Download SNOW SKIING - American Optometric Association

SNOW SKIING
Steven L. Haleo, O.D.
SNOW SKIING OVERVIEW
History: The history of skiing can be traced to the earliest of times when men strapped flat
wooden slats to their feet and headed downhill for fun. Where and when skis were first invented
is a mystery and the few known facts are inconclusive. Surprisingly, sophisticated recognizable
skis at least 4,500 years old have been found in Norway, Sweden, Finland, Northern Siberia and,
more recently, Southern Kazakhstan in the Alti Mountains. The idea of competitive skiing as we
know it probably originated in the early 1900's. Alpine skiing involves the disciplines of Giant
Slalom, Slalom, Downhill, Super G, Speed and Free-Style (moguls, aerials, ballet). These
events, which are performed at the highest professional level, consist of athletes who are usually
members of the U.S. Ski Team. They compete internationally and represent the United States in
these events. Federation of International Skiing (FIS) is the governing body of international ski
racing. The World Cup is the premier of races. As a competitive sport, individuals around the
country can compete for prizes and money representing either themselves, ski teams or sponsors
in national, regional and local events around the country. They are often referred to as
ProRacers, but are not necessarily on the U.S. Ski Team. Many successful individuals in the
racing circuit aspire to represent the United States in the Winter Olympic Games. These events
are usually televised and we see racers move around poles placed in the snow. As they
serpentine around these poles they are timed against the clock. Points and time are measured in
a complex scoring system to determine the winner. The major difference between the disciplines
of Downhill, Slalom, Giant Slalom and Super G skiing is often the distance between the poles, or
gates, as they are referred to, and the total distance of the run itself. Often these skiers are
moving at speeds in excess of eighty miles per hour. At the time of this writing, a ski record of
150 mph was set in the event of speed skiing. It is, simply, how fast can one go without falling?
It is a dangerous discipline, and the athletes train for years to compete in races around the world.
Other recreational types of competitive skiing (nonprofessional) are broken down and
categorized by event, class, type, and age of the athlete. They are governed and standardized by
National Standards Race (NASTAR), the national organization for recreational racing in our
country. NASTAR events are recreational ski races that skiers of all levels can enter and have
their time measured against a pace setter, who has determined the standard time for that course.
It is usually handicapped for all skiers in an effort toward fair and even distribution of
competition, similar to the handicap system of golf. However, unlike golf's handicap system,
skiers with the best time down the mountain win. There is no altering of an individual's time,
just the points they may earn if the event(s) of a season are cumulated for that purpose.
Synopsis: Since most of today's Alpine skiing is recreational in nature and not usually
competitive Slalom skiing, the discussion of information focuses on the recreational skier's needs
and those which one will most likely encounter during practice. Synonymous with recreational
Alpine skiing is the term Downhill skiing. It refers to the kind of skiing most people do at ski
resorts the world over.
Included in the discussion to follow will be the skier who likes to recreationally cruise the
mountain, ski bumps, ledges, high altitudes and occasionally enters and competes in a sanctioned
NASTAR race. It's important to note that some of the information has been gathered from
professional racers, U.S. Ski Team members, and the Professional Ski Instructors' Association.
Some research has been performed with regard to contrast sensitivity and its effect on depth
perception and speed of reaction. The information was gathered by the Canadian Olympic Ski
Team of Waterloo, Canada. Much of this information is considered confidential and, therefore,
is not referenced.
Important Note: The vision skills, testing or therapy techniques recommended and used to
enhance a skier's performance does not apply to the type of skiing known as Extreme skiing, and
for very good reason. There is no competitive or recreational environment for Extreme skiing.
It should not be considered a recreational type of skiing, since this extreme type of skiing
includes skiing terrain that is not usually marked for skiing by any park or ski resort, as of this
printing. This is a professional's discipline of skiing often found in the movies or ski films. The
risk of death is near certain to even the most cautious and experienced skiers. One such wellknown, famous film-maker is Warren Miller. His movies always include skiers who perform
dramatic, spectacular, incredible ski stunts that most skiers would only dream about, and only in
their worst nightmares. Nevertheless, it is exciting to observe these stunts on the big screen, and
all recreational skiers sit in awe as they picture themselves jumping off cliffs and skiing just like
these men and women. Greg Plank is one such extreme skier who is still alive.
SNOW SKIING DICTIONARY OF TERMS
Alpine Combined: A scoring system that combines the times and points in all three of the
Alpine disciplines: Slalom, Giant Slalom and Downhill. This score is usually used to determine
the overall winner of a combined race.
Alpine Skiing: Traditionally, it was referred to as skiing in the surrounding of trees; common in
the eastern part of the United States, but every ski mountain today has Downhill, Alpine skiing.
Today, the term is synonymous with downhill, recreational skiing.
Arc: The geometric result of a properly weighted and pressurized ski upon the snow. Skis are
designed to arc. Understanding the design of a ski is helpful in making the ski turn and arc when
you want it to.
Bindings: An equipment part of the ski that is mounted at the center of the ski that the boot fits
into. Bindings are usually spring-loaded to serve two functions: 1) to keep the skier "in" his or
her ski and keep it from falling while skiing, and 2) to release upon twisting in excess of force
that might lead to serious injury to the ligaments and bones of the foot, calf, knee, leg and body.
Common manufacturers of bindings include Marker, Salomon and Geze. Binding tension is set
by both weight and ability of the skier, as well as the boot size. Equal boot sizes don't always fit
a binding set for a particular boot; it is a fitting of the skier to his ski than just his boot size.
Boots: Ski boots are specially made boots that fit into the bindings of a Downhill ski. These
boots are different than those used by cross-country skiers. They are made of a semi-stiff plastic
outer shell with a bladder lining around the foot that provides comfort and warmth.
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Bumps: Also referred to as moguls. They are bumps on an otherwise smooth snow surface that
one skis around, on, and over. Sometimes these bumps are numerous, forcing the skier to
develop advanced skills and proficiency. They are usually considered fun, as you must force
yourself to make many turns quickly or run the risk of catching the top of one of these that, more
often than not, sends you into the air. Skiers with poor visual skills find moguls difficult to ski.
Bowls: Large open terrain of a mountain or ridge that opens up or spills into a wide area of
landscape; commonly found at ski resorts in the western United States, such as Colorado and
Utah; some of the best snow is found in these bowls. Powder snow, waist high, is not
uncommon in these bowls.
Carve: A precision ski turn performed without the lateral sliding or skidding of the ski. Pure
carving utilizes the mechanics of the ski design in an arc-like manner. Carved turns require
proper balance, edging technique and weight transfer.
Crud: A descriptive term that gives the condition of the snow to be skied; icy, hard, small, balllike, crusty snow.
Edge: The edge of the ski perpendicular to the ski's bottom surface.
Edging: A technique used to roll your weight onto the edge of the ski and balance this weight
so the skis travel across the slope or ski terrain. It is the angle between the running surface of the
ski and the slope. This technique prevents a skier from falling on ice and is used to initiate turns;
"staying on edge" refers to performing this task for a period of time.
Fall Line: An imaginary line that points downward along the steepest angle of the mountain,
just as water would run down the mountain. It is, in essence, gravity's line of direction. Forcing
against the fall line prevents you from falling down the mountain.
Face Plant: A fall with arms and legs spread-eagle, with your face downward into the snow.
The opposite of angels in the snow. Face in the snow. (Possible risk of injury to the eye and
orbit.) Most often occurs when one tips oneself on skis as a result of crossing them.
Gates: Term used to describe the poles one skis around in a NASTAR race.
Granular Snow: Condition of the snow to be skied on icy, hard, very small, ball-like snow.
Smaller than crud and usually a result of snowmaking machines. Found early in the morning on
cold days.
High-Altitude Skiing: Skiing above 10,000 feet, or areas of off-trail skiing, accessible by
climbing or snow cat transportation or helicopter.
Ice: Condition of the snow to be skied on; icy, hard, and requires lots of edging and balance.
Also referred to as boiler-plate conditions. Difficult and dangerous to ski.
Javelin: Type of turn.
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Mogul: Bumps found on slope or trail. Fun to ski for some. Difficult terrain to ski for others.
Good vision skills are critical to execute the turns and maneuver the body in moguls. Eye-foot
coordination, speed of reaction time, depth perception, central-peripheral awareness and
visualization skills are critical.
Mountain: A place to ski on marked trails of sloped terrain, designated for such use.
Parallel Turn: Type of turn where the skis are moving parallel to each other, as opposed to an
"A" pattern or snow plow.
Pole, Ski: Used for balance and initiating the timing of a turn.
Run: The term used to describe the skiing of a single event on a mountain skill trail. One can
ski many runs in a day. A run is also referred to as the event used in describing one's experience.
Skis: The equipment used to go down a mountain usually made of high-tech materials designed
to allow flexure for effortless turning or holding of the ski on the mountain or slope. Common
manufacturers of skis are Vokl, K-2, Rossingnol, Olin, Salomon, and Head.
Slope: The side of a mountain used for ski trails.
Stem Christi: A type of turn no longer used or taught in modern-day skiing. It was, however, a
major breakthrough in the sixties for getting to turn your skies quickly and generally considered
an advancing move for beginners.
Sanet Turn: Long accurate turns exhibited by beginner skiers or skiers just learning to turn.
This turn is an exaggerated snow-plow position usually performed for uncommonly long periods
of time. Skiers executing this type of turn are usually found hunched over their skis and are
relatively harmless.
Snow Plow: Type of turn used to control one's speed and direction down the mountain. Skis are
pointed in an "A-like" pattern down the mountain. Forward pressure decelerates the ski.
Slalom: A race between gates on a course designated for racing.
Schussing: Skiing down the mountain without turning. Considered reckless skiing and often
performed without regard to the safety of others.
Traversing: Crossing the slope in a somewhat perpendicular path to the fall-line.
Wedge: Position of the skis where the ski tails are pushed away from each other and the ski tips
are pointed toward each other. Synonymous with snow plow: a position of the skis used to
control speed and direction by pressuring the ski.
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VISUAL SKILLS IMPORTANT FOR SKIING
Visual Acuity: Visual acuity in skiing is important, both recreationally and in racing. One must
be able to see small objects in the terrain that might present a hazard such as rocks, tree
branches, stumps, and bare spots. The ability to read signs of marked trails and degree of
difficulty of each trail is important. Seeing temperature gauges and posted closings of chair lifts,
snow conditions, and changing weather patterns is an important ability in skiing safely and
preventing a health hazard to oneself. While this may seem obvious to the experienced skier, or
otherwise seem like common sense, many newcomers to the ski sport on trails above their ability
level get lost on a mountain or suffer from hypothermia for failing to respond to posted changing
conditions. Mother nature is dynamic, and skiing in the elements requires visual inspection for
good judgment. Objects - especially other skiers - appear smaller, as they are farther away from
you as you stand at the top of a ski trail. Discerning between people in front of you and those in
your path is necessary for safe, under-control skiing.
Dynamic Visual Acuity: This is an important skill for skiers moving down the hill either
recreationally, at high speeds, or particularly when racing. The gates, people and obstacles must
be seen clearly, even when you are moving on the snow. Many otherwise good skiers are held
back from advancing to higher levels of performance because of their limited dynamic acuity,
which results in slowed skiing. At greater speeds this skill is in even greater demand.
Peripheral Vision: Good peripheral vision is important in keeping a skier safe from the whole
field without constriction. It is important for body balance and seeing others in your field of
vision.
Peripheral Awareness: This is a very important skill in recreational and high-altitude skiing. It
serves the dynamic process of self direction and knowing where things are in reference to
oneself (not as important in Slalom or NASTAR racing).
Depth Perception: The ability to discern between objects in the foreground and in the
background, as well as the ability to see distance between objects, is critical in skiing through
gates and moguls. Although monocular depth cues are always available, stereopsis at distance
aids the skier in processing visual information about depth at high altitudes when monocular
cues are sometimes absent above tree line. Racers have always said that being able to see fifteen
feet in front of each gate is necessary in determining the speed at which they are traveling in an
effort to judge when to initiate the next turn around the next gate.
Binocular Fusion - Eye-Teaming Ability: Maintenance of fusion is essential to avoid loss of
binocularity, attention and concentration. Racers often lose their fusional endurance near the last
quarter of gates. It aids in depth perception and efficient processing of visual information.
Eye motility: Saccadic fixations are important in cruising down a crowded hill of people, skiing
through trees, around gates, or through the moguls. It is not as critical a skill in high-altitude or
bowl skiing. Pursuit movements are used in following other skiers down the mountain or when
skiing in formation.
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Fixation Skills: The ability to hold the eyes steady without distraction is used through the gates
in racing, keeping the eyes downhill or on a gate fifty feet away. In mogul skiing, this is also
important as one finds a target or mogul to maneuver around. This, combined with saccadic eye
movements from mogul to mogul, is necessary for the execution of smooth, continuous motion
of the skier through many moguls, stringing them together in a basket-weaving type of
movement. The combination of efficient eye movements, smoothly integrated, permits the
direction of fluid motor control of the feet, arms and body.
Eye/Hand/Foot/Body Coordination and Speed of Reaction: Speed-of-reaction skills are used
to make decisions about terrain hazards in an effort to avoid them. Speed of reaction permits the
redirection of the body and skis almost simultaneously.
Speed of Focusing: Shift of focusing from far to near, from optical infinity to ten feet, must be
efficient. Static focusing, or just looking in front of you, does not allow for efficient or pretty
skiing. As one becomes aware of the terrain in front and at gates, other skiers and trees, slow
shifting of focus delays processing for quick decision making. The demand for this skill
increases with higher speed and more difficult terrain.
Speed of Fusion: Just as important as the speed of focusing is the speed and flexibility of ocular
realignment. The two work hand in hand, either to complement or hinder each other, affecting
the skier's overall downhill performance.
Spatial Localization: Knowing where one is in reference to others and other objects on a
terrain that changes as fast as one moves is just as important as knowing where objects are in
reference to one while skiing. In more general terms, knowing where one is on the mountain is
important in case one takes a trail at the end of the day that puts one on the other side where lift
service may have already ceased, forcing a hike back to the lodge. For high-altitude skiing, this
is particularly important because sometimes there are few cues to refer to as one skis between
groups of trees. When finished, one may wind up in the back country, or at the bottom of a
ravine that leads in all directions, or the wrong side of a mountain. Getting lost and surviving on
a mountain through the night is not generally considered fun or part of Alpine or Downhill
skiing.
Central-Peripheral Awareness: Critical in all aspects and disciplines of Alpine skiing. A
major component for balance, posture and attention. An important skill in looking where one is
going, what is in front, and being aware of what is around and behind him/her.
Visualization: This skill is often used to "pick a path" to ski. Whether it be through the gates
during a ski race, sighting exactly when and where to turn, or used in the motor planning through
a field full of moguls. Visualization is often most helpful to the skier who encounters a
dangerous or especially challenging spot. Failure to visualize during skiing leads to stiffening of
the body, panic, and ultimately a fall. At high altitudes, the inability to suddenly visualize can
and often does lead to a panic attack. New skiers panic at terrain in front of them when they
visualize themselves falling and getting hurt. Racers are often so good at visualization, they
often think it's a natural part of their abilities.
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Visual Memory: Skiing similar terrain, the same slope or trail, or remembering a ski lesson or
video of oneself, is helpful in trying to recreate the mind-set necessary to execute the mechanics
recently learned. A significant factor for avoiding getting lost.
Glare Sensitivity: Reflected light off the snow, above sea level, and the corresponding
exposure to U.V. light, require superior eyewear without optical distortion that protect the eyes
against such things. Bright sun in the face can temporarily stun the skier moving at high speeds
and can cause accidents.
Contrast Sensitivity: Research shows wearing the right correction filter, given a particular
lighting condition, can enhance the ability to see and distinguish racing gates. This is a factor in
discerning between troughs and valleys of the terrain, especially in flat lighting conditions.
Different sunglasses affect contrast sensitivity in varying ways. Overall, however, it is not a
critical skill necessary for the enjoyment of skiing, but is a factor to be considered at the highest
echelon of competitive performance.
Color Perception: While not a major factor in skiing, distinguishing between red and blue gates
can be difficult in certain lighting conditions. Research shows that, while color awareness is
important, a better criteria to enhance is contrast sensitivity. Color perception is perhaps
important when skiing with friends with outer-gear colors that make them readily identifiable
downhill. Caution should be noted in that many sunglasses or varying tints and filtration
characteristics distort color perception.
Ability to Withstand Eye Fatigue: In downhill racing, as well as in mogul skiing, the ability to
withstand eye fatigue is important so as not to have a degradation in performance as a result of
poor visual direction of motor coordination. Any eye fatigue will affect skiing ability, but is not
a critical skill for skiing.
Eye Dominance: Not a factor in skiing.
VISION SCREENING/TESTING PROCEDURES FOR SKIERS:
Static visual acuity
1.
Snellen Acuity Chart
2.
Vectographic Chart
Dynamic visual acuity
1.
Keystone Rotator with Sherman Card
2.
Motorized J.W. Engineering Rotator
3.
Kirschner Rotator
Peripheral vision
1.
Automated Visual Fields
2.
Tangent Screen
3.
Gross Visual Fields
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Peripheral awareness
1.
Wayne Peripheral Awareness Tester
2.
Automated Visual Fields
3.
AcuVision 1000
4.
Wayne S. Fixator
Depth perception
1.
Titmus Fly
2.
Projected Stereograms
3.
Projected Vectograms
4.
AO Vectographic Slide
5.
Keystone Visual Skills
Binocular fusion - eye-teaming ability
1.
Worth 4 Dot
2.
Cover Test
3.
Von-Graefe Lateral and Vertical Phorias
4.
Phorometry
5.
Bernell Polachrome Orthopter
Eye motility
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Entrance eye movements (pursuits and saccades)
King Devick (distance and near)
Wayne Saccadic Fixator
AcuVision 1000
Rotating Pegboard
Fixation skills
1.
Entrance evaluation with target
2.
Done with balance on one foot
Eye/hand/foot/body coordination and speed of reaction
1.
Wayne Saccadic Fixator with balance board
2.
Wayne P.A.T. (Peripheral Awareness Tester)
3.
AcuVision 1000
4.
Balance Beam
5.
Quick Feet - Sports Robots
6.
Reaction Coach - START Technology
7.
Reaction Plus
Speed of focusing
1.
Accommodative Facility testing with +/-2.00 flippers
2.
Wayne Saccadic Fixator with accommodative rock board
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Speed of fusion
1.
Fusional facility testing with 12BO/8BI or 6BO/6BI flippers
2.
Timed Vectographic jumps with Poloachrome Orthopter
Spatial localization
1.
Phorias
2.
Brock String
3.
Maddox Rod
4.
Yoked Prisms
Central-peripheral awareness
1.
Wayne P.A.T.
2.
AcuVision 1000
3.
Wayne Saccadic Fixator with accommodative rock board
Visualization
1.
Parquetry forms
2.
Parquetry rotations of figures/timed
3.
Anticipatory devices: Bassin anticipatory timer
Visual memory
1.
Tachistoscope
2.
Visual attention span for letters
3.
Parts of the Motor Free Visual Perceptual Test (MVPT)
Glare sensitivity
1.
Night Sight Meter
Contrast sensitivity
1.
Vistech Tester
2.
Vector Vision
3.
Stereo Optical Contrast Sensitivity Targets
Color perception
1.
Farnsworth D-15
2.
Ishihara Plates
Ability to withstand eye fatigue
1.
Analyze performance consistency
2.
Analyze performance under stress
VISION TRAINING TECHNIQUES INDICATED FOR SNOW SKIERS
Because a skier is constantly maintaining balance, and shifting and redistributing his or her own
weight, it is important that all training techniques once developed in the traditional manner be
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enhanced to include conditions that best simulate snow skiing. Therefore, it is incumbent upon
the practitioner to get the patient to maintain balance or impart disorder for adaptation to regain
balance during these vision activities. The easiest way to accomplish this is to have the patient
stand on one foot, balance, then shift weight and balance to the other foot, with as many
activities as possible. Additionally, use of Billy Boards, balance boards, and balance beams can
be of great benefit in developing the vision skills under similar postural demands of skiing.
1.
Visual acuity
a.
To optimize performance, correct the refractive error. Spectacles, corrective ski
goggles, and contact lenses will be better than no corrective lenses at all. All have
practical application and some limitations. Spectacles can get jarred in the spatial
world. Ski goggles over spectacles can at times be a difficult fit and can limit
peripheral awareness; ski goggles with corrective inserts are better.
b.
Remember, compensation for the spectacle plane needs to be considered in powers
greater than 3.00D.
c.
If the goggle is 20 mm farther from the eye than the spectacles, it will have the
affect of adding plus power; therefore, the goggle Rx may require more minus. For
example, the patient with a -5.00DS spectacle correction will require approximately
an additional half diopter in minus for equivalency.
d.
Goggles such as these are limited by removal once indoors, or when the need for
sunglasses becomes paramount.
e.
Contact lenses offer the most flexibility and highest degree of performance; but
they are susceptible to dehydration and dislocation. Both of these factors can be
easily compensated for with larger-diameter, low- to mid-water contact lenses and
the use of goggles or sunglasses over them.
2.
Dynamic visual acuity
a.
Since most training for dynamic visual acuity has the target of letters, numbers,
words, and shapes moving while the athlete is stationary, it is a good idea to have
the athlete on a trampoline while trying to resolve letters, numbers, words, and
shapes of varying sizes.
b.
Toss bean bag while hopping from side to side, with letters, numbers, words, and
shapes being called out as they are resolved.
c.
Sherman Rotator: Increase speed with proficiency.
d.
Marsden Ball: Swing the ball to and fro and call the letters out as you see them.
Do from side to side in swing-like motion to pick up peripheral information quickly
and call letters, numbers, words, and shapes out loud. Then try standing on one
foot and balancing while doing dynamic visual acuity training.
3.
Peripheral vision and peripheral awareness
a. The Wayne Peripheral Awareness Tester, AcuVision 1000, and the Wayne Saccadic
Fixator for awareness training are excellent instruments, and loading of the demand
level that best resembles a skier on the ski slope is to have the skier stand and
balance on one foot or adapt to yoked prisms in the training room. Use of the Form
Field card in and out of the office is helpful in learning how to be aware of
periphery while maintaining central fixation.
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4.
Depth perception and binocular fusion: Eye-teaming abilities.
a.
Refinement of binocular vergence ranges and working to refine JNDs (just
noticeable differences) on Vectograms work nicely to improve this skill. Base out
and base in ranges should have adequate reserves and expanded if possible at
multiple and varying distances. Use of Titmus Fly, Projected Vectograms,
Polachrome Orthopter, and Anaglyphs work well to accomplish this objective.
5.
Eye motility
a.
Emphasis should be on saccadic eye movements on a wide field, such as a wall
with varying distances. Near saccadic training serves little usefulness to the skier.
Having the patient in motion by jogging in place or standing on a balance board
loads the demand level and simulates the condition of the athlete while skiing. The
AcuVision 1000 or the Wayne Saccadic Fixator with balance boards are excellent
training equipment.
b.
Electronic Visual Stick-Ups are excellent for developing speed of reaction and
saccadic proficiency, done on a balance board increases the demand significantly.
6.
Fixation skills
a.
Patient is asked to fixate on a stationary target while performing cognitive
demands, in an effort to distract the patient from continued fixation without fatigue
or distraction. This is a difficult task when the target is a simple wall letter and the
person is asked to count backward from 100 by 3s.
b.
Add balance demand to above task.
7.
Eye/hand/foot/body coordination and speed of reaction
a.
Wayne Saccadic Fixator with balance board
b.
Wayne P.A.T.
c.
AcuVision 1000
d.
Balance Beam
e.
Quick Feet - Sports Robots
f.
Reaction Coach - START Technology
g.
Reaction Plus
8.
Speed of focusing
a.
Accommodative Facility training with plus and minus lens flippers
b.
Loose lens training
c.
Hart Chart - Near Far accommodative rock
d.
Wayne Saccadic Fixator with accommodative rock board
9.
Speed of fusion
a.
Fusional facility training with base out/base in flippers 12BO/8BI or 6 BO/6BI
b.
Vectographic Jumps with Poloachrome Orthopter
c.
Anaglyphic jumps
d.
Chiastopic and orthoptic fusion jumps with lifesavers, eccentric circles, etc.
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10.
Spatial localization
a.
Brock String
b.
Tasks with Yoked Prisms
c.
Activities with base out demand lenses GTVT press on prisms
d.
Activities with base in demand lenses GTVT press on prisms
e.
Above with balance as loading demand
f.
Spearing of Cheerios, raisins
g.
Have someone hold a straw at arm's length. Hold a toothpick out in space
somewhere to the right of the straw, then concentrate on the straw, paying only
slight attention to the toothpick. Slide the toothpick into the straw.
11.
Central-peripheral awareness training
a.
Wayne P.A.T.
b.
AcuVision 1000
c.
Wayne Saccadic Fixator
d.
Form Field Card
12.
Visualization
a.
Parquetry forms
b.
Parquetry rotations
c.
Parquetry design from verbal communications, forcing interpretation and picturing
of what one sees from what one hears
d.
Anticipatory devices: Bassin anticipatory timer
e.
"I'm going on a trip, and bringing (make something up, e.g., a book)" activities.
Then the next person repeats this and adds an item. The objective is to picture in
your mind the detail of each item described and repeating this process with each
new added detailed item.
f.
Flashlight visual tracking. Practice following a line of light created on a blank wall
and accurately try to picture the speed and direction of the light.
g.
Strobe light activities with Marsden Ball, catch, bean bag toss.
13.
Visual memory:
a.
Tachistoscope
b.
Concentration with a deck of playing cards. When a set of cards is turned over,
close eyes and picture what was seen. Open eyes for feedback, then turn cards over
to original position and close eyes for accurate reproduction. Repeat matching pairs
for remembering relative location and details of actual card, including number, type
of suit, color, and position.
14.
Glare sensitivity:
a.
No specific training exists, but polarized lenses and antireflective filters on glasses
will aid the skier.
15.
Ability to withstand eye fatigue:
a.
Integrated activities of saccades, accommodation and fusion. For example,
accommodative facility training with 6 base in demand.
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b.
c.
d.
e.
Fusional jumps with accommodative demand set at zero or some other variable.
Saccadic training while alternately shifting accommodation on a Hart Chart.
Very large saccadic movements for two minutes or longer for endurance training.
Very large four-corner eye movements for two minutes or longer for endurance
training.
SPORTS VISION PROBLEMS/SOLUTIONS RELATED TO SKIING
PROBLEM
POSSIBLE SOLUTION
Poor eyesight - blurred vision, can't see detail
far away
Contact lenses are the superior solution to this
problem. Large low water contact lenses and
disposable lenses are best choices.
Wind - contact lenses tend to dry out and be
uncomfortable
Goggles and/or glasses
Dry eye and contact lens dehydration
Periodically rewet lenses during rest periods,
keep body hydrated with fluids regularly, and,
if necessary, use Artificial Tears when not
wearing contact lenses. Avoid consumption of
alcohol and coffee.
Sunlight and glare - during daylight hours,
both can be a problem, especially glare in
contact lens wearers
Use goggles or sunglasses that block out U.V.
light and have infrared coatings and
antireflective coatings.
Flat lighting
High quality lenses that enhance contrast and
contour without disrupting color vision or
perception. Adaptation to colored filters takes
approximately 30 minutes, according to the
latest research. Warn athletes to wear their
sunglasses or goggles at least 30 minutes prior
to competing or skiing. Proper diet, consisting
of at least 10,000 units of vitamin A and 2.5
mg of riboflavin.
Blunt trauma - especially due to one's own ski
pole. Often during the pole-planting process, a
skier can get jarred in the face and orbital area.
Check for orbital fracture, comotio retina,
retinal detachment, holes and tears, and
posterior vitreous detachments. Remember,
patients with these already existing conditions
of the minor form may have now suffered
greater damage without awareness.
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Lid lacerations
Clean and treat immediately. Consider referral
for stitches.
Foreign bodies
Both conjunctival and corneal foreign bodies
occur after falls and debris in the snow can get
in the eye. Lavage copiously and inspect under
high magnification. Remove foreign bodies
and treat with antibiosis therapy.
Fogging of glasses/goggles
Today, most quality ski goggles have a doublelayer lens with vented roofs to prevent fogging.
Many products are available and sold as
antifogging agents.
Corneal laceration - can occur if skiing through Today, some sunglasses designed for skiing are
trees and not wearing protective eyewear.
made of glass lenses. This is a major NO-NO.
Some manufacturers of sunglasses still market
glass ski lenses. A broken glass lens will
certainly lacerate the cornea.
Keratitis - sunburn of the cornea.
Overexposure of ultraviolet (UV) light to an
unprotected cornea.
Appropriate optometric medical treatment and
management. Anti-inflammatory treatment,
along with comfort measures against
photophobia, is necessary. Pain killers may
need to be considered.
PROTECTIVE/CORRECTIVE EYEWEAR FOR SKIING
1.
2.
3.
Goggles and polycarbonate sunglasses.
U.V., infrared, and antireflective filters and coatings are a must to protect the eyes.
Unfortunately, to date there are no goggles made of polycarbonate lenses and few are
available with lenses that protect the skier the way high-quality sunglasses can.
Additionally, not many goggles have interchangeable lenses for varying lighting
conditions. This trend, however, is changing. One manufacturer is now marketing their
goggle system, which has five changeable lenses for all weather and lighting conditions.
It is a superior quality goggle with vented dual-lenses that are anti-fog, anti-freeze,
scratch-resistant lenses.
Best combination of vision correction with protective eyewear is either contact lenses and
goggles or contact lenses and high-quality sunglasses.
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MOST COMMON OCULAR INJURIES SUSTAINED IN SKIING
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Dry eyes
Watery eyes
Epithelium injury due to cold
Keratitis - due to U.V. sunburn
Foreign body - dirt, pebbles
Blunt trauma
(see possible problems)
APPROPRIATE EMERGENCY FIRST-AID FOR OCULAR INJURIES SUSTAINED IN
SKIING
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Always consider lavage therapy with sterile saline solution or other ophthalmic rinsing
agent such as Blinx or Dacriose irrigating solution.
Use butterfly bandage for laceration of the lids and adnexa.
Pupil inspection: After a fall, pupil inspection may be helpful in evaluating post
concussive problems, or trauma to the pupil and eye.
Lid eversion and inspection for the removal of any contact lens and/or its parts.
Above all, a skier should always have a thorough evaluation by an optometrist to look for
not-so-common secondary problems due to a blow to the eye. The cornea and retina
must be examined in ocular traumas.
OCULAR SUPPLIES FOR THE SKIING TRAINER'S FIRST-AID KIT
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
Sterile Blinx Eyewash
Artificial Tears
Contact lens rewetting solution
Contact lens case and storage solution
Extra contact lenses
Instructions for contact lens removal
Cotton swabs
Polysporin ointment sterile ophthalmic preparation
Penlight
Oval Eye Pads
Butterfly bandages
Eye doctor's phone and paging numbers
REFERENCES
1.
Abraham, Horst, 1983 Skiing Right, Johnson Books, Boulder, Colorado.
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2.
Berry, William I., 1973 The Great North American Ski Book, Charles Scribner's Sons,
NY, NY.
3.
Freeman, MacKenzie H., 1979 Ocular Trauma, Appleton-Century Crafts, NY, NY.
4.
Gregg, J.R., 1971 The Sportsman's Eye, Collier MacMillan Publishers, London.
5.
Griffin, John R., 1988 Binocular Anomalies - Procedures for Vision Therapy,
Professional Press Books.
6.
Heller, Mark, 1978 The World Ski Atlas, Qarto Publishing Limited London W1, A & W
Publishers, New York, NY.
7.
Vinger, Paul F., 1981 International Ophthalmology Clinics, Ocular Sports Injuries,
Boston, Little, Brown and Company.
8.
Vinger, Paul F. and Hoerner, Earl F., 1981, Sports Injuries: The Unthwarted Epidemic,
PSG Publishing Company, Inc.
9.
LaMarche, Robert J., "Train the Eyes to Ski Better," Snow Country Magazine, pg. 64-68,
Oct. 1993.
10.
Nottingham, Suzanne, "Visionary Tactics" Skiing Magazine, pg. 21-23, Jan. 1995.
11.
Haleo, O.D., Steven L., "Vision and High Altitude Skiing," 1990, excerpts from an
unpublished lecture.
12.
Peroff, O.D., John, Lecture on Research out of Waterloo on Contrast Sensitivity, Sports
Vision Section Symposium, 1993.
13.
Interviews with Members of U.S. Ski Team, U.S. Demo Ski Team, U.S. Professional Ski
Instructors, Powder Magazine's Powder Performance Ski Clinics 1990-1993, especially
Dave Brown and Dave Mariom. Olympic Medalists, Tamara McKinney, Billy Johnson,
Hans Steneth. Special thanks to Martin Hellman, O.D., for his historical perspective and
love for the sport of skiing.
©1998 American Optometric Association
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