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Close but not Deep: Literary Ethics and
the Descriptive Turn
Heather Love
T
here is perhaps no term that carries more value in the humanities than “rich.” In literary studies especially, richness is an
undisputed—if largely uninterrogated—good; it signifies qualities
associated with the complexity and polyvalence of texts and with the
warmth and depth of experience. There is, to be sure, no necessary
connection between the intricacy of texts and the intricacy of human
feeling and cognition. Nor is there a necessary connection between
the capacity to interpret such texts and the ability to respond justly
and empathetically to the ethical dilemmas represented in them. Even
so, this is a busy intersection. The link between the richness of human
experience and processes of textual interpretation can be understood,
on the one hand, through the origin of philosophical hermeneutics in
practices of divination and, on the other, through the significance of
the communicative situation in defining hermeneutics. The text, in its
singularity, is both an access to otherness and a message or call to attention. A belief in the aesthetic and ethical force of literature is evident
in the work of midcentury critics like Cleanth Brooks (“The poet . . .
must return to us the unity of experience itself as man knows it in his
own experience”) and Lionel Trilling (“literature is the human activity
that takes the fullest and most precise account of variousness, possibility,
complexity, and difficulty”).1 It also appears in the work of Marxist critic
Raymond Williams, for whom literature signals the inexhaustibility of
human potential.2 It appears as well in recent arguments against theory
and on behalf of New Formalism (“literature could pose the largest issues of social and personal destiny in a vividly human context”) and in
the recent turn to ethics, which, as Dorothy J. Hale writes, “has been
accompanied by a new celebration of literature.”3 If the encounter
with a divine and inscrutable message was progressively secularized in
the twentieth century, the opacity and ineffability of the text and the
ethical demand to attend to it remain central to practices of literary
interpretation today.
New Literary History, 2010, 41: 371–391
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Given the subsumption of many aspects of religion into the concept of culture after the Enlightenment, it is not surprising that these
sacred aspects of hermeneutics should survive into the era of secular
modernity. What is more surprising is that its humanist aspects have
such a continued presence in supposedly anti- or posthumanist literary
studies. The rise of interpretive practices borrowed from Marxism and
psychoanalysis, structuralism and poststructuralism, and semiotics and
deconstruction has displaced the individual and consciousness from the
center of inquiry, shifting attention to structures of language, desire,
or economic capital. At the same time, political forms of criticism such
as feminism, postcolonial studies, African-American studies, diaspora
studies, and queer studies have critiqued humanism by pointing to
its founding exclusions. Common to the rise of these theoretical and
political fields is a disavowal of earlier critical movements—particularly
the New Criticism—that are understood to embody the shortcomings
of humanist philosophy. In critiques of the canon, the text, organicism,
the nation, culture, and tradition—as well as the very concept of the
human—the anchors of humanistic criticism have come under sustained
and powerful attack in the past several decades. Still, despite widespread
rumors of the death of humanism, key humanist values remain alive and
well in literary studies.
What to make of this persistence of humanist values in the context
of a disciplinary milieu that often sees them as outmoded? It might
be explained as a typical contradiction between intellectual conviction
and lived practice—there are no doubt de facto humanists among
posthumanists, just as there are Marxist heroes of consumption.4 More
persuasive accounts of the persistence of humanism in contemporary
literary studies can be found in histories of the discipline. While critics like Gerald Graff and John Guillory focus on the stabilizing role of
universities, departments, and syllabi, Ian Hunter turns his attention
to the role of teaching.5 In his essay “The History of Theory,” Hunter
traces the persistence of humanist ethics in literary studies, suggesting
that both “the New Criticism and the literary theory that displaced it . . .
have an intensively ascetic-pedagogical dimension.”6 Hunter focuses on
pedagogical practice and on the role of the seminar and the “teacherstudent couple,” with its “relations of identification and correction,” as
forms of governance.7 He argues that literary criticism remains within
the horizon of the “pedagogical imperative”; processes of observation,
correction, and exemplification that belong to the history of pastoral
instruction have made the reading of literature the privileged site of
moral education and self-making. With the decline of an explicit pedagogy of moral education, Hunter argues, ethical value migrated inside
the text and into the activity of the critic.
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Hunter’s attention to pedagogy makes clear the importance of the
figure of the privileged messenger or interpreter in maintaining a humanist hermeneutics in literary studies.8 I want to focus on the significance
of hermeneutic activity—the practice of close reading—in this genealogy. Close reading is at the heart of literary studies, a key credential
in hiring and promotion, and the foundation of literary pedagogy;
it is primarily through this practice that humanist values survive in
the field. As James F. English points out, there is a remarkable methodological continuity in literary studies across the twentieth century;
during periods of rapid intellectual and social change, he argues, the
“eminently teachable” method of close reading has served to stabilize
and justify the discipline.9 Tracing the decline of the New Criticism in
English departments, Catherine Gallagher remarks that “Freudian and
Jungian psychoanalysis, existentialism, archetypal analysis, Marxism, and
structuralism all mixed well with what came to be thought of simply as
techniques of ‘close reading’ or ‘practical criticism,’ and the concentration on the opacity of literary language in turn gave something back
to each of those theoretical orientations.”10 Hortense J. Spillers agrees
that New Criticism “mixed well” with structuralism and suggests further
that the success of its critical methods in distancing the literary object
of study from its social context meant that, during the transformations
of the 1960s, a critical sensibility “trained on the academy’s ‘close reading’ and the conventions of irony/ambiguity” transferred its attention
“to the world of text and discursivity.”11 Despite intellectual and social
changes, the richness of texts continues to serve as a carrier for an allegedly superannuated humanism.
This methodological continuity has recently been challenged by new
methods—which we might group under the rubric “new sociologies of
literature”—that distance themselves from texts and from practices of
close reading altogether. One strain of this work has been identified by
Leah Price as a shift in emphasis from texts to books and other media:
in work on analytical bibliography, histories of reading, book production, distribution, and consumption, copyright and intellectual property,
and new and old media (Price, Roger Chartier, Robert Darnton, Peter
Stallybrass, Meredith McGill, Alan Liu, and Matt Kirschenbaum).12
Other work has taken up questions of value and cultural capital in
canon formation, the university, and the world literary system (Pierre
Bourdieu, Janice Radway, Barbara Herrnstein Smith, Pascale Casanova,
Mark McGurl, English, and Guillory). We might also look to an array
of new techniques in the digital humanities (for instance, data mining
and visualization).
This broadly sociological rejection of traditional literary methods finds
its most polemical form in the work of Franco Moretti. In his recent
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studies of world literature, Moretti has experimented with scientific
and social-scientific methods, including mapping, systems theory, the
statistical analysis of genres, evolutionary modeling to account for literary competition, and cognitive methods. The most pointed and salient
of his interventions has been his forwarding of the method of distant
reading.13 As an explicit refusal of the key method in literary studies,
Moretti’s embrace of reading from a distance should be understood as
both a departure from traditional hermeneutics and a shift in the habitus of literary critical practice. Drawing on the tactics of the Annales
School as well as of quantitative sociology, and borrowing on a model of
collaboration current in the sciences, Moretti argues for the importance
of scholarship at “second hand.” Distant reading refuses the richness of
the singular literary text in favor of the production of knowledge on an
enlarged scale. By sacrificing richness—and turning it into data—he is
able to handle greater quantities of material, and to observe literature
as a vast geographical and historical system. Moretti is clear about what
is to be gained through a refusal of the messy intimacies of traditional
forms of humanistic inquiry: scientific authority, generality, knowledge,
legitimacy. He is also clear that it will entail losses: richness, singularity,
exceptionality, the text. In refusing the “theological exercise” of close,
sustained textual analysis, Moretti also turns away from the intimacy of
ethical pedagogy, mediated, as Hunter suggests, through a sustained
encounter with an exemplary literary text.
What is occurring, then, in much of the recent work at the intersection of sociology and literature is a turn away from the singularity and
richness of individual texts and a concomitant refusal of the ethical
charisma of the literary translator or messenger. Disengaging from the
operations of close reading promises a more fundamental rethinking
of the grounds of the discipline than earlier challenges to the human
subject, the canon, or the referential capacities of language. Because
they address the key techniques of the discipline rather than its explicit
ideology, these new methods are more effective than structuralist and
poststructuralist theories in challenging the residual but nonetheless
powerful humanism of literary studies. This break with the hegemony
of close reading presents an opportunity for an interrogation of the
relation between literary studies and other disciplines. If, as English
argues, literary studies over the past several decades has remained “‘all
too literary’ if viewed from the normative vantage of history, or sociology,
or economics, or geography, or philosophy,” possibilities for renewed
interdisciplinary exchange emerge once this fundamental disciplinary
protocol is suspended.14
As persuasive as I find this account, I want to suggest that the suspension of close reading is not the only way to get traction on these
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institutional and ethical questions. In this essay, I outline an approach
to literary texts that derives not from hermeneutics but from a different
tradition. The encounter between literary studies and sociology that
I stage here does not rely on a complete renunciation of the text (to
focus, for instance, on books as objects or commodities). Instead, I play
out the possibilities for a method of textual analysis that would take its
cue from observation-based social sciences including ethology, kinesics,
ethnomethodology, and microsociology. These fields have developed
practices of close attention, but, because they rely on description rather
than interpretation, they do not engage the metaphysical and humanist
concerns of hermeneutics. Through studying such models, I suggest we
can develop modes of reading that are close but not deep.
I consider practices of description in the work of two social scientists,
Bruno Latour and Erving Goffman. Both figures are difficult to categorize
in the central traditions of sociology, since they focus neither on individual agency nor on deep social structure. Both might be understood as
pragmatist sociologists, since they avoid discussion of underlying drives
or essences and attend instead to gestures, traces, and activities. Latour
and Goffman are interested in the potential of literature to account for
the complexities of social life, but they have little time for traditional
humanist categories of experience, consciousness, and motivation. In
the place of a depth hermeneutics, they offer descriptions of surfaces,
operations, and interactions. In doing so, they suggest an alternate
model of reading that does not depend on the ethical exemplarity of
the interpreter or messenger.15
I begin the essay by discussing Latour’s actor-network-theory and
his refusal of the distinction between human and nonhuman actors.
I then turn to Goffman, and discuss his central analytic category, the
“situation”; I suggest that an exhaustive but “thin” description characterizes his accounts of the social world. Finally, as a way of suggesting
the consequences of descriptive reading, I take up a literary case study:
Toni Morrison’s 1987 novel Beloved. Morrison’s novel is widely praised
as one of the richest of twentieth-century literary texts because of its
formal virtuosity as well as its ethical power; in its retelling of an act
of infanticide in the context of American slavery, it has been seen as a
model of historical empathy. I argue that a descriptive rather than an
interpretive account of Beloved draws attention to qualities of the text that
critics have tended to ignore, particularly its exteriorizing and objective
accounts of social life. Reading the novel at the surface brings into focus
its critique of historical reclamation. A flat reading of Beloved suggests
the possibility of an alternative ethics, one grounded in documentation
and description rather than empathy and witness.
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***
In his book on philosophy and the social sciences after the decline
of structuralism, Empire of Meaning, French intellectual historian François Dosse draws attention to what he calls, following Louis Quéré, the
“descriptive turn.”16 Dosse identifies several features of this recent work,
associated with the “pragmatist pole” in late twentieth-century sociology:
attention to action, to everyday experience and consciousness, and to
things, and a tendency to validate actors’ own statements about their behavior rather than to appeal to structural explanations. The key intellectual traditions that inform this work, according to Dosse, are pragmatism,
phenomenology, and ethnomethodology. In this descriptive sociology,
the “familiar, describable world . . . become[s] problematic, an object
of questioning, no longer a starting point but an end point of analysis.”
While neither Bruno Latour nor Erving Goffman perfectly exemplifies
Dosse’s characterization of the descriptive turn, the concept is useful in
drawing attention to their shared methods. Neither Latour nor Goffman
is particularly interested in phenomenological categories of experience,
perception, or intention; rather, their practices of description involve
them in antihumanism, a turn away from depth hermeneutics, and a
questioning of the ethical and political agency of the scholar-critic.
In his general account of actor-network-theory (ANT), Reassembling
the Social, Latour writes, “No scholar should find humiliating the task of
sticking to description.”17 His “object-oriented philosophy” was developed
in the context of Science and Technology Studies (STS), where, as he
has discussed, the focus on technology and on the laboratory made it difficult to maintain the distinction between a meaningful world of human
actions and intentions on the one hand, and an inert and insignificant
world of material objects on the other.18 The institutional context of
STS also pushed Latour to grant authority to his research subjects, for
in contrast to traditional ethnography, the “‘cultural capital’ of those
studied”—that is, scientists—“is infinitely higher than those doing the
study” (RS 98–99). He argues that the “studying ‘up’” model that has
taken hold in STS can be a model for a renewed social science that does
not aim to see beyond the self-descriptions of its subjects. However, this
respect for the people one studies is not framed in traditional humanist terms. Instead, Latour argues that social scientists can find a model
in the work of natural scientists who do not “muffle their informants’
precise vocabulary into their own all-purpose meta-language” but are
forced instead “to take into account at least some of the many quirks
of their recalcitrant objects” (RS 125). Extending the same treatment
to objects and people does not mean elevating objects to the status of
humans but rather putting humans “on par” with objects (RS 225).
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Latour’s key target in Reassembling the Social is what he calls “the sociology of the social,” by which he means those methods which seek
to add a “hidden social force” to explain the world (RS 11). He writes,
“Structure is very powerful and yet much too weak and remote to have
any efficacy” (RS 168). Latour argues that, because of the inadequacy
of conventional social or structural explanations, the social sciences
swing back and forth between large-scale explanations and small-scale
phenomenological accounts of events, scenes, and interactions. For
Latour, however, the small worlds of microsociology, despite their air of
concreteness and immediacy, are just as abstract as the contexts that are
brought in to explain them. He writes, “But an ‘interpretive’ sociology
is just as much a sociology of the social than [sic] any of the ‘objectivist’
or ‘positivist’ versions it wishes to replace. It believes that certain types of
agencies—persons, intention, feeling, work, face-to-face interaction—will
automatically bring life, richness, and ‘humanity’” (RS 61).
In place of the sociology of the social or a pseudoconcrete phenomenological sociology, Latour argues that we need to develop a “sociology
of associations” that “traces a network” (RS 9,128). In going from metaphysics to ontology, this constructive sociology aims to show “what the
real world is really like” (RS 117). As much as this project might seem
to return to a naïve empiricism, Latour insists that empiricism is inadequate as a means for accounting for the world. He writes, “Empiricism
no longer appears as the solid bedrock on which to build everything
else, but as a very poor rendering of experience. This poverty, however,
is not overcome by moving away from material experience, for instance
to the ‘rich human subjectivity,’ but closer to the much variegated lives
materials have to offer. It’s not true that one should fight reductionism
by adding some human, symbolic, subjective, or social ‘aspect’ to the
description since reductionism, to begin with, does not render justice
to objective facts” (RS 111–12). Good descriptions are in a sense rich,
but not because they truck with imponderables like human experience
or human nature. They are close, but they are not deep; rather than
adding anything “extra” to the description, they account for the real
variety that is already there.
Latour’s proposed solution to the actor/system (or macro/micro) debate is to refuse the distinction. This alternation should be set aside, he
argues, so that the work of assembling the social can take place. Latour
figures this work of assembly as textual: his two key models are literature
and cartography. He identifies the difference between a standard sociological report and a good description as a “literary contrast” (RS 130)
and argues that social scientists “should be inspired in being at least as
disciplined, as enslaved by reality, as obsessed by textual quality, as good
writers can be”(RS 126). Literature offers accounts of the world that are
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faithful, detailed, and complex, and that trace networks. Maps provide
another model for the activity of the sociologist, who should try to “keep
the social flat” (RS 165): “Although social scientists are proud of having
added volume to flat interactions, it turns out that they have gone too
fast. By taking for granted this third dimension . . . they have withdrawn
inquiry from the main phenomenon of social science: the very production of place, size, and scale. Against such a three-dimensional shape,
we have to try to keep the social domain completely flat” (RS 171).
Latour’s embrace of flatness is an argument for the conceptual significance of networks; it is also an argument against phenomenology. For
Latour, face-to-face interactions as represented in microsociology are
no more concrete or real than hidden social forces. He writes, “Hermeneutics is not a privilege of humans but . . . a property of the world
itself” (RS 245). Although Latour’s critique in Reassembling the Social is
directed most explicitly at the ethnomethodology of Harold Garfinkel,
the repeated invocation of “face-to-face interactions” recalls Goffman,
who developed the concept of the “interaction order.” While Goffman
was invoked as a significant model for his concept of the actor-as-network
in an earlier articulation of ANT, he is here critiqued along with other
practitioners of microsociology for a belief in the authenticity and presence of small-scale social encounters.19 Goffman should not be assimilated to a phenomenological tradition of sociology, however. Although
he focuses on the small worlds of face-to-face interactions, these worlds
are flat: complex and variegated, but not rich, warm, or deep.
Like Latour, Goffman took great interest in literature as a mode of
accounting for social life, and cited literary texts (novels, autobiographies, memoirs, literary case studies) extensively in his work. Despite
his engagement with literary materials—and the textured, ironic quality
of his prose—Goffman does not see literature as a storehouse of human potential, experience, or feeling. His accounts of the rituals and
gestures of everyday interaction are full of details, but not rich or warm.
Noting Goffman’s lack of attention to both structure and individual
psychology, Anthony Giddens describes his work as “flat” and “empty.”20
Goffman’s minimal account of his actors recalls Latour’s injunction to
treat people like things; in his account of social interaction, Goffman
drew on fields such as animal ethology, kinesics, and game theory that
are less interested in motivation than in gestures, behavior, and pattern.
Goffman drew extensively on the procedures of ethnomethodology, but
distanced himself from the phenomenological aspects of the field, and
from its emphasis on meaning. Goffman has also been associated with
the tradition of symbolic interactionism founded by Herbert Blumer, but
his lack of interest in questions of interpretation and symbolic mean-
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ing also place him outside of this tradition. Goffman’s accounts of the
interaction order are difficult to fit into these categories because they
are relentlessly thin and cold.
In his essay “Blurred Genres,” Clifford Geertz takes Goffman’s work
as representative of the importance of the “game analogy” in the social
sciences.21 Geertz describes how, for Goffman, social interactions are
made up of stratagems, lies, ploys, and impostures to take advantage
of the rules that condition a given setting. This probabilistic view of
human relations does not produce a rich or rounded view of the social
world; instead, Geertz writes, we get “tight, airless worlds of move and
countermove, life en règle” (26). In his strict adherence to a game model
of social interaction, Goffman avoids the usual “humanistic pieties,” offering instead a descriptive account of the games people play and the
moves they make.
A good example of Goffman’s abstract, thin form of description can
be found in his essay “The Insanity of Place,” in which he argues that
mental illness does not inhere in persons but in places, situations, and
institutions. His larger point is that the “deepest nature of an individual
is only skin-deep, the deepness of his others’ skin.”22 In a footnote, Goffman illustrates this principle by describing the distribution of social
attention on the street as it affects two figures, a “black wino” and a
“blond model”:
For an analytical illustration, consider an extreme comparison: a black wino
and a blond model . . . Consider the eye practices each must face from . . .
walkers-by.
The wino: A walker-by will take care to look at him fleetingly if at all, wary
lest the wino find an angle from which to establish eye-to-eye contact and then
disturb the passage with prolonged salutations, besmearing felicitations, and
other importunements and threats. Should the wino persist in not keeping his
place, the discourtesy of outright head-aversion may be necessary.
The model: A walker-by will fix her with an open gaze for as many moments
as the passage will allow without his having to turn his head sharply. During this
structured moment of staring he may well be alert in fantasy for any sign she
makes interpretable as encouraging his attentions. Note that this helter-skelter
gallantry remains very well in check, no danger to the free flow of human traffic,
for long ago the model will have learned her part in this ceremony, which is to
conduct her eyes downward and unseeing, in silent sufferance of exposure.23
In this passage, Goffman provides a snapshot of quotidian behavior in
order to illustrate his claim about the way that different kinds of persons
suffer the attention and inattention of others on the street. The example
implicitly supports his claim that identity should be understood as an
effect rather than a cause in such interactions. Because Goffman is fluent
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in the language of midcentury deviance studies—invoking off-handedly
the cliché figures of the “blond model” and the “black wino”—it would
be easy to mistake his casting of these actors as an ontology. But the
“extreme contrast” that Goffman invokes in the opening of the passage
is not the contrast between two different kinds of people; he does not
allude to the “facts” of race, gender, and class, but rather to extreme
differences in habitual behavior.
It is of course impossible to account for behavior without any projection of a “rear world” of intentions, structures, or values.24 There is
no such thing as a “pure” description, since every description entails
an interpretation of some kind.25 Goffman projects an assumed background of cultural values, and even hints at an interior world colored
by desire—though by using “fantasy” in the sense of “delusion” in this
context he undermines the psychological connotation of the term. His
use of the word “ceremony” is caught in the same undertow, since the
ritual significance of the term is hollowed out by what Geertz identifies as Goffman’s “play-it-as-it-lays ethic.”26 Each term that might carry
a greater “human” significance—an account of interiority, sensation,
affect, or motivation—is systematically excluded or ironized. What is left
is an account of mere behavior, Geertz’s “thick description” in reverse.
Geertz drew his notion of thick description from Gilbert Ryle’s discussion
of “eye behavior”; he distinguished between a “thin” description that
details all the physical components of a wink and a “thick” description
that offers a richer account of significance, cultural context, and layers
of individual intention. In his account of “eye behavior” on the street,
Goffman favors thin description. Even when he zooms in to address
individual agency or zooms out to account for social structure, his account is wholly constituted by minute descriptions of visible, physical
acts; no atmosphere of experience or feeling can emerge, and “cultural
context” is a dead letter.
The distance of Goffman’s descriptive method from rich, humanist
portraiture is pronounced in the closing comment of his essay “Role
Distance.” Discussing the distinction between socially enforced roles and
natural action, he writes,
There is a vulgar tendency in social thought to divide the conduct of the individual into a profane and sacred part . . . The profane part is attributed to
the obligatory world of social roles; it is formal, stiff, and dead; it is exacted
by society. The sacred part has to do with “personal” matters and “personal”
relationships—with what an individual is “really” like underneath it all when he
relaxes and breaks through to those in his presence. It is here, in this personal
capacity, that an individual can show “what kind of a guy he is.” And so it is, that
in showing that a given piece of conduct is part of the obligations and trappings
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of a role, one shifts it from the sacred category to the profane, from the fat and
living to the thin and dead. Sociologists qua sociologists are allowed to have
the profane part; sociologists qua persons, along with other persons, retain the
sacred for their friends, their wives, and themselves.
The concept of role distance helps to combat this touching tendency to keep
a part of the world safe from sociology.27
Goffman argues that human activity cannot be divided up into realms
of authentic action and stereotyped or conventional behavior.28 Instead,
everything is conventional performance—the “real guy” relaxing at home
just as much as the working stiff in the office. Goffman summarily rejects
the “sacred” qualities of personal life and individuality, but this passage
is more than a rejection of the “values” of humanism (and its religious
underpinnings). It is also a statement on method. Goffman refuses to
keep the world safe from sociology, which is to say that he refuses to
represent people and their activities in the sacralizing terms in which
they see them. While this might sound like an act of unveiling, Goffman suggests that unveiling itself is an ideology—like trading in your
jacket and tie for a sports shirt when you get home. For him, there is
no more authentic reality to get to; his method is not one of revelation
but, I would suggest, one of redescription. The world as he renders it
is not “fat and living” but “thin and dead.”
Both Latour and Goffman argue against the ideology of humanism;
in this sense, they are not all that different from many literary critics
working today. What distinguishes them, though, is that they engage in
analytical procedures—ANT and microsociology—that are corrosive of
humanist values. Their preference for a world in which the human is
not primary, and in which sacred human qualities of warmth, intention,
depth, and authenticity don’t hold water, marks their difference. In their
attempts to keep the social world flat, they read closely but not deeply.
This approach leaves no room for the ghosts of humanism haunting
contemporary practices of textual interpretation. It also leaves little room
for the ethical heroism of the critic, who gives up his role of interpreting
divine messages to take up a position as a humble analyst and observer.
In the following reading of Toni Morrison’s Beloved, I want to suggest that
this model makes visible the antihumanism of a text that has generally
been understood as an exemplary instance of humanist ethics.
***
Description has had a mostly poor reputation in literary studies, where
it has been seen as inferior to narration. In neoclassical aesthetics, de-
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scription as a feature of literary texts was often seen as either an extraneous ornament or a dangerous indulgence.29 In Marxist aesthetics, it was
seen as a capitulation to a reified world.30 As a feature of criticism itself,
description has been discredited through its associations with empiricism
and seen as necessarily subordinate to the key activity of interpretation.
However, recent questioning of depth hermeneutics across the field has
meant a partial recuperation of description. Over the past several years,
several critics have attempted to imagine alternatives to what, following
Paul Ricoeur, has come to be known as critical hermeneutics or the
hermeneutics of suspicion. Ricoeur famously identified Marx, Nietzsche,
and Freud as members of the “school of suspicion,” characterizing their
key technique as the destruction of sacred meanings through the revelation of “the whole of consciousness as ‘false’ consciousness.”31 In an
influential article, “Why Has Critique Run Out of Stream?” Latour claims
that, in an era of universal suspicion, the project of critical unveiling
has reached the end of its utility; he argues that instead of trying to see
through the facts we should try to “get closer to them.”32 In place of
critique, Latour claims that we need to work toward a renewed empiricism, one that involves the processes of description expounded on at
greater length in Reassembling the Social.
A return to empiricism is evident also in some recent work in literary
studies that makes description—but not close reading—central. Such an
emphasis is evident, for example, in the increased reliance on statistical
analysis and other forms of data mining in the “new sociologies of literature.” Moretti’s recent work on taxonomy and genre borrows from the
natural sciences, and reflects the empirical and descriptive bias of these
disciplines. Especially in fields like bibliography and material text studies, a disengagement from critical hermeneutics—and, more generally,
from the kind of speculative and abstract thought so common during
the heyday of literary theory—is pronounced. The focus on description
rather than conceptualization in book history has led one critic to refer
to recent developments in the field as the “New Boredom.”33
A search for alternatives to critical hermeneutics is also underway in
other, less empirically oriented branches of literary studies. This interrogation of critical hermeneutics has produced several promising new
methods—including, most notably, Eve Kosofsky Sedgwick’s “reparative
reading” and Sharon Marcus and Stephen Best’s notion of “surface reading.”34 While reparative reading (derived from the work of Melanie Klein)
is primarily an ethical category for Sedgwick, Best and Marcus’s surface
reading represents an important attempt to develop a mode of reading
that departs from a depth hermeneutics and is primarily descriptive
in its orientation. In their introduction to a special issue of Representa-
close but not deep
383
tions in which they survey recent departures from critical hermeneutics
(“The Way We Read Now”), Marcus and Best describe surface reading
as a method that attends to what is most obvious about texts, that takes
them “at face value.” They describe this form of reading as literal rather
than symptomatic; in reading “with the grain,” it considers what texts do
say, rather than what they don’t or can’t. This technique is significant
because, like the descriptive method of Latour and Goffman, it is a form
of close reading that does not presume depth. For this reason, surface
reading might offer critics a way to continue the work of textual analysis
beyond the horizon of the “pedagogical imperative.”
In an attempt to test this hypothesis, I now turn to Beloved. My sense
that Morrison’s novel is an especially consequential site for considering
the stakes of a turn to description is derived from a comment that Best
and Marcus make about the technique of literal, surface reading. They
argue that by refusing symptomatic, paranoid modes of reading, critics
might see “ghosts as presences, not absences”; shifting the optic from
depth to surface would mean letting “ghosts be ghosts, instead of saying
what they are ghosts of.”35 Given the profound investment that critics and
readers have in the figure of Beloved, a refusal of depth hermeneutics
represents a significant shift in not only method but ethics. Morrison’s
ghost literally incarnates Sethe’s murdered daughter; she has also been
understood as incarnating the losses of American slavery and the Middle
Passage, the “Sixty Million and More” of the novel’s dedication.36 In
reading the novel at the surface, in attending to its use of description
and its literalism, I suggest what might be gained—and also perhaps
lost—through a renunciation of depth hermeneutics.
Beloved has generally been understood as the richest of literary
productions, both because of the complexity, density, and lyricism of
its language and because of its moving account of the interiority of
the disenfranchised. The literary and ethical significance of Beloved is
amplified because, responding to the violent erasures of the archive
and to racialist science that denied full human subjectivity to blacks,
Morrison imagines the motivations, desires, sensations, and feelings of
individuals who were meant to have none. Beloved has been celebrated
for its embrace of other ways of knowing across a range of fields. Avery
Gordon’s Ghostly Matters: Haunting and the Sociological Imagination closes
with a tour-de-force reading of Beloved that sees the novel as opening a
path to an “other sociology.”37 Whether or not Beloved can light the way
to another kind of sociology, there is no doubt that what are understood
as the countersociological elements of the text have been crucial to its
appeal to a range of critics, including sociologists.38 These readings have
done justice to the richness and imaginative power of the novel. They
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new literary history
have been less effective in coming to terms with aspects of the text that
are empirical, descriptive, or “merely sociological.”
As is well known, Morrison was inspired to write Beloved after reading a newspaper article describing the infanticide of Margaret Garner.
Although the character Stamp Paid articulates a strong critique of the
newspaper (“there was no way in hell a black face could appear in a
newspaper if the story was about something anybody wanted to hear” [B
183]), the novel owes its origin to a news clipping.39 One of the few critics
to recognize the significance of the documentary impulse in Morrison’s
work is Stanley Crouch, who published a scathing review of Beloved upon
its publication. In the midst of a general attack on what he sees as Morrison’s sentimentality, Crouch singles out her gift for realist description.
He writes, “Morrison is best at clear, simple description, and occasionally
she can give an account of the casualties of war and slavery that is free
of false lyricism or stylized stoicism.”40 Although Crouch concedes that
Morrison can portray some of the costs of “war and slavery,” he mostly
praises her descriptions of quotidian events in everyday life—he cites a
passage approvingly where Sethe makes biscuits. I want to follow up on
his suggestion—mostly ignored by later critics—that Morrison’s primary
gift is one of neutral, detailed description. However, I argue that, instead
of merely providing a background for the events of the novel, Morrison’s
descriptions are central to her representation of “war and slavery.” I look
specifically at Morrison’s first account of Beloved’s murder; in this scene,
Morrison lets the camera roll, recording circumstances and actions with
minimal intervention.
Many critics have written about the representation of the murder in
Beloved. This moment when Sethe decides to kill her children rather
than see them returned into slavery is arguably the ethical climax of
the novel. However, critics’ accounts tend to focus disproportionately
on the version of these events told from Sethe’s perspective—an “inside
view” that recounts her emotions, sensations, memories, and desires.
Few have chosen to write about the first version of the event, which is
narrated not from Sethe’s perspective but from the perspective of those
who have come to capture her.41 This account lacks psychological depth
and linguistic richness. The point of view in the passage switches back
and forth between the slave catcher, the schoolteacher, and his nephew,
all of whom cast a dehumanizing objectifying gaze on Sethe. In addition
to these discernible optics, the passage moves in and out of another
vantage point, a blankly descriptive point of view that is ascribed to no
one in particular. The paragraph that describes Sethe’s act of violence
combines this exterior perspective with a point of view that can be
identified as the slave catcher’s:
close but not deep
385
Inside, two boys bled in the sawdust and dirt at the feet of a nigger woman holding a blood-soaked child to her chest with one hand and an infant by the heels
in the other. She did not look at them; she simply swung the baby toward the
wall planks, missed and tried to connect a second time, when out of nowhere—
in the ticking time the men spent staring at what there was to stare at—the old
nigger boy, still mewing, ran through the door behind them and snatched the
baby from the arc of its mother’s swing. (B 175)
This outside view follows Sethe’s gestures without making sense of them.
The blow-by-blow account—“holding a blood-soaked child to her chest
with one hand and an infant by the heels in the other”—recalls the careful tracking of gestures throughout this scene. The difference between
the narrator’s perspective (purely descriptive, neutral) and the slave
catcher’s perspective (dehumanizing, rapacious) is difficult to identify
in this moment. The use throughout of phrases like “nigger woman”
and “old nigger boy” signals the perspective of the slave catcher. But
the interpolated phrase “in the ticking time the men spent staring at
what there was to stare at” suggests the presence of the narrator, who,
riffing on the earlier phrase “what they were looking for,” indicates the
act but stops short of a full description.
Why does Morrison choose to represent the murder first from this flattening, dehumanizing, exterior perspective? In his essay “Sethe’s Choice,”
James Phelan argues that, although Morrison leaves the interpretation
of the scene open, she nonetheless carefully guides the reader through
better and worse interpretations of the act. For Phelan, the perspective
of the slave catcher is presented unambiguously as a negative example
for the reader. He writes, “After seeing Sethe from the inside for so
long, we feel emotionally, psychologically—and ethically—jarred by seeing from what is such an alien perspective, one that thinks of her as a
‘nigger woman’ and as a ‘creature’ . . . Indeed, Morrison has chosen to
narrate this first telling from an ethical perspective that we easily repudiate.”42 For Phelan, the significance of the passage is pedagogical; what
the reader learns to do in this scene is to reject the racist perspective
of the slave catcher.43
I want to argue by contrast that this scene asks more of the reader than
ethical repudiation. For one thing, the proximity between the narrator’s
perspective and the slave catcher’s makes simple repudiation difficult.
Although we may be horrified by the slave catcher, his perspective cannot
be cleanly extracted from the narration; we are left with the haunting
sense of a narrator who looks on this scene and does not care. That this
scene cannot be read as merely a negative exemplum is suggested by
Morrison’s care in describing the physical realities of the scene. Rather
than reading this scene as an object lesson in failed empathy, we might
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new literary history
see it as an instance of a documentary aesthetic in the novel. As Phelan
notes, the objectivity of the perspective calls attention to the horror of
Sethe’s act; however, this objectivity also makes legible material processes
of dehumanization. Although dehumanization cannot be understood
outside of a humanist framework, Morrison renders it here as a technique, a material process, rather than an ideology. Following Latour’s
discussion of “flattening out accounts” in Reassembling the Social, we can
see how close Morrison stays to her objects here as she traces the associations between the human actors and a woodshed, sawdust, wall planks,
and a saw. The products of this circuit are ideological—“schoolteacher”
and “slave catcher” as well as “nigger woman” and “old nigger boy”—but
they are also real. Dehumanization, rather than being a kind of false
consciousness that can be exorcised through cultivating an inside view,
is a process with real effects: it is a fact, if not a truth.
Beloved aims to return interiority and agency to those to whom it was
denied, but full restoration is never achieved in the novel. In the final
pages of the book, Morrison suggests that the figure of Beloved cannot
finally be rescued: “Everybody knew what she was called, but nobody
anywhere knew her name. Disremembered and unaccounted for, she
cannot be lost because no one is looking for her, and even if they were,
how can they call her if they don’t know her name? Although she has
claim, she is not claimed” (B 323). In this moment, Morrison suggests
that no one—not even Morrison herself—can reverse the processes that
have stripped Beloved of a future and recognition. She also links this
insight through a verbal echo back to schoolteacher’s reflection at the
murder scene: “Right off it was clear, to schoolteacher especially, that
there was nothing there to claim” (B 175). While the narrator suggests
that no full recovery of Beloved can ever be achieved, schoolteacher
simply means that no further value can be extracted from the human
beings in the woodshed. Through such echoes, the ethical and historical
distance of the narrator from the scene in the woodshed is diminished.
Less a witness than a documentarian, Morrison conveys the horrors of
slavery not by voicing an explicit protest against it but by describing its
effects.
Such moments in the novel draw us up short, turning our attention
to the flatness, objectivity, and literalism in this famously “deep” novel.
I would suggest that reading Beloved at the surface allows us to see Morrison’s project as registering the losses of history rather than repairing
them. In the world of the novel, where so much seems to depend on
our ability to read deeply, to access the “more” of the dedication, it can
be difficult to forego the dream of restoring agency, voice, and interiority to those to whom they have been denied. In her accounting of the
387
close but not deep
facts of dehumanization, and in her final warning to readers—“This is
not a story to pass on” (B 324)—Morrison draws attention to what is
irrecuperable in the historical record. Sometimes we have to let ghosts
be ghosts.
***
In juxtaposing Morrison with Goffman and Latour, I am not, of
course, denying the crucial differences—both generic and political—
between literature and sociology, between an African-American historical
novel and French theory, between a record of the violence of slavery
and accounts of social games in midcentury America or experiments
in the laboratory. Morrison’s account of dehumanization needs to be
distinguished from the decentering of the human that Latour pursues
in his object-oriented philosophy, and from Goffman’s assiduously neutral portraits of social interactions. The flat description of the murder
scene stands out in contrast to other deeper and richer moments in
the novel; the blank gaze of the observer in this scene is meaningful in
part because of the ethical and political commitments of the novel as a
whole. Morrison’s engagements contrast with Goffman’s observational
method, and his strict agnosticism about the social role of the critic,
and with the refusal of humanist ethics in Latour’s work.44 Nevertheless,
I have tried to show crucial continuities across these divergent works
in order to suggest the relevance of descriptive sociological method for
literary studies. In contrast to other recent borrowings from sociological
method, such an approach does not sacrifice the close analysis of texts.
However, it does suggest a significant departure from the humanist underpinnings of traditional close reading. In particular, by refusing the
role of privileged messenger prescribed by hermeneutics and emphasizing instead the minimalist but painstaking work of description, this
approach undermines the ethical charisma of the critic.45
In recent calls for alternatives to critical hermeneutics in literary studies, scholars have tended to focus on the need to suspend routine activities of unveiling and demystification, to train ourselves out of habits of
paranoia and suspicion. There is no doubt that literary scholars are well
schooled in the hermeneutics of suspicion. What is often forgotten in
these discussions, though, is the fact that, for Ricoeur, the “hermeneutic
field” is “internally at variance with itself.” Interpretation is defined by
a tension between demystification and what he calls the “restoration of
meaning.” Interpretation as recollection of meaning returns us to the
realm of sacred hermeneutics; according to Ricoeur, it is this faith in “a
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new literary history
revelation through the word” that “animates [his] research.” He identifies this tension in all interpretive practices, even in the writings of the
masters of suspicion. Marx, Nietzsche, and Freud “clear the horizon for
a more authentic word, for a new reign of Truth, not only by means of
a ‘destructive’ critique, but by the invention of an art of interpreting.”46
The “depth” of “depth hermeneutics” should be understood not only
as the hidden structures or causes that suspicious critics reveal. Depth
is also a dimension that critics attempt to produce in their readings, by
attributing life, richness, warmth, and voice to texts. The long history of
close reading suggests that we carry a longing for a “new reign of Truth”
in our institutional DNA, in the “art of interpreting” that still defines us.
It is this hermeneutics of recognition and empathy—originally sacred
and now grounded in an unacknowledged but powerful humanism—that
defines literary studies, even in an age of suspicion. In the academic
division of labor, literary critics still tend to that part of the world that
has been “kept safe from sociology.” A turn from interpretation to description might be one way to give up that ghost. But who among us is
willing to exchange the fat and the living for the thin and the dead?
University of Pennsylvania
NOTES
1 Cleanth Brooks, “The Heresy of Paraphrase” in The Well Wrought Urn: Studies in the
Structure of Poetry (London: Harcourt, 1942): 192–214, 212–13; Lionel Trilling, The Liberal
Imagination (New York: New York Review of Books, 1008 [1950]), xxi.
2 For Williams, literature is particularly well suited for the analysis of “structures of feeling,” the paradigmatic form of an emergent cultural formation. Such emergent elements
of culture (along with residual elements) suggest to Williams that “no mode of production
and therefore no dominant social order and therefore no dominant culture ever in reality includes
or exhausts all human practice, human energy, and human intention.” Raymond Williams,
“Dominant, Residual, and Emergent” in Marxism and Literature (Oxford: Oxford Univ.
Press, 1977): 121–27, 125. Emphasis in original. See also “Structures of Feeling” in the
same volume (128–35).
3 Morris Dickstein, “The Rise and Fall of Practical Criticism: From I.A. Richards to
Barthes and Derrida,” in Theory’s Empire: An Anthology of Dissent, ed. Daphne Patai and
Wilfrido Howard Corral (New York: Columbia Univ. Press, 2005): 60–77; Dorothy J. Hale,
“Aesthetics and the New Ethics: Theorizing the Novel in the Twenty–First Century” PMLA
124, no. 3 (2009): 896–905. As Hale points out, many of those involved in the new ethical
criticism are influenced by poststructuralism and do not identify as humanists (Derek
Attridge, J. Hillis Miller, Gayatri Spivak).
4 For a discussion of the tension between “critiques of humanism as an academic
discourse” and “humanism at the more ‘common sense’ level of values” in the context
of an argument about the rise of new forms of humanism in the academy, see Terry
Flew, “Creativity, the ‘new humanism’ and cultural studies” Continuum 18, no. 2 (2004):
161–78.
close but not deep
389
5 See Gerald Graff, Professing Literature: An Institutional History (Chicago: Univ. of Chicago
Press, 1987), 3 and John Guillory, Cultural Capital: The Problem of Literary Canon Formation
(Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press, 1993), 262.
6 Ian Hunter, “The History of Theory,” Critical Inquiry 33(Autumn 2006): 78–112.
7 Hunter, Culture and Government: The Emergence of Literary Education (London: Macmillan,
1988), 214, 157.
8 One might compare Hunter’s discussion of the literary instructor as “moral exemplar”
with Guillory’s discussion of Paul de Man’s disavowed pedagogical charisma in the age
of theory. See Hunter, “The Humanities without Humanism,” Meanjin 51, no. 3 (1992):
479–90 and Guillory, Culture Capital, 488.
9 James F. English, “Literary Studies,” The SAGE Handbook of Cultural Analysis, ed. Tony
Bennett and John Frow (Los Angeles: Sage, 2008), 126–44. English goes on to argue that
“neither the ‘theory revolution’ of the late 1960s and 1970s nor the ‘cultural turn’ of the
1980s . . . has truly dislodged the framework that was put into place in the discipline’s
first half century” (133).
10 Catherine Gallagher, “The History of Literary Criticism,” Daedalus 126, no. 1 (1997):
133–53. English supports this point, noting that “scholars trained on the practical/New
Critical method took very readily to deconstruction” (135).
11 Hortense J. Spillers, “The Crisis of the Negro Intellectual: A Post-Date,” Black, White, and
in Color: Essays on American Literature and Culture (Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press, 2003):
428–70.
12 Leah Price, “Reading Matter,” PMLA 121, no. 1 (2006): 9–16.
13 See Franco Moretti, “Conjectures on World Literature,” New Left Review 1 (Jan–Feb
2000): 57.
14 English, “Literary Studies,” 141.
15 While in this essay I focus on the potential of observational social science as a model
for a renewed practice of description in literary criticism, there are descriptive methods
in literary studies that one might look to as well, for instance in narratology and some
forms of semiotics. See, for instance, Roland Barthes’s discussion of the distinction between
connotation and denotation in S/Z (as well as the “step by step” [12] reading he performs
of Balzac’s Sarrasine). Roland Barthes, S/Z: An Essay, trans. Richard Miller (New York: Hill
and Wang, 1974 [1970]), 6–9.
16 François Dosse, Empire of Meaning: The Humanization of the Social Sciences, trans. Hassan
Melehy (Minneapolis: Univ. of Minnesota Press, 1999 [1995]), 149. Dosse takes the term
from an article by Quéré, whose research seminar on epistemology at the École des hautes
études en sciences sociales he credits with the birth of a “new sociology” (49). See Louis
Quéré, “Le Tournant descriptif en sociologie,” Current Sociology 40, no. 139 (1992): 130–65.
For a later account of the descriptive turn, see Odile Piriou, “Le nouveau tournant de
la sociologie en France dans les années 2000” Sociologies Practiques, “Agir en sociologie—
Comprendre, débattre, concevoir, accompagner” 1, no. 16 (2008): 123–30.
17 Bruno Latour, Reassembling the Social: An Introduction to Actor-Network-Theory (Oxford:
Oxford Univ. Press, 2005), 136–37 (hereafter cited as RS).
18 Graham Harman, Prince of Networks: Bruno Latour and Metaphysics (Melbourne: re.press,
2009), 14. See, for further discussion of this point, Latour’s comparison between the antitechnological world of Samuel Butler’s Erewhon and “our own intellectual universe” in
Latour, Aramis or the Love of Technology, trans. Cartherine Porter (Cambridge, MA: Harvard
Univ. Press, 1996), vii–viii.
19 Writing in 1992, John Law cites Erving Goffman (and symbolic interactionism in
general) as developing a notion of the actor as “a patterned network of heterogenous
relations, or an effect produced by such a network.” Law, “Notes on the Theory of the
Actor-Network: Ordering, Strategy, and Heterogeneity” Systems Practice 5 (1992): 379–93.
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new literary history
20 Anthony Giddens, “Goffman as a Systematic Social Theorist,” in Erving Goffman:
Exploring the Interaction Order, ed. Paul Drew and Anthony Wootton (Cambridge: Polity,
1988), 278.
21 Clifford Geertz, “Blurred Genres: The Refiguration of Social Thought,” in Local Knowledges: Further Essays in Interpretive Anthropology (New York: Basic Books, 1983), 24–26.
22 Erving Goffman, “The Insanity of Place,” in Relations in Public: Microstudies of the Public
Order (New York: Harper Colophon Books, 1971), 363.
23 Goffman, “Insanity,” 375–76, n 26.
24 The term is Latour’s. Reassembling the Social, 107.
25 Considering the problematic status of sociological explanation, Quéré writes, “La
description pure et simple semble alors offrir une position de repli. Mais qu’est-ce qu’une
description ‘pure et simple,’ s’agissant de faits sociaux qui sont médiatisés par des systèmes
symboliques? Toute description suppose en effet une compréhension du sens et une
interprétation, sans quoi il n’y a rien d’intelligible à décrire.” “Le Tournant Descriptif,”
140.
26 Geertz, “Blurred Genres,” 25.
27 Goffman, “Role Distance,” Encounters: Two Studies in the Sociology of Interaction (Indianapolis, IN: Bobbs-Merrill, 1961): 83–152.
28 Cf. Latour’s dismissal of the distinction between “action” and “behavior” in Reassembling
the Social (61). Although Latour is more interested in the distinction between human and
nonhuman agency than in the difference between authentic and inauthentic human activity, the rhetoric of his denunciation suggests a continuity in the two positions (and also
that existentialism is a key, if largely unnamed, object of critique for both). He writes, “A
billiard ball hitting another one on the green felt of a billiard table might have exactly
as much agency as a ‘person’ directing her ‘gaze’ to the ‘rich human world’ of another
‘meaningful face’ in the smoke-filled room of the pub where the tables have been set up”
(61).
29 See Philippe Hamon’s account in which he discusses the history of polemics against
the hypertrophy of description. Hamon, “Towards a Theory of Description,” Yale French
Studies 61 (1981): 1–26.
30 The classic Marxist argument against description is Lukács’s argument for the superiority of the horse-racing scene in Anna Karenina over the scene at the races in Zola’s
Nana. Lukács’s preference for descriptions that are narrative rather than static recalls the
classical form of ekphrasis which, as Janice Hewlett Koelb points out, embraces narrative
“in its most vivid forms.” See Georg Lukács, “Narrate or Describe?” Writer and Critic, and
Other Essays, ed. Arthur D. Kahn (London: Merlin, 1970). Also see Koelb, The Poetics of
Description: Imagined Places in European Literature (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006), 4.
31 Paul Ricouer, Freud and Philosophy: An Essay on Interpretation, trans. Denis Savage (New
Haven, CT: Yale Univ. Press, 1970), 28, 33.
32 Latour, “Has Critique Run Out of Steam? From Matters of Fact to Matters of Concern,”
Critical Inquiry 30 (Winter 2004): 225–48.
33 David Scott Kastan, Shakespeare After Theory (New York: Routledge, 1999), 18.
34 “Reparative reading” is a term Sedgwick introduced in her essay “Paranoid Reading
and Reparative Reading; or, You’re So Paranoid, You Probably Think This Introduction
is About You,” originally published as the introduction to Novel Gazing: Queer Readings in
Fiction, ed. Sedgwick (Durham, NC: Duke Univ. Press, 1997), 1–37. “Surface reading” is a
method described by Stephen Best and Sharon Marcus in their introduction to a special
issue they edited of Representations called “The Way We Read Now.” In conceptualizing
surface reading, they draw heavily on the method of “just reading” that Marcus developed in Between Women: Friendship, Desire, and Marriage in Victorian England. See Best and
Marcus, “Surface Reading: An Introduction,” Representations 108, no. 1 (2009): 1–21 and
close but not deep
391
Marcus, Between Women: Friendship, Desire, and Marriage in Victorian England (Princeton, NJ:
Princeton Univ. Press, 2007).
35 Best and Marcus, “Surface Reading,” 13.
36 Toni Morrison, Beloved (New York: Vintage Books, 2004 [1987]), np (hereafter cited
as B).
37 Gordon writes, “This other sociology stretches at the limit of our imagination and
at the limit of what is representable in the time of the now, to us, as the social world we
inhabit” (150).
38 See for instance Patricia Ticineto Clough, The End(s) of Ethnography: From Realism to
Social Criticism (New York: Peter Lang, 1998).
39 We can also see the importance of documentary forms to Morrison in her editorial
involvement in The Black Book, a scrapbook that included newspaper clippings, patents,
advertisements, and bills of sale. See The Black Book, comp. Middleton Harris, et al., ed.
Toni Morrison (New York: Random House, 1974). See also Morrison, “Behind the Making
of The Black Book,” in What Moves at the Margin: Selected Nonfiction, ed. Carolyn C. Denard
(Jackson: Univ. Press of Mississippi, 2008).
40 Stanley Crouch, “Aunt Medea,” originally in The New Republic 197, 19 October 1987
(38–43), reprinted in Critical Essays on Toni Morrison’s Beloved, ed. Barbara H. Solomon
(New York: Simon & Schuster, 1998), 70.
41 James Phelan’s reading (discussed below) is a notable exception. Mae G. Henderson
also notes that “the first full representation of the events surrounding the infanticide [is]
figured from a collective white/male perspective.” Henderson, “Toni Morrison’s Beloved:
Re-Membering the Body as Historical Text,” in Comparative American Identities: Race, Sex, and
Nationality in the Modern Text, ed. Hortense J. Spillers (London: Routledge, 1991), 78.
42 James Phelan, “Sethe’s Choice: Beloved and the Ethics of Reading,” in Mapping the
Ethical Turn: A Reader in Ethics, Culture, and Literary Theory, ed. Todd F. Davis and Kenneth
Womack (Charlottesville: Univ. of Virginia Press, 2001): 100.
43 Phelan’s reading is echoed by Mark McGurl: “As a textbook example of what in high
school English classes they still call, after E. M. Forster, a ‘flat’ character, [schoolteacher’s]
presence in the novel is all but allegorical, a token not of the complexity of human motives but of an abstract set of values tending toward pure evil. Or rather, it is structural,
his simple badness functioning as a dialectical foil for the ethical complexity of Sethe’s
desperate act of infanticide” (346). Mark McGurl, The Program Era: Postwar Fiction and the
Rise of Creative Writing (Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press, 2009).
44 While Latour’s recent work (especially in Politics of Nature: How to Bring the Sciences into
Democracy and Reassembling the Social) takes up questions of politics, ANT has long been
seen as ethically disengaged and as resistant to work on race, class, gender, and sexuality in STS in the 1980s and 1990s. Law takes a strong position against the confusion of
sociology and ethics in “Notes on the Theory of the Actor-Network,” arguing that they
should “inform” each other, but that “they are not identical” (383). For critical accounts of
Latour along these lines, see Robert Proctor, Value-Free Science?: Purity and Power in Modern
Knowledge (Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press, 1991) and Donna Haraway, Modest_Witness@Second_Millenium.FemaleMan©_Meets_OncoMouseTM (New York: Routledge, 1997). For
a recent argument that claims that Latour’s sociology is “not a pushing-aside of ethics, but
rather an extension of it,” see Mariam Fraser, “The Ethics of Reality and Virtual Reality:
Latour, Facts, and Values,” History of the Human Sciences 19, no. 2 (2006): 45–72.
45 Compare with Best and Marcus’s claim that surface reading challenges the notion of
“professional criticism as a strenuous and heroic endeavor,” 5–6.
46 Ricoeur, Freud, 27–33.