Download Chapter One - Pearson Higher Education

Managing Behavior In
Organizations
Sixth Edition
Jerald Greenberg
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Chapter Three
Individual Processes: Personality, Social
Perception, and Learning
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Learning Objectives
 DEFINE what is meant by personality and DESCRIBE its role in
determining behavior
 DESCRIBE various personality dimensions that are responsible for
individual differences in organizational behavior
 DEFINE social perception and EXPLAIN the processes by which
people come to make judgments about what others are like
 DESCRIBE social identity theory and Kelley’s theory of causal
attribution and IDENTIFY the various biases that make the social
perception process imperfect
 DEFINE learning and DESCRIBE the two basic kinds of learning that
occur in organizations
 EXPLAIN various ways in which principles of learning is used in
organizations
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Three Good Reasons Why You Should Care
About . . . Personality, Social Perception, and
Learning
1.
2.
3.
Understanding people’s personalities helps us
know what to expect of them, and understanding
our own personalities provides valuable insight into
our own behavior.
The process by which we perceive others is
fundamental to a wide variety of organizational
activities.
Effectively training, managing, and disciplining
employees requires appreciating and applying the
basic principles of learning.
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Psychological Processes
Three processes are discussed in this chapter:
 Personality
 Social perception
 Learning
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Personality Defined
Personality can be defined as the unique
and relatively stable pattern of behavior,
thoughts, and emotions shown by
individuals.
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Personality: Some FAQs
How is personality determined?
– Nature or nurture: both influence personality
What role does personality play in the
workforce?
– Interactionist perspective - personality predisposes
people to act in certain ways, but whether they do so
depends on the situations in which they find
themselves.
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Personality: Nature or Nurture?
Nature (Impact of inherited predisposition) → Nurture (Impact of environmental factors)
↑
Personality
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The Big Five Dimensions of
Personality
Component of the Big Five
Description
Conscientiousness- The degree to which someone is hardworking, organized,
dependable, and persevering (high in conscientiousness), as
opposed to lazy, disorganized, and unreliable (low in
conscientiousness)
Extraversion- introversion- The degree to which someone is gregarious, assertive, and
sociable (extraverted), as opposed to reserved, timid, and
quiet (introverted)
Agreeableness- The degree to which someone is cooperative and warm (highly
agreeable), as opposed to belligerent and cold (highly disagreeable)
Emotional stability- The degree to which someone is insecure, anxious, and depressed
(emotionally unstable), as opposed to secure, calm and happy
(emotionally stable)
Openness to experience- The extent to which someone is creative, curious, and cultured
(open to experience), as opposed to practical and having
narrow interests (closed to experience)
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Positive & Negative Affectivity
Tendencies toward feeling good or bad
Positive affectivity - from energetic,
exhilarated, high zest for life to
apathetic and listless
Negative affectivity - from angry,
nervous, anxious to calm and relaxed
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Positive and Negative
Affectivity
High Positive Affectivity: Joy, enthusiasm
High Negative Affectivity: Fear, nervousness
Low Positive Affectivity: Apathy, sluggishness
Low Negative Affectivity: Calm, relaxed
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Impact of Positive & Negative
Affectivity
Productivity is impacted in this way:
Decision making: better decisions made by
people with high levels of positive affectivity
Team performance: work groups with positive
affective tone function more effectively
Aggressive behavior: people with negative
affectivity are more likely to be targets of
aggressive behavior
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Core Self-Evaluations
How do you think of yourself?
The particular way in which we view ourselves
reflects distinct elements of personality known
as core self-evaluations
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How Do We Think of
Ourselves?
There are four distinct elements of
personality:
 Self-esteem - the overall value one places on oneself as a
person
 Generalized self-efficacy - a person’s beliefs about his or
her capacity to perform specific tasks successfully
 Locus of control - the extent to which individuals feel that
they are able to control things in a manner that affects them
 Emotional stability - the tendency to see oneself as
confident, secure, and steady (the opposite of neuroticism, one
of the Big Five personality variables)
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Boosting Low Self-Esteem
Although it is difficult to completely change key aspects of a personality, such as selfesteem, without intensive psychological help, there are several things that organizations
can do to boost and maintain the self-esteem of their employees.
Suggestion
Description
Make people feel uniquely valuable- Create opportunities for people to feel accepted by
finding ways to make use of their unique skills and
experiences.
Make people feel competent- Recognize the good things that people do and praise them
accordingly. That is, “catch someone in the act of doing
something right.”
Make people feel secure- Employee’s self-esteem will be enhance when managers
make their expectations clear and are forthright with them.
Make people feel empowered- People given opportunities to decide how to do their jobs
feel good about themselves and their work.
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Social Perception
• Social perception - the process of integrating and
interpreting information about others so as to
understand them accurately
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Social Identity Theory
Who are you?
 Personal identity - the characteristics that
define a particular individual
 Social identity - who a person is, as defined
in terms of his or her membership in various
social groups
 Social identity theory - a conceptualization
recognizing that the way we perceive others
and ourselves is based on our unique
characteristics and our membership in various
groups
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Social Identity Theory
Personal Identity
Compared to
Social Identity
My Characteristics
Groups to which I belong
-I am 6 feet tall
-I am American
- I am outgoing
- I am an employee of XYZ
Company
- I am interested in sports
- I am a student at Big State
University
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Attribution
Attribution is the process through which
individuals attempt to determine the
causes behind others’ behavior
– Correspondent inferences - judgments
about people’s dispositions, traits, and
characteristics, that correspond to what we
have observed of their actions
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Causal Attribution: Why?
Causes of Behavior:
 Internal: Explanations based on actions for which
the individual is responsible
 External: Explanations based on situations over
which the individual has no control
Kelley’s Theory of Causal Attribution - the
approach suggesting that people will believe
others’ actions to be caused by internal or
external factors based on three types of
information: consensus, consistency, and
distinctiveness
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Kelley’s Theory of Attribution
Consensus - information regarding the
extent to which other people behave in the
same manner as the person being judged
Consistency - information regarding the
extent to which the person being judged acts
the same way at other times
Distinctiveness - information regarding the
extent to which a person behaves in the
same manner in other contexts
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Biases in Social Perception
 Fundamental attribution error - individuals are
generally prone to assume that others’ behavior is
due to the way they are, their traits, and dispositions
 Halo effect - the tendency for a person’s overall
impression to bias his or her assessment of another
on specific dimensions
 Stereotypes - beliefs that all members of specific
groups share similar traits and behaviors
 Self-fulfilling prophecies - the tendency for
someone’s expectations about another to cause that
individual to behave in a manner consistent with
those expectations
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Overcoming Biases
Some guidelines:
 Do not overlook the external cases of others’
behaviors
 Identify and confront your stereotypes
 Evaluate people based on objective factors
 Avoid making rash judgments
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Learning
Learning is defined as a relatively
permanent change in behavior
occurring as a result of experience.
Involves some kind of change
Cannot be directly observed
Is the result of experience
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Learning
Learning through rewards and
punishments:
– Operant conditioning describes the
process of learning that results when the
consequences of our behaviors determine
whether we will be likely to repeat them in
the future.
When our behaviors produce pleasant
consequences, we are likely to repeat them.
When our behaviors produce unpleasant
consequences, we are not likely to repeat
them.
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Operant Conditioning Concepts
 Positive reinforcement - the process by which
people learn to perform behaviors that lead to the
presentation of desired outcomes
 Negative reinforcement - the process by which
people learn to perform acts that lead to the removal
of undesired events
 Punishment - the process of decreasing
undesirable behavior by following it with undesirable
consequences
 Extinction - the process through which responses
that are no longer reinforced tend to gradually
diminish in strength
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Learning
Learning by imitating others:
– Observational learning occurs when
someone acquires new knowledge
vicariously -- that is, by observing what
happens to others.
also known as modeling
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Applications of Learning
 Training: The process through which people
systematically acquire and improve the skills and
abilities needed to better their job performance.
– Widely used training methods include:
Classroom training
Apprenticeship programs
Cross-cultural training
Corporate universities
Executive training programs
E-training
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Keys to Effective Training
 Promote participation: People not only learn
more quickly, but they also retain the skills
longer when they have actively participated in
the learning process.
 Encourage repetition: Practice enhances the
effectiveness of the learning experience.
 Capitalize on transfer of training: The more
closely a training program matches the
demands of a job, the more effective the
training will be.
 Give feedback: Knowledge about the
effectiveness of one’s training enhances the
learning experience.
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Organizational Behavior
Management
Positively reinforce desirable behavior:
– Organizational behavior management - the
systematic application of positive
reinforcement principles in organizational
settings for the purpose of raising the
incidence of desirable organizational
behaviors
also known as organizational behavior
modification or OB mod
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Discipline
Eliminating undesirable behavior
– Discipline is the systematic administration of
punishment.
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Tips for Effective Discipline
 Deliver punishment immediately after the
undesirable response occurs
 Give moderate levels of punishment -- nothing
too high or too low
 Punish the undesirable behavior, not the
person
 Use punishment consistently -- all the time, for
all employees
 Clearly communicate the reasons for the
punishment given
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