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Designing information architecture: theory and practice
I. IA as theory
• Information interaction as a basis for IA
• Information shape and semantic space
• Cognitive work analysis
II. IA practice
• What do IAs do?
• What do IAs have to know?
• IA deliverables
S510: Introduction to Information Science Fall ‘14
I. IA as theory
Information interaction: Providing a framework for
information architecture
Toms believes that there is a gap in our understanding of
how we interact with information technologies
The model of information interaction can address this
gap and provide a theoretical basis for IA
~What is an example of a way in which a web interface
enhances the information task? Of an interface that
hinders an information task?
~Apply the concept of information interaction to your use
of a web site - what happens?
S510: Introduction to Information Science Fall ‘14
I. IA as theory
Toms argues that the initial focus should be how people
interact in information-rich environments
Interaction: situated action with an IS involving
querying, browsing (filling a gap in HCI)
Primarily use of GUI with some command line work
We “immerse ourselves” in info
IA enables access by providing a systematic and
primarily visual approach to the organization of content
IA facilitates the quest for information
Toms, E.G. (2002). Information interaction: Providing a framework for information architecture.
JASIST, 53(10), 855-862.
S510: Introduction to Information Science Fall ‘14
I. IA as theory
How information interaction (II) occurs
We can come to a system with an “information task”
Problem-solving: we go through a patterned process
and end with a relevance judgment
We can also have chance encounters, encounters with
information, scanning activities
These are less patterned but still end with some type
of judgment
Then we browse, navigate, search, evaluate…
II is the basis of the person’s use experience and is
shaped by web technology
S510: Introduction to Information Science Fall ‘14
I. IA as theory
A model of information
interaction
Formulate goal: object or
purpose
Select category: approach
system and select search term
Note cues: landmarks
Extract information
Integrate information
Evaluate
Toms (2002; 658)
S510: Introduction to Information Science Fall ‘14
I. IA as theory
Spatial semantics and individual differences in the
perception of shape in information space
Dillon argues that information spaces have shape,
meaning that we perceive these spaces using a
combination of structural cues
Using a sociocognitive approach, IAs can improve the
design of these spaces by attending to spatial and
semantic affordances that are relevant for the audience
~ In what ways do you interact with the semantics of
digital information spaces?
~ Based on this article, what should IAs do to improve
the design of information spaces?
S510: Introduction to Information Science Fall ‘14
I. IA as theory
Problem: users experience disorientation in navigating
large digital spaces to locate and use information
Complexity can overwhelm users’ abilities to filter and
represent spaces in ways that allow navigation, seeking
and use
The primary response has been to focus on visual
display and the manipulation of interface variables
This is good for building usable artifacts but does not
explain why interface characteristics produce the
results that emerge
Dillon, A. (2000) Spatial semantics and individual differences in the perception of
shape in information space. Journal of the American Society for Information Science,
51(6), 521-528
S510: Introduction to Information Science Fall ‘14
I. IA as theory
A major source of cognitive overhead for users is the
need to navigate complex information spaces
We use knowledge of genre and semantics to infer
structure
This ability varies with expertise and experience
Semantics are crucial to the process through which a
discourse community learns to shape its interactions
over time
Design solutions attempt to reduce the load on short
term memory with visual cues
They should also focus on semantic space because
it is also important for users
S510: Introduction to Information Science Fall ‘14
I. IA as theory
A better approach focuses on spatial and semantic
information, particularly on individual differences
Because when tasks are computerized, differences
between users are increased, not reduced
Differences that matter
Deep, relatively constant psychological processes
Spatial ability or memory span
Knowledge-base differences are more transient and
subject to alteration with training and experience
These interact to affect the user’s ability to perceive
structure or shape in information space
S510: Introduction to Information Science Fall ‘14
I. IA as theory
How it works
A user perceives an information display and creates a
dynamic working model of the information space based
on current contents and format
Relevant spatial attributes combine with activated
memories of just-processed information
Semantic attributes of the information genre applied
top-down
Result: a continuously updated and modifiable dynamic
representation of the space for a task
S510: Introduction to Information Science Fall ‘14
I. IA as theory
A case study of collaborative information retrieval
Fidel et al use a “cognitive work analysis” approach to
conduct a case study of collaborative IR to uncover the
factors that influence people's information behaviors
After contrasting psychological, social, and
multidimensional approaches to information behaviors
they focus on the human-information interactions that
occur in people's routine work activities
~ How does collaboration in the workplace influence
people's information behaviors?
~ What is the advantage of using cognitive work analysis
to study ways people use information in the workplace?
S510: Introduction to Information Science Fall ‘14
I. IA as theory
Recent activity has focused on theoretical development
in human-information interaction
Critical: what is the set of variables that matter when
considering this interaction?
Prior work as focused on a single dimension
They use a naturalistic approach to uncover the factors
that make a difference in this type of II
They found that the factors that influence CIR are in
different dimensions that interact with each other
Fidel, R., Pejtersen, A.M., Cleal, B. and Bruce, H. (2004). A multidimensional approach to the study
of human-information interaction: A case study of collaborative information retrieval. Journal of
the American Society for Information Science and Technology, 55(11), 939 - 953.
S510: Introduction to Information Science Fall ‘14
I. IA as theory
The prevailing approach in information behavior research
in LIS is psychological
It focuses primarily on cognitive factors and less on
others, such as affective and perceptual factors
How cognition shapes IB
Allows quantification and measurement, and prediction
The objects of study are cognitive states and processes
in relation to information behavior
Important concept is “information need”
Problem: ignores sociocultural, organizational, and
technical dimensions
S510: Introduction to Information Science Fall ‘14
I. IA as theory
The social approach focuses on social, organizational,
and political states and processes as impetus for IB
Focuses on the social context, interactions, and
discourse through which II occurs
Does not consider “information need” as central to the
understanding of IB
The study of IB cannot be based on isolated
individuals, or outside a specific context
Problem: research with the social approach offers few
descriptive generalizations about information behavior
S510: Introduction to Information Science Fall ‘14
I. IA as theory
Multidimensional approach assumes IB takes place in
complex contexts
Also that we are goal driven
The better this complexity is understood and analyzed,
the more relevant the outcomes of research will be to
the design of information systems and services
Requires flexible methods to understand information
seeking and use in context
Studies using this approach typically focus on a specific
group of people, in a certain context, performing a
particular task
S510: Introduction to Information Science Fall ‘14
I. IA as theory
They use “cognitive work analysis”
Based on general systems thinking, adaptive control
systems, and ecological psychology
Focus on work activities, organizational relationships,
and constraints of the work place
Also actors’ cognitive and social activities and values,
priorities and personal preferences performing tasks on
the job
It is a holistic approach that makes it possible to
account for several dimensions of IB and CIR
S510: Introduction to Information Science Fall ‘14
I. IA as theory
Component used here is the “decision ladder”
First: analyze the situation to understand problems and
circumstances involved
Second: evaluate options, considering possibilities and
consequences of each option
Third: make a decision and plan how to carry it out
Dimensions
Environment, work domain, organizational analysis
Task analysis in work domain terms; in decision
making terms; in terms of strategies that can be used
Actor’s resources and values
S510: Introduction to Information Science Fall ‘14
Designing information architecture: theory and practice
I. IA as theory
• Information interaction as a basis for IA
• Information shape and semantic space
• Cognitive work analysis
II. IA practice
• What do IAs do?
• What do IAs have to know?
• IA deliverables
S510: Introduction to Information Science Fall ‘14
II. IA practice
Information architecture without internal theory: An
inductive design process
Haverty argues that IA as a profession is characterized
by a lack of theory and that because of the way peoples
work, the process must be inductive
This approach better allows the IA to understand the
relationship between site structure and the user
experience
~ What does it mean to describe IA as constructive
induction?
~ In what ways would IA benefit from theory?
S510: Introduction to Information Science Fall ‘14
II. IA practice
Haverty argues that IA must be inductive
It does not have an existing body of theory which
typically guides the work of a field
Theory constrains acceptable solutions through
formal validation
Without it, IAs tend to treat each problem as novel
Also, it supports emergent phenomena
The IA domain has a small set of initial components
and a relatively simple set of rules
These lead to a large number of complex patterns
Haverty, M. (2002). Information architecture without internal theory: An inductive design process.
Journal of the ASIST, 53(10), 839-845.
S510: Introduction to Information Science Fall ‘14
II. IA practice
IA as constructive induction
This is a process for generating a design solution using
two intertwined searches
First: identify the most adequate representational
framework for the problem
Second: locate the best design solution within the
framework and translate it to the problem at hand
CI is useful when existing theory cannot adequately
explain the object of study
S510: Introduction to Information Science Fall ‘14
II. IA practice
Steps of CI
1. What are the basic design
problems for the system?
Determine goals, vision,
business and other
requirements
Decompose the problem
Each requires a design
solution
Haverty 2002, 841.
S510: Introduction to Information Science Fall ‘14
II. IA practice
Steps of CI
2. Find a framework for
each design problem
Identify a solution within
the framework
May involve looking at
work in other fields
Each requires a design
solution
Haverty 2002, 841.
S510: Introduction to Information Science Fall ‘14
II. IA practice
Steps of CI
3. Translate solution into a
context of the current design
problem
This is a creative step
Involves understanding the
original concept and knowing
how to repurpose it
Haverty 2002, 841.
S510: Introduction to Information Science Fall ‘14
II. IA practice
Steps of CI
4. Integrate solutions into
an overall IA
Validate the solutions
against the original high
level goals and objectives of
the site
May involve member checking
and usability work
•Haverty 2002, 841.
S510: Introduction to Information Science Fall ‘14
II. IA practice
How has the job of the web administrator has changed
over time
Several years ago, a “webmaster” would
Plan and develop the site
Design web pages
Hand code HTML
Write scripts and programs
Create content
Configure, maintain, and secure the web server
Today, these tasks are a smaller part of the job
http://www.boyscouttroop261.org/Webmaster.jpg
S510: Introduction to Information Science Fall ‘14
II. IA as practice
These days
Coders mark up the pages
Content developers write the pages
Graphic designers create the images
Programmers and database designers manage the
back end
Technicians configure, maintain, and secure the
computer equipment
http://jceo.org/_uploads/web%20team.JPG
S510: Introduction to Information Science Fall ‘14
II. IA as practice
And the web site administrator
Describes how the site should be organized
Describes what a web site ought to look like
Explains how it integrates into an overall management
or marketing strategy
Manages web designers and developers
The job has evolved into more of a management position
What has it become?
S510: Introduction to Information Science Fall ‘14
II. IA as practice
These days most large scale information design projects
are done by teams
In the team, the IA plays a key role
IAs are deeply involved in web design but can work
with any type of information design project
Software, game design, educational CDs
It is a professional role in web design and the design of
digital media collections
IAs are responsible for developing and selling the
overall structure and organization of the site
S510: Introduction to Information Science Fall ‘14
II. IA as practice
http://www.xmlbystealth.net/images/NY-69194-full.jpg
S510: Introduction to Information Science Fall ‘14
II. IA as practice
The evolution of the web site development has been in
the direction of greater specialization
The company
Managerial
Content developer
Graphic designer
Information architect
HTML coder
Programmer
Technical
Conceptual
Database designer
S510: Introduction to Information Science Fall ‘14
II. IA as practice
It is a professional role in web design and the design of
digital media collections
IAs are responsible for the overall structure and
organization of the site
Involves organizing a site’s content into categories and
creating an interface to support those categories
Also designing navigation and searching systems to
help people find and manage information
A systematic, user-centered question-based process for
creating digital products to communicate meaning and
improve users’ performance
S510: Introduction to Information Science Fall ‘14
II. IA as practice
What should an IA know?
LIS: information organization and access
Computer science: programming and databases
Usability engineering: how people use the site
Graphic design: developing imagery to support the
site’s mission
Writing: to explain to peers and decision makers
Psychology: understanding the intended audience
Marketing: developing the site so it can be sold to its
intended audience
S510: Introduction to Information Science Fall ‘14
II. IA as practice
What else does an IA have to know?
Interaction design: creation and maintenance of tasks
and processes that users will encounter in an
information space
Project management: strategies, skills, and procedures
to organize, lead and bring tasks to closure
Content management: processes, policies, and
procedures governing the creation and transfer of
content
Knowledge management: processes, policies, and
procedures that govern the organization’s use of its
“intellectual capital”
S510: Introduction to Information Science Fall ‘14
II. IA as practice
What does an IA do?
Planning: what are the main goals and strategy for the
site?
Given the constraints what can be done?
What are the relevant content domains?
How are these domains related to each other?
What is the structure of these relationships?
Designing: what arrangement best supports the structure
and organizational requirements?
Managing: what people, tools, resources are available?
S510: Introduction to Information Science Fall ‘14
II. IA as practice
Basic activities of IA
Structuring information
Data (facts and figures) to which we give meaning
Knowledge: Internalized and interpreted information
Structuring information spaces
Levels of granularity of different elements
Organizing content
Arranging these elements into meaningful categories
and establishing relations among them
Labeling content and naming categories
S510: Introduction to Information Science Fall ‘14
II. IA as practice
A broad view of IA work
It involves developing and communicating a holistic view
of a web site
It includes the overall social and technical structure of
the site and the relationships among its elements
It requires the classification of site goals and objectives
IA places the web site into a larger social context
How will it affect the work flow, communications
patterns, and distribution of power in the organization?
How will it appear to its users?
S510: Introduction to Information Science Fall ‘14
II. IA as practice
What IAs do:
Illustrate key concepts or steps through graphics
Design site maps
Create metaphors to brand content and promote
navigation
Develop style and formatting templates for elements of
information
Conduct user analyses and test user experience
Create scenarios and storyboards
Build taxonomies and indices
Dillon and Turnbull, 3
S510: Introduction to Information Science Fall ‘14
II. IA as practice
Becoming an information architect
Versatility is important
Expect to be a project manager, a designer or both
Become familiar with the various tasks that must be
accomplished by a web team
“Typically, IAs collaborate with a variety of people,
[Garrett] notes, from marketing and design pros to
business executives and customers. In some ways, they
serve as the linchpin between various groups.”
Hoffmann, A. (2007) Information Architects: Web Builders with a Sales Bent
http://career-advice.monster.com/job-industryprofiles/technology/InformationArchitects/home.aspx
S510: Introduction to Information Science Fall ‘14
II. IA as practice
In a typical project you can expect to:
Gather information from end-users and stakeholders
Design and conduct online surveys, interviews and the
ethnographic technique of contextual inquiry and
analysis
Test the system in a manner with experts
Run usability tests in the lab
Encourage people to use the prototype
Solicit feedback, analyze search logs and continually
learn from personal interaction with employees
requesting information and research
S510: Introduction to Information Science Fall ‘14
II. IA as practice
An IA helps clients define their Internet strategies
Research, design, architect, develop and implement
solutions that execute those strategies
Typically involves defining and documenting a site’s
structure, navigation and interactivity
Based on translating client business rules and user
needs into web structures and processes
The work becomes a blueprint contributing to the
overall strategic direction, vision and scope of a project
The IA works with “user experience modelers” to analyze
and model user tasks and usage scenarios
S510: Introduction to Information Science Fall ‘14
II. IA as practice
Model development requires attending to several
perspectives
Content: features of the information space
Users: the common tasks and uses of the data
Organization: the constraints and requirements of
stakeholders providing the data
Technical: the most appropriate standards and
technologies
A workable model must balance internal organizational
aspects (types of information and resources available)
with external aspects (user and technical perspectives)
S510: Introduction to Information Science Fall ‘14
II. IA as practice
Checklist: a mechanism for reminding and prompting
attention to issues or topics
General: outlining the steps in a process
Specific: listing detailed items to be addressed
Find design problems early
Manage and leverage software and hardware
infrastructure
Identify technology gaps
Enable most productive use of information assets
Downey, L. and Banerjee, S. (2011). Building an Information Architecture Checklist: Encouraging
and Enabling IA from Infrastructure to the User Interface Architecture. Journal of Information
Architecture 2(2)
S510: Introduction to Information Science Fall ‘14
II. IA as practice
Purpose: remind reviewers of pertinent areas and
specific issues to be addressed during systems design
IA checklists focus more on process, design, and
design review
Do not include issues of infrastructure, platform,
services, technology, policy, and standards
Exception: an informal search checklist
Includes system architecture, performance, access
control, relevance tuning, federated search and
analytics
S510: Introduction to Information Science Fall ‘14
II. IA as practice
Purpose: remind reviewers of pertinent areas and
specific issues to be addressed during systems design
Focus on process, design, and design review
Preparing and organizing information
Architecture: structure and composition of repository,
information collection or individual document
Intelligence: content, metadata, categorization
Accessing information
Search and retrieval: querying information and
obtaining matching results
Findability: quality of being locatable or navigable
S510: Introduction to Information Science Fall ‘14
II. IA as practice
Revised checklist
Information organization: Taxonomy, modeling,
structure, semantics
Information generation: content, user experience,
system interface, scalability, standards
Information integration: analytics, search, composition
Information consumption: search, metrics, monitoring
Information governance: stewardship, master data
management, reuse, policy
Information quality of service: security, availability,
reliability, usefulness
S510: Introduction to Information Science Fall ‘14
II. IA as practice
Design of social space
http://www.susqu.edu/campus_activities/Images/Social_Space/blueprint.jpg
S510: Introduction to Information Science Fall ‘14
II. IA as practice
Design of information space
http://www.prosight.com/files/screenshots/solutions-architecture-overview.jpg
S510: Introduction to Information Science Fall ‘14
II. IA as practice
Design of information
space
http://www.chathamanimalrescue.org/images/site2.gif
S510: Introduction to Information Science Fall ‘14
II. IA as practice
Another view
http://www.mnsu.edu/its/web/wtf/categories1.jpg
S510: Introduction to Information Science Fall ‘14
II. IA as practice
Site map for DoD
Information Analysis
Centers
http://iac.dtic.mil/site_map.html
S510: Introduction to Information Science Fall ‘14
II. IA as practice
UN Environment
Division
Technology,
Industry and
Economics
Program:
of
http://www.uneptie.org/energy/site_map/index.htm
S510: Introduction to Information Science Fall ‘14
II. IA as practice
http://knowledgefoundry.unc.edu/Webpage_for_Russian/Russian_Content_Map_v3_ch2.jpg
S510: Introduction to Information Science Fall ‘14
II. IA as practice
Prototypes
An outline or storyboard of a functional prototype
Could also be a working prototypes with HTML, Flash,
Director, or PowerPoint
Written reports
A narrative description of the site linking it to
organizational mission, messages, and marketing
constraints
Change management
How will the site grow and change over time?
What will be involved in maintenance?
S510: Introduction to Information Science Fall ‘14
II. IA as practice
To evaluate the visitor’s experience, use search, access
and error logs
To check on search terms, where people go, and
places where problems occur
To evaluate the site
Competitor analysis and comparison with previous
versions
Have typical visitors do card sorts to assess chunking
Assess completeness of content and functionality: can
you do what you are supposed to be able to do?
Toub, S (2000). Evaluating information architecture: A practical guide for assessing web site
organization. Argus Associates.
S510: Introduction to Information Science Fall ‘14
II. IA as practice
To evaluate the site
Assess how the component parts are organized and
interlinked
Determine the parent-child relationships and look for
similar siblings grouped together
Determine degree of overlap among sections
A good hierarchy has both high within-category
similarity and low between-category similarity
A bad one has too much overlap between categories
This can be done by inspection
S510: Introduction to Information Science Fall ‘14
II. IA as practice
To evaluate the site
Evaluate the labeling scheme
How predictable are they?
How well do they reflect major categories and labels
used in the site’s sector?
How effective are they?
Other criteria for evaluation
Does the site use language that visitors can
understand?
How does the site handle errors?
S510: Introduction to Information Science Fall ‘14
II. IA as practice
Other criteria for evaluation
How often does the navigation require that the visitor
return to the home page to go elsewhere in the site?
How effective is the use of icons?
How well are the forms constructed?
Is the design consistent throughout the site?
How well do the help file, site map or other finding
tools work?
Is there a site map or other help function?
S510: Introduction to Information Science Fall ‘14
II. IA as practice
The elements of user experience: User-centered design
for the web
Garrett argues that IAs must attend to the elements of the
user experience when designing a digital space
The focus is on the five planes: strategy, scope,
structure, skeleton and surface
Goal: take all aspects of the user experience into
account
~ What are three main design scenarios and what are the
problems with each?
~ How can an IA understand user needs better than the
users?
S510: Introduction to Information Science Fall ‘14
II. IA as practice
The key to a successful web site is a successful user
experience
This produces value in some way for the site’s owners
Increased sales, conversion rate, decreased
abandonment
The goal is to improve efficiency
Helping them work faster or make fewer mistakes
There is a conceptual framework that can be used to
deconstruct the elements of the user experience
Garrett, J.J. (2003). The elements of user experience: User-centered design for the web. Boston,
MA: New Riders.
S510: Introduction to Information Science Fall ‘14
II. IA as practice
The planes of user experience
The surface plane
Web pages, text, images, multimedia + functionalities
The skeleton plane
Buttons, tabs, blocked out space (for text/images etc)
The structure plane
The hierarchical organization of the information chunks
The scope plane
The range of content on the site
The strategy plane
What the site is supposed to do
S510: Introduction to Information Science Fall ‘14
II. IA as practice
Garrett’s model of the
user experience
Web as interface
Web as hypertext
http://www.cmsreview.com/Resources/images/JJGElements.gif
S510: Introduction to Information Science Fall ‘14