
• A strong situation can overwhelm the effects of individual personalities by providing
strong cues for appropriate behavior.

THEORIES OF PERSONALITY
The prominent psychologists who have contributed to
theories of personality are:
 Sigmund Freud
 Erikson
 Alfred Alder
 Carl Jung
FREUD’S PSYCHOANALYTICAL THEORY
 Psychoanalytic theory, as devised by Freud, attempts
to explain personality on the basis of unconscious
mental forces
 Levels of consciousness: We are unaware of some
aspects of our mental states
 Freud argued that personality is made up of multiple
structures, some of which are unconscious
 Freud argued that as we have impulses that cause us
anxiety; our personality develops defense mechanisms
to protect against anxiety
Freudian Theory
Levels Of consciousness
 Conscious
What we’re aware of
 Preconscious
Memories etc. that can be
recalled
 Unconscious
Wishes, feelings, impulses
that lies beyond awareness
Structures of Personality
Id
Operates according to the
“pleasure principle”
Ego
Operates according to the
“reality” principle
Superego
Contains values and ideals
Id
 Basic psychic energy
and motivations
 Operates to demands
of Pleasure
Principle - strive to
satisfy desires and
reduce inner tension
 Sea around an Island
Ego
 Deals with real world
 Operates to demands
of Reality Principle
solves problems by
planning & acting
 City Hall on island
roots and foundation
in sea - id
Superego
 Internalized social
norm & moral forces
pressing on and
constraining
individual action
 The “over-I” over ego
 Church on island
roots and foundation
in sea - id
Freudian Theory
 Anxiety occurs when:
- Impulses from the id threaten to get out of control
- The ego perceives danger from the environment
 The ego deals with the problem through:
- coping strategies
- defense mechanisms
Defense Mechanisms
 Defense mechanisms refer to unconscious mental
processes that protect the conscious person from
developing anxiety
 Sublimation: person channels energy from unacceptable
impulses to create socially acceptable accomplishments
 Denial: person refuses to recognize reality
 Projection: person attributes their own unacceptable
impulses to others
 Repression: anxiety-evoking thoughts are pushed into
the unconscious
Defense Mechanisms
 Rationalization: Substituting socially acceptable




reasons
Intellectualization: Ignoring the emotional aspects of
a painful experience by focusing on abstract thoughts,
words, or ideas
Reaction formation: Refusing to acknowledge
unacceptable urges, thoughts or feelings by
exaggerating the opposite state
Regression: Responding to a threatening situation in a
way appropriate to an earlier age or level of
development
Displacement: Substituting a less threatening object
for the original object of impulse
Contributions of Freud
 First personality & psychotherapy theory
 Importance of early childhood experience
 Concept of unconscious
 Emphasis on Helper Role in therapeutic
relationship
 Scientific approach to mental health on
continuum from physical health
Limitations of Freud’s Work
 Pessimistic and deterministic approach to
personality
 Pathology based theory
 Hydraulic model of psychic energy exaggerated
 No controlled studies-poor research
 Overemphasis on differences between men and
women
 Unconcerned with interpersonal relations,
individual identity and adaptation over one’s
lifetime
ERIK ERIKSON ‘S THEORY OF
PERSONALITY



Focus on psychosocial development throughout
the life cycle
8 Stages of ego development
Last stage: ego integrity vs. despair

Purpose: to establish a sense of meaning in one’s
life, rather than feeling despair or bitterness that life
was wasted; to accept oneself and one’s life without
despair
Erikson's Stages of Development
(Personality development as epigenetic stages)
• Developmental processes of socialization
8 stages of development
• We develop through a predetermined unfolding of our personalities
in eight stages
• Progress through each stage is in part determined by our success,
or lack of success, in all the previous stages
•A little like the unfolding of a rose bud, each petal opens up at a
certain time, in a certain order
• If we interfere in the natural order of development by pulling a
petal forward prematurely or out of order, we ruin the development
of the entire flower.
Erik Erikson’s 8 Stage of Man (woman!)
• trust vs. mistrust (0-1 infant)
• autonomy vs. shame (2-3 toddler)
• initiative vs. Guilt (3-6 preschooler)
• industry vs. inferiority (7-12 School age)
• identity vs. confusion (12-18 Adolescence)
• intimacy vs. isolation (20s Young adult)
• generativity vs. stagnation (late 20s to 50s
middle Adult)
• integrity vs. despair (50 + Old Adult)
Stage 7 - Generativity vs. Stagnation - middle adulthood.
To establish a sense of care and concern for the well
being of future generations; to look toward the future and
not stagnate in the past (20 -50’s)
Stage 8 - Integrity vs. Despair - old age. To establish a
sense of meaning in one's life, rather than feeling
despaired or bitterness that life was wasted; to accept
oneself and one's life without despair (50 & up)
CHRIS ARGYRIS'S IMMATURITYMATURITY THEORY
In a departure from the strict stage approach, well
known organisational behaviour theorist Chris
Argyris has identified specific dimensions of the
human personality as it develops. Argyris proposes
that a human personality rather than going through
precise stages, progresses along a continuum from
immaturity as an infant to maturity as an adult.
However, at any age, people can have their degree of
development plotted according to seven dimensions
THE ARGYRIS IMMATURITYMATURITY CONTINUUM
 Immaturity







Characteristics
Passivity
Dependence
Few ways of behaving
Shallow interests
Short-time perspective
Subordinate position
Lack of self awareness
 Maturity







Characteristics
Activity
Independence
Diverse behaviour
Deep interests
Long-time perspective
Super ordinate position
Self awareness and
control
( i ) The seven dimensions represent only one aspect of the
total personality. Much also depends upon the individual's
perception, self concept and adaptation and adjustment.
(ii) The seven dimensions continually change in degree from
the infant to the adult end of the continuum.
(iii) The model, being only a construct, cannot product
specific behaviour.
However, it does provide a method of describing and
measuring the growth of any individual in the culture.
(iv) The seven demenions are based upon latent
characteristics of the personality, which may be quite
different from the observable behaviour.
TRAITS THEORY
Understands individuals by
breaking down behavior patterns
into observable traits (instead of
observable behavior)
TRAITS THEORY


Assumption of trait stability has led researchers
to examine personality traits longitudinally
McCrae and Costa (1984, 1990) proposed 5factor model of personality traits:
Neuroticism
 Extraversion
 Openness to experience
 Agreeableness
 Conscientiousness

“Big Five” Personality Traits
Costa and McCrae (1992) - Broad
dimensions
 Neuroticism- individuals who experience negative affects (tense,
moody, anxious)  tendency to easily experience unpleasant
emotions
 Extroversion – individuals who are sociable (talkative, energetic,
assertive)  a tendency to seek stimulation and the company of
others
 Openness to Experience – individuals who have have active
imaginations and are attentive to their inner feelings  a tendency
to enjoy art, new intellectual experiences, and ideas
 Agreeableness - individuals who are fundamentally altruistic,
(sympathetic, kind, affectionate)  tendency to be compassionate
rather than antagonistic towards others
 Conscientiousness - individuals who are purposeful (organized, thorough
& planful)  a tendency to show self-discipline, act dutifully, and aim for
achievement
Allport’s Traits TheoryDistinctive & personal forms of
behaviors
Cardinal Traits- Dominant and all individual
action can be traced to them
Central Traits- Characterizing an individual’s
behavior to some extent but not in such a complete
way as cardinal traits
Secondary traits-influential but only within a
narrow range
Carl Gustav Jung
 Wholly unprepared, we embark upon the second half
of life . . . we take the step into the afternoon of life
. . . with the false assumption that our truths and
ideals will serve as before. But we cannot live the
afternoon of life according to the program of life’s
morning—for what was great in the morning will be
little at evening, and what in the morning was true
will at the evening have become a lie. For a young
person it is almost a sin, or at least a danger to be
too preoccupied with [the] self; but for the aging
person it is a duty and a necessity to devote serious
attention to [the] self. Carl Jung (1933)
Jung’s Psychoanalytic
Perspective

Carl Jung’s model of personality assumes
changes throughout life


Model emphasizes stages in the development of
consciousness and the ego
Focus early in life (youth and middle age) is
extraversion (focus on external world) to introversion
(focus on one’s inner world in old age)
– Life must contract and attention needs to be paid to
inner life.
3 Levels of Consciousness
Ego: conscious level; carries out daily activities; like
Freud’s Conscious
Personal Unconscious: individual’s thoughts,
memories, wishes, impulses; like Freud’s
Preconscious + Unconscious
Collective Unconscious: storehouse of memories
inherited from the common ancestors of the whole
human race; no counterpart in Freud’s theory
CARL JUNG
 Theory of Individualism: People either introverted or
extroverted…If balanced = good mental health
 Major focus of the second half of life should be
mortality and that anything that took away from that
was in the direction of not being mentally healthy
• 2 shifts in personality

Extroversion-introversion

Masculinity-femininity (anima-animus)
anima (Latin for “soul”)
a wildly imaginative and seductive feminine
power within man; eros...
animus (Latin for “spirit”)
a fiercely willful and visionary masculine
luminosity within woman; logos...
feminine side of a male's
unconscious mind
a set of unconscious masculine attributes
and potentials for females
 Masculinity/Femininity
 less differentiated in late life
 woman  assertiveness, more dominant
 men  nurturing, expressive qualitiesTurning
Inwardness
OTHER IMPORTANT PERSONALITY TRAITS
 Social traits.
 Surface-level traits that reflect the way a person appears
to others when interacting in various social settings.
 An important social trait is problem-solving style.
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Problem-solving styles.
 Sensation-feeling (SF).
 Intuitive-thinking (IF).
 Sensation-thinking (ST).
 Intuitive-thinking (IT).
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 Personal conception traits.
 The way individuals tend to think about their social and
physical settings as well as their major beliefs and
personal orientation.
 Key Traits:




Locus of control.
Authoritarianism/dogmatism.
Machiavellianism.
Self-monitoring.
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 Locus of control.
 The extent to which a person feels able to control his/her
own life.
 Internal locus of control.
 People believe they control their own destiny.
 External locus of control.
 People believe that much of what happens to them is
determined by environmental forces.
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 Authoritarianism/dogmatism.
 Authoritarianism.
 Tendency to adhere rigidly to conventional values and to obey
recognized authority.
 Dogmatism.
 Tendency to view the world as a threatening place.
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 Machiavellianism.
 Rooted in Niccolo Machiavelli’s The Prince.
 Evokes images of guile, deceit, and opportunism.
 Tendency to view and manipulate others purely for
personal gain.
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 Machiavellianism — cont.
 People with a high-Mach personality:
 Approach situations logically and thoughtfully.
 Are capable of lying to achieve personal goals.
 Are rarely swayed by loyalty, friendships, past promises, or
others’ opinions.
 Are skilled at influencing others.
 Try to exploit loosely structured situations.
 Perform in a perfunctory or detached manner in highly
structured situations.
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 Machiavellianism — cont.
 People with a low-Mach personality:
 Accept direction imposed by others in loosely structured
situations.
 Work hard to do well in highly structured situations.
 Are strongly guided by ethical considerations.
 Are unlikely to lie or cheat.
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 Self-monitoring.
 A person’s ability to adjust his/her behavior to external,
situational factors.
 High self-monitors:
 Sensitive to external cues.
 Behave differently in different situations.
 Low self-monitors:
 Not sensitive to external cues.
 Are not able to disguise their behaviors.
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 Emotional adjustment traits.
 How much an individual experiences distress or displays
unacceptable acts.
 Type A orientation.
 Characterized by impatience, desire for achievement, and
perfectionism.
 Type B orientation.
 Characterized as more easygoing and less competitive in
relation to daily events.
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 Personality and self-concept.
 Personality dynamics.
 The ways in which an individual integrates and organizes
personality dimensions and traits.
 Self-concept.
 The view individuals have of themselves as physical, social,
and spiritual beings.
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 Two aspects of self-concept.
 Self-esteem.
 A belief about one’s worth based on an overall self-evaluation.
 Self-efficacy.
 An individual’s belief about the likelihood of successfully
completing a specific task.
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