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Poliquin International Certification Program- Level 1 Manual © 1982-2016, Poliquin Group
PICP LEVEL 1 MANUAL
Kim Goss, MS
Poliquin International Certification Program- Level 1 Manual © 1982-2016, Poliquin Group
Notice: Before beginning any exercise program, consult with your physician to ensure that you are in proper
health. This book is not meant to provide medical advice; you should obtain all medical advice from your
own private healthcare practitioner. No liability is assumed for any information obtained herein.
WARNING: All rights reserved. No part of the work embodied in these materials and covered by the copyrights herein may be reproduced or copied in any form or by any means - graphic, electronic, mechanical,
including photocopying, taping or information storage and retrieval systems - without the written permission
of the publisher.
Poliquin International Certification Program- Level 1 Manual © 1982-2016, Poliquin Group
Table of Contents
Part 1: Principles of Training
Chapter 1: Classifications of Strength Qualities
3
Chapter 2:
7
Characteristics of Effective Training
Part 2: Manipulating Loading Parameters
Chapter 3: Repetitions16
Chapter 4:
Sets27
Chapter 5:
Rest Intervals33
Chapter 6:
Tempo38
Part 3: Basic Anatomy & Structural Balance
Chapter 7:
Basic Anatomy for the Upper Body
42
Chapter 8: The History of Structural Balance
47
Poliquin International Certification Program- Level 1 Manual © 1982-2016, Poliquin Group
Part 1
Principles of Training
Chapter 1:
Classification of Strength Qualities
Chapter 2:
Characteristics of Effective Training
One aspect of the Iron Game that hooks people is the fact that beginners can get stronger on just about
any workout. Take someone who walks into the gym who can barely bench press the empty bar, and by the
very next workout they may be able to add 5 or 10-pound plates to each side. Soon those plates become
25-pounders, then 35, then 45, and then…then it starts getting complicated.
The problem is that making continuous strength gains becomes not just addictive, but expected. A typical
scenario is that a beginner starts with the lightest weights available, and each week sees a linear progression
in strength. Sometimes a new lifter can make some type of progress, either in more weight lifted or another
repetition performed, just about every workout for months. This gets them thinking thoughts such as, “I went
from a 110-pound bench press in January to 170 in March, so if I keep adding five pounds a week, by the end
of the year I should be pushing 350!”
Yes, during the first several months of training tremendous progress can be made – and certainly there are
some men who have bench pressed 350 pounds after a single year of training. But such individuals are the
exception, not the rule. As you get stronger, you eventually hit a point of diminishing returns, such that it
takes considerably longer to be able to slap on those additional 2 ½-pound plates. Periods of stagnation are
to be expected, and could take 5 years, 10 years, or even longer before an individual finally reaches their maximal physical potential.
Another factor that must be taken into consideration in looking at the initial progress of beginners is that
much of the apparent strength improvement that takes place is not from an increase in muscle size. Rather,
these improvements are more due to neurological changes, such as learning how to more efficiency contract
the muscles and also how to perform the exercise with better technique so more weight can be lifted.
As an individual progresses in weight training, it becomes more important to experiment with training methods other than straight linear progressions. Before getting into the details of these methods, it’s important to
have a basic understanding of the characteristics of muscles.
There are two basic fiber types, type I and II, and they are each broken into subcategories. The type I fibers
are called slow-twitch fibers and they produce low amounts of strength and power but are very fatigue resistant. Endurance running or swimming will favor type I muscle fibers. The type II fibers are called fast-twitch
fibers and they produce high amounts of strength and power, making you fast and explosive. They fatigue
quickly. Within the two fiber types there are at least seven subtypes but, for now, all you need to be aware of
is the distinction between type I and II.
It’s also important to consider that each muscle has a unique distribution of muscle fiber types. For example,
the calf consists primarily of two muscles, the two-head gastrocnemius and the one located under it called
the soleus. The gastrocnemius contains predominantly fast-twitch fibers and the soleus contains predominantly slow-twitch fibers. This difference requires that each of these muscles be trained to best develop their
primary fiber type.
Understanding the different types of muscle fibers is the first step to learning how to design strength and
conditioning programs. The next step is to take a closer look at the various types of strength.
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Chapter 1: Classification of Strength Qualities
Strength can be classified into many different types, each defined by differing capabilities of the neuromuscular system and the time frames of strength expression. Here are the four major types of strength that can
be used as a starting point for designing resistance training programs.
Hypertrophy
Hypertrophy is the growth of muscle; the existing muscle fibers respond to strength training by growing
larger. Mechanical loading, or weightlifting, triggers processes within the cells and muscle fibers that lead to
protein synthesis and muscle growth. This type of training targets the Type IIa muscle fibers.
An individual muscle fiber is made up of two components called a sarcoplasm and a sarcomere. Growing the
sarcoplasm, or sarcoplamic hypertrophy, involves the increase in non-contractile proteins and fluids between
muscle fibers so that the cross-sectional area of the muscle is larger, but the density of muscle fibers decreases. Sarcoplasmic hypertrophy won’t increase muscle strength and is a technique used by bodybuilders
because it makes their physiques more imposing.
One of the key factors affecting hypertrophy is the length of the muscle bellies. For example, the lower a
biceps muscle inserts (i.e., the closer to the elbow joint), the greater that muscle’s potential for hypertrophy.
Another factor is the hormonal makeup of the individual. Regardless of genetic limitations, however, a significant amount of muscle can be achieved with hard training.
Functional Hypertrophy
Functional hypertrophy, which primarily involves the Type IIx fibers, develops the muscles in such a way as to
improve physical performance. Growing the sarcomere, or sarcomere hypertrophy, is the increase in the size
and number of sarcomeres in the myofibrils, which make up an individual muscle fiber. Sarcomere hypertrophy increases the density of myofibrils that contract to make a muscle motion. This hypertrophy leads to
greater strength. Sarcomere hypertrophy is what we are referring to when we talk about functional hypertrophy.
For a sprinter, functional hypertrophy will involve training that is both heavy and fast to help the sprinter
become more explosive and faster without inducing too much gain in total body weight. In comparison, a
football defensive lineman needs to be explosive and fast, but they also need to weigh a lot since they have
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to block and push players who can weigh around 300 pounds. A lineman who is very strong who only weighs
180 pounds will get squashed by a 300 pounder even if the 180-pounder is stronger.
The definition of functional hypertrophy for non-athletes is the same as for athletes—it grows your muscles
in a way that will improve physical performance. In addition to improving body composition and supporting metabolism, functional hypertrophy can help people deal with chronic pain and help prevent injury. It
all has to do with which muscle fibers you grow with your training. Stronger type II fibers have been shown
to decrease the risk of falls and fractures in older individuals. On the flipside, type II muscle fibers are more
susceptible to loss of strength and size as we age, which produces a proportionately larger loss in power and
strength. This puts us at greater risk of falls, injuries, and poor physical performance.
Relative Strength
Relative strength, which involves the Type IIb fibers, is the maximum force an individual can generate per unit
of bodyweight, irrespective of the time of force development. High relative strength is of critical importance
in sports that involve jumping, such as volleyball and gymnastics, and in sports that have weight classes,
such as judo, wrestling, and boxing.
This brings up the concept of intensity. Intensity is defined by how much weight is on the barbell, with 100
percent intensity being the maximum amount of weight used for 1 repetition. The more weight lifted, the
higher the level of muscle tension achieved. Although performing sets of 12-15 reps in squats is quite challenging, using heavier weights for lower reps has a higher intensity level.
The number of reps performed is closely related to the weight used. In the sport of weightlifting, three or
more reps are associated with an increase in muscle mass, and singles and doubles are associated more with
maximal and relative strength. You’ll often find that when a specific intensity is prescribed for a weightlifter,
it is associated with a repetition range. For example: 1-2 reps, 95-100 percent; 3 reps, 90 percent; 4-5 reps,
80-85 percent.
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One method of developing more powerful athletics without increasing their bodyweight is plyometrics.
Plyometrics are any activity that involves a rapid stretching of a muscle (eccentric phase) immediately
followed by a rapid shortening of that muscle (concentric phase). Stepping off a low platform and immediately rebounding upward upon landing is considered an example of a plyometric exercise; however, the delay
between the phases needs to be short, no longer than .25 seconds to use the energy stored during the eccentric phase. To achieve this effect, plyometrics requires a mechanical shock stimulation that stimulates the
muscles to produce the highest levels of muscle tension as rapidly as possible. The dynamic nature of shock
training creates two processes: 1) a reflex increase in muscle tension and 2) the release of elastic energy
stored in the muscles and tendons. Plyometrics do little to make an athlete stronger, but rather enables them
to demonstrate strength faster.
Strength Endurance
Strength endurance, which involves the Type I fibers, is the capacity of a muscle to maintain consistent force
output at a percentage of maximal strength greater than 30 percent. In other words, strength endurance is
characterized by high strength levels coupled with high levels of endurance.
Athletes who want to improve strength endurance should consider the benefits of weight training. Although
many runners don’t see the value in lifting weights, running speed is influenced by being able to apply more
force into the ground, not by moving the arms and legs faster. Also, stronger muscles do not have to expend
as much energy to produce force as weaker muscles.
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Poliquin International Certification Program- Level 1 Manual © 1982-2016, Poliquin Group
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Chapter 2: Characteristics of Effective Training
Throughout this course you will be provided with workouts that apply the principles discussed in the text.
These workouts use a specific formula that allows for precise control over all loading parameters of program
design.
The Workout Formula
Tempo
These workouts use a four-digit system to represent how long it takes to complete the different phases of
strength training repetition. Let’s start with the speed at which exercises are performed, or tempo. Tempo is
broken down in the following manner:
The first number is the eccentric lowering, that is, when you lower the resistance (e.g., going down in the
squat or bringing the bar to your chest in the bench press). In other words, when the muscle is being placed
under stretch and the muscle is lengthening.
The second number is the time of pause in the stretched position. The pause is usually between the eccentric
(lowering) phase and the concentric (lifting), phase (e.g., the bottom position in the squat or when the bar
makes contact with the chest in the bench press). S o the “2” in a 4210 tempo in the bench press would refer
to a 2-second pause when the bar makes contact with the chest. It can also refer to a pause taken during the
middle of a concentric range. A 5310 tempo in the reverse curl would indicate a 3-second pause at a predetermined angle in the concentric range of the reverse curl.
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The third number is the concentric contraction, that is, lifting the weight (e.g., rising in the squat or pressing
the bar to arms length in the bench press. In this case, the muscle is shortening. If an X is present in the tempo expression instead of a number, it implies explosive action with full acceleration.
The fourth number is the time of pause in the contracted position (e.g., the top of a curl or chin-up). Thus,
2010 in the flat dumbbell press would mean 2 seconds to lower dumbbells, no pause (0), lifting for a count of
1, and no pause at the top.
As another example, in the case of 4211 in the chin-up, it would mean 4 seconds to lower yourself to the
arms outstretched position, a 2-second pause in the stretched position, raising yourself for a count of 1, and
pausing for 1 second at the top.
Throughout this manual you will see many examples of training programs. These programs will be written in
the same format you will see throughout your PICP experience:
A1. Bench Press
5
6-8
4010 90 sec
Respectively, the format is as follows: exercise number, exercise, sets, reps, tempo and rest. We will review
the important components of these loading parameters.
Excerise Number
The exercise number tells you the order in which to perform the exercises. It will always be a letter that may
be followed by a number. For example, A1 and A2 are the A Series exercises. There is no limit to the number
of exercises per series, which may vary with the training method you are using.
Example 1. You would perform a set of the A1 exercise. Then you will rest 90 seconds, then perform a set of
the A2 exercise. At the end A2 you will rest 90 seconds and go back to A1. You will complete the exercises
like this until you complete 5 sets.
A1. Incline Barbell Bench Press
A2. Bent-over Row
5
5
6-8
6-8
4010 90 sec
3020 90 sec
After the fifth set you would alternate between B1 and B2 exercises.
B1. Flat Dumbbell Press
B2. Seated Row
4
4
8-10 3010 75 sec
8-10 3010 75 sec
Example 2. You would perform all the sets of the A exercise before moving on to the B Series
A. Incline Barbell Bench Press
B1. Flat Dumbbell Press
B2. Seated Row
5
4
4
4-6 4010 180 sec
8-10 3010 75 sec
8-10 3010 75 sec
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Reps
There are different rep schemes you can use when writing programs. The most common are straight reps,
3-rep window, wave loading and drop sets.
Straight reps are characterized by a single number. You will perform the exact number of reps for the sets.
A. Incline Barbell Bench Press
5
6
4010 180 sec
Here the 3-rep window is written as a range. When you are lifting your target is to reach the upper-end repetition number or at least reach the lower-end repetition number.
A. Incline Barbell Bench Press
5
4-6
4010 180 sec
The next type of rep scheme is not only used with wave loading, but you will see it when using ascending
sets, descending sets and progressive sets. You will perform the number of reps respectively with each set. It
is typified by using a comma to separate the reps per set. From the example below, in Set 1 you will perform 2
reps, Set 2: 4 reps, Set 3: 6 reps, Set 4: 6 reps, Set 5: 4 reps, Set 6: 2 reps.
A. Incline Barbell Bench Press
6
2,4,6,6,4,2
4010 180 sec
Unlike a wave loading scheme where each number represents a set, drop set reps are performed all within
the same set. It is typified by a forward slash. From the example below, in Set 1 you would perform 10 reps,
take a minimal rest to decrease the load (weight), perform 8 reps, take a minimal rest to decrease the load,
then perform 6 reps. You would repeat that same format until you complete all 5 sets this way.
A. Incline Barbell Bench Press
5
10/8/6
4010 180 sec
Tempo
One of the ways we determine the time under tension (TUT) of an exercise or a workout is through the
4-digit tempo prescription. In the example below using the incline bench press, you would lower the weight
to your chest in 4 seconds. When you get into the bottom position you will not pause and immediately starting lifting the weight in 1 second. You will not pause at the top and go right into your next repetition.
A. Incline Barbell Bench Press
5
4-6
4010 180 sec
With that background, let’s look at some of the characteristics of effective program design.
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Progressive Resistance
During the course of a proper strength training program, muscles adapt to the stress of lifting by becoming
stronger. To be effective, the stress placed on muscles must represent an “overload,” that is, a load greater
than the one used in the previous activity. Let’s use another analogy:
If you went from a sedentary desk job to working as a lumberjack, your body would undergo some interesting
adaptations as it struggled to cope with the unfamiliar environmental stressors inherent in that profession.
You would most certainly develop calluses on your hands as a result of grasping axes, saws and other implements for hours each day. These calluses, however, would be exactly the same size one year after getting
your new job, three years after, six years after, ad infinitum. Why? Because the stress to your hands never
increased over that period of time.
If an individual can bench press 100 pounds, performing workouts that used only 50 pounds would not provide the appropriate load to create a strength training effect. To create an overload, you will need to increase
your weights throughout each workout.
Strength training is no different. If an individual can bench press 100 pounds, performing workouts that used
only 50 pounds would not provide the appropriate load to create a strength training effect.
One of the factors to assess if you are effective writing training programs is if your client is constantly progressing. During a proper strength training program, muscles adapt to the stress of lifting by becoming stronger. To be effective, the stress placed on muscles must represent an “overload,” that is, a load greater than
the one used in previous activity.
One overload concept that can be used is the 2% Rule in untrained athletes and 1% Rule in trained athletes
using heavy weights. This rule is that each workout you will want to increase your load by at least 2%
Another way to ensure you are progressing your programs properly is alternate between accumulation and
intensification phases. In accumulation phases, your primary stressor is volume and you are looking for a
muscular adaptation. Volume is determined by the amount of work you do in a program and the number of
sets you perform. In accumulation, you will use hypertrophy and strength endurance training methods.
After you complete an accumulation phase, you will go into an intensification phase, where the main stressor is intensity and you are looking for a neuromuscular adaptation. Intensity is defined by how close you are
working to your 1RM.
Recovery
Recovery is an important and usually overlooked aspect of training needed to reach goals. Recovery in the
short term is determined by your rest intervals and is determined long term by your training frequency. Muscles adapt and become stronger during rest periods, not during exercise. This adaptation phase is referred to
as overcompensation. Muscles must therefore be given time to recover from training. Depending on the
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training intensity and on the athlete, 48 to 96 hours of recovery are necessary for tissue repair and protein
synthesis.
If the training stimuli are too far apart, the overcompensation will fade away and strength levels will eventually return to previous levels. If training stimuli are too close, overcompensation will not be allowed to happen
and a drop in strength can result. Similarly, if maximal-intensity stimuli are overemphasized, a state of general exhaustion may occur.
All stressors have similar general/nonspecific effects on the body. For example, a strength training session
will trigger specific adaptations in your body (larger and stronger muscle fibers in the first instance, and an
increase of white blood cells in the second case). Both stressors will also generate a general, nonspecific
response from your body through various neural, hormonal and other biochemical means. If several stressors
are imposed, the total general effect may be too large for your body to resist, and exhaustion may occur.
Variety
Beginners may be able to show improvement for several months on a fixed weight training program. However, as athletes become stronger, variety must become an essential component of training to elicit a maximal
training response over time.
In contrast to most machines that offer only a few variations in performance, barbell exercises can accommodate endless variations of execution. For example, squats can be performed with the barbell on the back
or on the collarbone, with the feet in a narrow or wide stance, or performed at a different angle on a hack
squat machine; the starting position of an exercise can be changed as well.
Paradoxically, specificity must be balanced against variability in training programs for the following reasons:
1. The effectiveness of any program is a function of the degree that it challenges your body. The problem is
that familiar programs are less challenging because your body has had time to figure them out. Consequently, every time you repeat a training program, it becomes less effective.
2. All programs have both negative and positive features, no matter how well designed or specific they are.
If you spend too much time on one program, you tend to adapt to the positive aspects and accumulate the
negative ones.
3. Unchanging training routines lead to overuse injuries. According to Dr. Sal Arria, Sports Medicine Director for the International Sports Sciences Association, “Adopting long-term training habits of any kind is very
often a precursor to degenerative changes in the joints – advanced athletes are particularly vulnerable since
their training tends to become more and more specific over time.”
For these three reasons, it’s crucial to regularly (every 2-4 weeks) change acute program variables. These
variables include frequency, exercise selection, number of exercises, order of exercises, length of training
session, number of repetitions, number of sets, length of rest periods, and the speed of muscle contraction
during an exercise.
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The following workouts demonstrate the aggressive advancement of the reps, tempos, and exercise selection
for a beginner and advanced athlete.
Beginner Athlete Phase 1
This program uses rep-range windows. Because beginners have poor intra/intermuscular coordination, their
weight selections will vary greatly from one set to the next. In the following workout example, intensity of
the resistance decreases from one exercise series to the next. This prevents the client’s nervous system from
fatiguing while maintaining same intensity across the different exercise series.
A1. Seated DB Hammer Curl A2. Decline DB Triceps Extension B1. 45 degree Incline Supinating DB Curl B2. Seated DB Overhead Triceps Extension
4
4 4 4 8-10 4010
10-12 4010
10-12 3110
10-12 3011
60 sec
60 sec
60 sec
60 sec
Beginner Athlete Phase 2
By this time inter/intramuscular coordination has improved and the coach now has a training history with the
client on which to make accurate estimates. The client’s nervous system efficiency might still not be optimal,
so descending sets are used to prime the nervous system. The intensity still decreases from one exercise
series to the next, but to a lesser degree than in Phase 1.
A1. EZ Bar Reverse Grip Curl 5 6,6,6,4,4 5010 90 sec
A2. Parallel Bar Dip 5 6,6,6,4,4 5010 90 sec
B1. Standing Midline DB Curl
4 6-8 4010 75 sec
B2. Rope Handle Cable Pressdown 4 6-8 4010 75 sec
Advanced Athlete Phase 1
As a client advances in training age, they can progress to a loading pattern with a narrower rep-range across
the reps selected. This loading pattern provides a more concentrated effort to the muscles trained.
A1. Barbell Curl Narrow Grip 5 6, 6, 8, 8, 8 4011 75 sec
A2. Parallel Bar Dip 5 6, 6, 8, 8, 8 2210 75 sec
B1. Seated Zottman Curl 4 8-10
3110 60 sec
B2. Incline DB Triceps Extension 4 8-10 3110 60 sec
Advanced Athlete Phase 2
With an advanced training age, you can program more advanced and intensive training techniques into a client’s training programs. To continue making progress, advanced trainees require the use of loading patterns
that prime the nervous system, improving its efficiency.
The first three sets of this program are performed with a broad pyramid to improve the athlete’s nervous system efficiency, allowing greater resistance to be used in the latter three sets of the broad pyramid.
Partial range of motion allows for greater overload on the muscles trained, stressing the muscles with a resistance greater than that utilized with regular range of motion exercises.
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A1. Scott EZ Bar Reverse Curl A2. Hairline Pin Press B1. Parallel Grip Barbell Curl B2. Close Grip BB Bench Press 6
6
4
4
6, 5, 4, 4, 5, 6
6, 5, 4, 4, 5, 6 5-7 5-7 5010
2210
3110
3110
100 sec
100 sec
90 sec
90 sec
Specificity
Research has shown that the neuromuscular system shows specific adaptation to imposed demands
(S.A.I.D.). It follows that strength training must be specific to transfer to athletic performance. Thomas Kurz
said it well:
“No matter how much mass and strength one gains from performing general strength exercises, if the neuromuscular patterns of these exercises are not resembling those of the competitive technique, little or no
strength gain will show in specialized technical tests or in competition.”
As such, a strength training program should be specific along the following parameters:
Movement Pattern. The muscles most used in a sport should get priority during workouts and be developed
in the work angles, planes and directions of the movements encountered in sports. For example, cable pulling
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exercises such as wood chops can imitate the various movements that occur in a golf swing.
Movement Speed. Many sports techniques are of an explosive type while others are of a static nature. In
judo, throws would be considered explosive movements and hold-downs would be considered static. This is
why many strength training programs often require quick lifts to imitate powerful actions and slower types of
lifts imitating the slower moves seen in some techniques.
Muscle Contraction Type. The training exercises should reflect the contraction type involved in the sport.
Often, all three types of contraction exist in a sport and as such should be emphasized in varying degrees. For
example, in judo isometric training will help hold-downs and chokes, and concentric and eccentric occur in
throws.
Contraction Force. Various degrees of muscle force are necessary in sports, depending on the action being performed. In tennis, a high degree of muscle force is needed during a serve, but in net play less force is
needed to ensure precise ball placement.
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Part 2
Manipulating Loading Parameters
Loading parameters include reps, sets, rest intervals, tempo, exercise selection, number of exercises, rate of
exercise change, exercise order, and exercise frequency. This section will look at the first four of these.
Chapter 3:
Repetitions
Chapter 4:
Sets
Chapter 5:
Rest Intervals
Chapter 6:
Tempo
Chapter 3: Repetitions
The first step in designing workout programs is to decide how many reps to perform. The selection
of reps
influences all other components of a workout, such as sets, tempo, rest intervals and even exercise selection.
The amount of resistance used for a specific exercise is probably the single most important variable in
strength training. How much weight (load) is lifted determines how much tension is imposed upon a muscle,
and how much tension is imposed upon a muscle determines the strength training response.
The intensity of an exercise can be described in
terms of repetitions maximum (RM). For example, the maximum weight that can be correctly lifted four consecutive times without significant rest would be known as
the 4RM. The relationship between reps and repetition maximum is known as the 1RM continuum.
Although the number of reps an athlete performs influences the training effect, it’s also important to consider
the speed at which these reps are performed. Unfortunately, in the strength training literature most researchers have failed to take into consideration the effects of different repetition speeds, assuming that all reps are
performed at roughly the same tempo.
The number of repetitions you select will fall on what’s called a neuromuscular axis. This theory states that
for a given tempo of execution, lower repetitions emphasize neural adaptation and higher repetitions emphasize muscular adaptation. The scientific basis for this premise has been proven time and again: Groups
training with low repetitions achieved greater gains in maximal strength; groups training with high repetitions
achieved greater gains in strength-endurance.
Because the number of repetitions performed influences how much an individual can lift, this section will
review the basic principles for selecting reps. Many of these principles overlap.
The Number of Reps Dictates the Load
Although percentages are a useful tool in Olympic-style weightlifting, it’s difficult to use percentages for
most weight training exercises because of the variety of muscle types in each muscle.
For example, the two major muscles of the calf are the gastrocnemius (upper calf) and the soleus (lower calf). Although the exact numbers vary, the gastrocnemius primarily contains fast twitch fibers and the
soleus primarily contains slow twitch fibers. Fast twitch fibers respond better to low reps and heavy weight,
which produce the highest levels of muscle tension, whereas slow twitch fibers respond better to higher reps
and thus relatively lighter weights but longer exposure to muscle tension.
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Given all the variables that can influence your performance on a given day, including the time of day you lift
or how much sleep you got the night before, it’s nearly impossible for a coach to predict the exact weights
you can use in a given exercise.
Percentage systems frequently lock athletes into specific weights, regardless of what they’re capable of lifting
that day. If somebody isn’t having a good training day, the weight would be too heavy, and
on a good training
day it’s too light. Furthermore, many athletes get frustrated trying to follow precise percentage-based workouts and thereby increase their risk of injury. If you’re told to perform 90 percent of your best squat for 3 sets
of 2 reps and you miss both reps on the first set, trying that same weight for the remaining sets could subject
yourself to a greater risk of injury as your technique becomes compromised.
It’s also important to consider that neurological efficiency changes with training age: as athletes get stronger,
they need to shift toward using weights that are closer to their one-rep maxes. As a result, it’s usually better
to determine the repetition bracket you want an individual to perform and then let the repetitions determine
how much weight they should use.
Variables that Influence Rep Selection
There is no magic number when it comes to rep selection. Repetition protocols must change depending on
factors such as the condition of the athlete, the nature of the exercise and the goal. The following are some
general principles to consider about rep selection.
Training Goal
When writing workouts, first determine the desired training effect and then select a repetition bracket that
suits that goal. If you’re writing a program to maximize muscle mass, select a load that enables the client to
complete between 6 and 12 reps. If an individual can perform only 5 reps with the weight, the weight is too
heavy; if he or she can perform 13 reps, the weight is too light.
With each strength quality there are specific rep ranges to achieve that training effect.
Strength Quality
Reps
Intensity
Relative Strength1-5
85 % +
Functional Hypertrophy
6-8 79 -84 %
Hypertrophy9-12
70-78 %
Strength Endurance13 +
30-69 %
One thing to note about these loading parameters is that it is a continuum, and the intensity percentages and
the rep ranges are approximate. Depending on the fiber type, of a muscle these ranges will vary.
The following workouts are designed to achieve a specific goal in terms of strength quality:
Relative Strength
With lower reps, more sets need to be performed to generate the sufficient time under tension (TUT) required to produce the desired training effect.
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A1. Incline BB Press 7
2-3 3110 150 sec
A2. Pull-up 7
2-3 3011 150 sec
B1. Flat BB Press 5
3-5 4010 120 sec
B2. Seated Row Straight Bar 5
5-7 3010 120 sec
Functional Hypertrophy
As the reps increase, the number of sets decrease. This is because the TUT generated when performing a
higher number of reps and the TUT required to train the selected muscle fiber types.
A1. Flat BB Press A2. Bent Over BB Row B1. Seated DB Press B2. Supinated Pulldown 5
5
4
4
6-8
6-8
8-10
10-12
3011
4010
4010
4011
90 sec
90 sec
60 sec
60 sec
Hypertrophy
As the reps increase, the intensity decreases, requiring shorter rest periods as the lower training intensity has
a lesser effect on the nervous system.
A1. Decline DB Press A2. Low Pulley Unilateral Neutral Row B1. Flat DB Fly B2. Subscapularis Pulldown C. Seated DB Press 3
3
3
3
4
10-12
10-12
10-12
10-12
12-15
4010
4010
3010
3010
4010
60 sec
60 sec
60 sec
60 sec
60 sec
Strength Endurance
As reps increase, the number of sets should decrease, allowing for a greater number of exercises to be
trained.
A1. Standing BB Press A2. Pronated Pulldown B1. Flat DB Press B2. Seated Row Rope Handle
C1. Seated Hammer Curl
C2. Triceps Pressdown 3
3
3
3
3
3
12-15
12-15
12-15
12-15
12-15
15-20
4010
4010
3010
4010
2010
3010
30 sec
60 sec
30 sec
60 sec
30 sec
60 sec
Muscle Fiber Type
The fiber composition of any given muscle influences the number of reps required to achieve a training effect.
There is an optimal number of reps per muscle group for each individual, and this is strongly influenced by
the fiber makeup of the muscles.
Those gifted with a large number of fast-twitch motor units always do fewer reps at a given percentage of
maximum. Thus, while the average trainee does about 7RM at 80 percent of his or her maximum, a high fasttwitch individual may complete only 3 reps at this percentage. Conversely, high slow-twitch individuals who
are highly trained aerobically have been shown to do 12RM to 37RM at 95 percent of maximum, in contrast
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to the average person’s ability to do only 2RM to 3RM at this percentage.
There is substantial empirical evidence and scientific research to suggest that the development
of maximal
strength is best accomplished by using loads representing 70 to 100 percent of maximum. Therefore, it’s
essential to determine the exact number of repetitions to be performed at this percentage range.
For most fast-twitch individuals the optimal rep bracket for strength gains falls within the 1-to-6-rep range
while most individuals will make gains in the 1-to-12- rep range. In both of these examples they are working
at 70 to 100 percent of maximum. Furthermore, the fast-twitch athletes would normally use more sets and
often respond better to short rest intervals, 1-3 seconds, between reps.
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Here are examples of two workouts that focus on specific fiber types:
Fast Twitch Fiber Dominance – Seeking Relative Strength
Fast twitch fiber dominant clients should predominately train with intensities favoring their muscle fiber
dominance.
A1. Flat Thick BB Press A2. Neutral Grip Chin Up B1. Seated Pronating DB Press B2. Kneeling Unilateral Row 6
6
4
4
2-4
2-4
4-6
4-6
4010
4010
3110
3011
120 sec
120 sec
75 sec
75 sec
Slow Twitch Fiber Dominance – Seeking Relative Strength
Slow twitch dominant clients should train with higher intensities but need a gradual introduction to the higher intensities with higher reps to prime their nervous system.
A1. Flat Thick BB Press
A2. Neutral Grip Chin-up B1. Seated Pronating DB Press
B2. Kneeling Unilateral Row
6
6
4
4
6,6,6,4,4,4
6,6,6,4,4,4
8-10
8-10
4010
4010
3110
3011
90 sec
90 sec
60 sec
60 sec
Exercise Qualities
If an exercise involves multiple joints in a complex skill, such as the Olympic lifts, excessive reps will bring
about undesired technical and motor-learning changes.
Analysis of the training of elite weightlifters reveals that the snatch is rarely performed for more than 2 reps
per set. In the case of the power clean, when performing
more than 6 repetitions the small muscles such as
the rhomboids (an upper back muscle) would tire out first, causing a change in exercise posture. This fatigue
would lead to improper technique, impaired motor learning, and perhaps a greater risk of injury. The same
goes for front squats, where the postural muscles
will tire out isometrically before the prime movers
if the
time under tension is too long. This is why knowledgeable strength coaches rarely prescribe more than 6
reps per set for the front squat and even fewer for the power clean. Here is a workout that adheres to these
training ideas:
Poliquin International Certification Program- Level 1 Manual © 1982-2016, Poliquin Group
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A. Push Press B1. Flat Biacromial Bench Press
B2. Supinated Chin-up 8
5
5
3
3-5
3-5
20X0
4011
4010
180 sec
120 sec
120 sec
Muscle Function
A well-known fact in physiology is that form dictates function. Moreover, even though the following conclusion has yet to be validated by science, there are specific repetition ranges that are more appropriate for
certain muscle functions. For example, training the knee flexors with sets
of 12 repetitions appears to have
little bearing on hypertrophy gains. Conversely, when training the knee extensors, sets of up to 50 repetitions
can induce hypertrophy. The reason for this appears to be that knee flexors are used mainly for explosive
tasks, while the knee extensors are used in maintaining posture against gravity and are also used for repeated stretch-shortening tasks such as rowing.
Optimal rep ranges for different muscle fibers are as follows:
Slow Twitch Type I Fibers
Mixed
Type IIa Fibers
Fast Twitch Type IIb Fibers
12+ reps
6-12 reps
1-5 reps
Here’s is a list of body parts and the primary muscle fiber composition:
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Muscle Fiber Type
It’s not only the muscle fiber type that will dictate the reps, but it also includes the type of muscle fiber in
your client.
The fiber composition of any given muscle influences the number of reps required to achieve a training effect.
There is an optimal number of reps per muscle group for each individual, and this is strongly influenced by
the fiber makeup of the muscles.
In the upper body structural balance assessment section you will learn how to test your athlete’s muscle fiber
type. Although you are only testing the upper body muscles, there is crossover to the rest of the body.
Here are examples of two workouts designed to focus on specific fiber types:
Fast Twitch Fiber Dominance – Seeking Relative Strength
Fast twitch fiber dominant clients should predominately train with intensities favoring their muscle fiber
dominance.
A1. Flat Thick BB Press A2. Neutral Grip Chin Up B1. Seated Pronating DB Press
B2. Kneeling Unilateral Row
6
6
4
4
2-4
2-4
4-6
4-6
4010
4010
3110
3011
120 sec
120 sec
75 sec
75 sec
Slow Twitch Fiber Dominance – Seeking Relative Strength
Slow twitch dominant clients should train with higher intensities but need a gradual introduction to the higher intensities with higher reps to prime their nervous system.
A1. Flat Thick BB Press 6
A2. Neutral Grip Chin-up 6
B1. Seated Pronating DB Press 4
B2. Kneeling Unilateral Row
4
6, 6, 6, 4, 4, 4
6, 6, 6, 4, 4, 4
8-10 8-10 4010
4010
3110
3011
90 sec
90 sec
60 sec
60 sec
Muscle Contraction Type
Emphasizing different contractions in an exercise will dictate the optimal number of repetitions.
Eccentric work is best accomplished with sets of 1 to 6 repetitions since supra-maximal loads are used in
this method. Depending on the muscle group or exercise used, loads as high at 175 percent of maximum for
controlled eccentric repetitions have been used successfully.
Using an isometric contraction will minimize the use of elastic energy and recruit additional muscle fibers.
You can use an isometric pause at the bottom position (after lowering the weight) and at the top position
(before lowering the weight). It is best to use sets of 5-10 repetitions.
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Here are examples of three workouts that focus on a specific type of muscle contraction:
Eccentric
A1. Incline BB Press A2. Neutral-grip Chin-up B1. Incline DB Press B2. Neutral-grip Seated Row 6
6
4
4
1
1
4-6
4-6
8010
8010
4010
4010
150 sec
150 sec
90 sec
90 sec
Isometric
A1. Decline DB Press A2. Bent Over DB Row B1. Incline DB Flye B2. Straight Arm Pulldown
5
5
3
3
5-7
5-7
8-10
8-10
3210
3012
3110
3011
90 sec
90 sec
60 sec
60 sec
6
6
3
3
3-5
3-5
5-7
5-7
30X0
30X0
40X0
40X0
120 sec
120 sec
90 sec
90 sec
Concentric
A1. Flat Neutral-grip BB Press A2. Pull-up B1. Flat DB Press B2. Prone Supported DB Neutral Row
Exercise Qualities
Exercises are different in nature. Some exercises are explosive, have a large range of motion and involve multiple muscle groups. Other exercises have a short range of movement and involve smaller muscle groups.
Individual Differences
Coaches often make the incorrect assumption that training equals results without factoring in the uniqueness
of the individual. The training program should be “fitted” to the individual, rather than vice versa.
As previously mentioned, an example of an individual difference is the fiber type of the athlete. One athlete
may respond better to a certain rep range compared to another. Continuing, some athletes may respond
better to rep and set changes more frequently (every 1-2 weeks), while others may respond better to less
frequent changes (every 3-4 weeks).
Many factors influence the rate of adaptation to training are genetic, including muscle fiber makeup, systemic recovery rate, and hormonal response. As a coach, you will want to pay attention and track your athlete’s
progress to effectively progressively improve your client.
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Training Age
Training age refers to the number of years an individual has been participating in serious strength training. If
an individual has been strength training seriously for one year, that represents a training age of one; if it’s two
years that equals a training age of two, and so on.
The average newcomer to weight training can often perform a 20RM at 75 percent of maximum. After one
year of training he or she may be down to 10RM for the same percentage, and after 5 years the same athlete
may barely be able to perform 4RM. Also, there are differences in the 1RM between sexes, as well as differences between individuals.
Let’s look at three relative strength workouts for athletes with different levels of training experience.
Relative Strength – 1 Year Training Age
A stand-alone exercise, rather than a superset, is trained with the highest intensities to prevent overwhelming the nervous system with two exercises. A stand-alone exercise allows the client to focus their mental
efforts and energy substrates on a single exercise.
A. Seated BB Press B1. Decline DB Press B2. Kneeling Unilateral Neutral DB Row 6
4
4
3-5
5-7
5-7
3011
3011
3011
150 sec
90 sec
90 sec
Relative Strength – 2 years Training Age
As the client advances in training age, advanced loading patterns such as the cluster method.
A1. Seated BB Press A2. Narrow Pull-up B1. Flat BB Press B2. Seated Row Wide-grip Straight Bar 5
5
4
4
1-1-1-1-1 Cluster Sets 1-1-1-1-1 Cluster Sets 3-5 3-5 Poliquin International Certification Program- Level 1 Manual © 1982-2016, Poliquin Group
4010
4010
4011
4011
180 sec
180 sec
100 sec
100 sec
25
Relative Strength – 3 years Training Age
Clients with an advanced training age require a greater number of sets for a given rep range to further challenge their nervous/muscular systems and force a training response.
A1. Seated BB Press A2. Narrow Pull-up B1. Flat BB Press B2. Seated Row Wide Grip Straight Bar 10
10
3
3
3
3
5-7
5-7
3110
3110
4010
4010
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180 sec
180 sec
90 sec
90 sec
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Chapter 4: Sets
A workout system that entails performing multiple sets of an exercise induces strength and power gains at a
higher rate and of a higher magnitude. This means strength increases conform to a “dose-response” that is
correlated to the number of sets prescribed.
Usually 1 or 2 sets are enough for beginners as a training stimulus, but after 6-12 workout sessions the coach
must increase an athlete’s volume of training because the muscles will have adapted. If the volume is not
increased, progress will slow down and then plateau for extended periods.
The first 30 percent of strength gains come from improvements in intermuscular coordination. In effect, athletes “learn” to lift so that they become more efficient by being able to turn on the systems that are needed
and to turn off those that are not. This learning curve explains why a novice lifter will often have a very erratic bar path during his or her first attempt at the bench press, even though it is a relatively simple motor task.
Once initial strength fitness is achieved, a multiple presentation of the stimulus (3-6 sets) with specific rest
periods between sets is superior to a single presentation of the stimulus. However, it’s important that this
increase is performed progressively.
When an athlete has completed several years of proper training, it may be necessary to prescribe 10-12 sets
of a single key exercise that is highly correlated to performance in that athlete’s sport. For example, international success in the luge and the hammer throw are highly correlated to maximal strength performance in
the pull-up, and in judo to grip strength.
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Relationship Between Reps and Sets
There is a minimum threshold of work that must be performed for optimal size and strength gains. Many
former Eastern Bloc and Western strength training authorities and weightlifting coaches have suggested that
there is an inverse relationship between the number of sets and the number of reps. In other words, when
using low reps, do a high number of sets; when using high reps, do a low number of sets.
The rule to remember is that the higher the neural training effect desired, the more sets (for example, 5 or
more) are needed. When training with low repetitions (1-5), most of the adaptations occur in the nervous
system, hence this intensity zone is described by the Germans as “intramuscular coordination training.”
Regarding practical application, the fewer reps an athlete performs per set, the more sets he or she needs
to achieve the appropriate training response. The rationale is that there is a minimal optimal volume for
strength development and that when training with low reps, a higher number of sets would ensure sufficient
time of loading. More recently, a mathematical model establishing the inverse relationship has been proposed.
Training with high loads is like learning a foreign language: Multiple presentations of the learning stimulus
must be present to assure modification and retention of the acquired learning process. Conversely, when a
coach is seeking morphological or biochemical adaptations in their athletes using 6 or more reps, he or she
should prescribe fewer sets. Here are three workouts that vary the number of sets according to the qualifications of the client:
Beginner
A1. EZ Bar Reverse Curl A2. Parallel Bar Dips B1. DB Zottman Curl B2. EZ Bar French Press 4
4
4
4
6
6
10
10
4011
4011
5010
5010
90 sec
90 sec
60 sec
60 sec
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Intermediate
A1. Scott Neutral-grip BB Curl A2. Decline EZ Bar Triceps Extension B1. Incline Supinating DB Curl B2. Low Pulley Overhead Triceps Extension 6
6
4
4
6
6
8
8
3110
3110
3011
3011
Advanced
A1. Thick BB Curl A2. Thick BB Biacromial Bench Press B1. Scott Curl Supinating DB Curl B2. Parallel Bar Dips 8
8
4
4
4
4
6
6
4010
4010
3110
4010
90 sec
90 sec
60 sec
60 sec
100 sec
100 sec
90 sec
90 sec
Variables that Influence Set Selection
As with repetitions, there are many variables that influence set selection. Here are a few:
1. Training Goal
Using the concept that sets are inversely proportionate to the number of reps, let’s add to our chart:
Strength QualitySetsRepetitions
Relative Strength
6-12
1-5
Functional Hypertrophy
5-10
6-8
Hypertrophy
4-8
9-12
Strength Endurance
3-6
13 +
Sometimes there is a need for specialized work that will warrant a greater-than-normal number of sets, such
as 8-12. In this case, you must consider that the number of exercises consequently needs to be reduced.
For example, alpine skiers tend to lose hamstring strength during the competitive season. Further, the
torque-producing capabilities of their quadriceps may rise during the competitive season, despite the fact
that little strength training is normally performed. Those gains in quadriceps strength can be due to the
overload created by the g-forces held during the high-speed turns inherent in alpine skiing. Thus, the hamstrings/quadriceps strength ratio may decrease just because of the lack of strength training for the hamstrings during the competitive period.
To resolve the problem, for an alpine skier it would be wise at the start of the general preparatory period to
increase the overload on the hamstrings at the expense of volume of load on the quadriceps.
2. Muscles Trained
Just as a student would not expect high results on an exam after a single night of cram studying versus multiple exposures to the study material over a few weeks, an athlete cannot expect motor-learning acquisition
from single-set sessions. This is particularly true for lifts such as the power snatch and the jerk when aiming
to improve the rate of force development.
To improve maximal strength, the body must learn what the new “normal” weight is; and to become comfortable with this new weight, it must be exposed to it several times. If not, the nervous system is like the cramPoliquin International Certification Program- Level 1 Manual © 1982-2016, Poliquin Group
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ming student in that after the exam -- all knowledge is lost!
3. Exercise Qualities
The larger the mass involved in an exercise, the higher the metabolic cost. Thus, lactate production will be
much greater with squatting than with forearm work, so it is much easier to tolerate a great number of sets
for the forearms than for the squats.
Range of motion should also be factored into the workout equation; for example, power snatches from the
floor require more flexibility than power snatches from the hang. Similarly, the metabolic cost of a back squat
varies greatly between someone who is 5 feet tall and someone who is 6 feet tall.
There are estimates of optimal threshold levels for sets and reps for specific lifts. For example, the elbow flexors for relative strength seem to have a minimum of 16 lifts must be performed per workout, and the average
rep for each set should not fall below 2.5 reps.
There are also superior sets-and-reps combinations that are specific to the exercises intended to be improved. For example, squat poundages in preparatory periods are best driven upwards using a minimum of
7-8 sets of 4-5 repetitions. However, once the individual fails to respond to training volume as a stimulus,
intensity becomes the stimulus of choice. In that case, 6-10 sets of 1-3 reps produce the best results.
4. Nutritional Support
It is critical to pay attention to nutrition and supplementation to augment work capacity. This will enable an
athlete to create greater overloads on the neuromuscular system and thereby accelerate progress. Supplementation is paramount, especially for the natural athlete.
There is an abundance of evidence in the scientific literature pointing to the positive influence on work capacity of a variety of supplements. Among these supplements are ribose, creatine, glutamine, and post-workout drinks. Such nutritional support translates into the ability to handle greater average loads when performing multiple sets.
5. Time Under Tension
The understanding of “time under tension” is critical for fastest results. For example, the optimal sets of 3RM
in the bench press will vary depending on whether they are performed with or without chains attached to the
ends of the barbell, which alters the strength curve.
With chains, more tension is placed on the muscle fibers during the concentric portion of the exercise. Because there is greater stress during the concentric phase, fewer sets are required since greater microtrauma
is generated with each set and there is greater stress on the central nervous system.
Upper Body Program with Chains
A1. Flat BB Press with Chains A2. Sternum Pull-up B1. Incline DB Press B2. Telle Seated Row 5
5
4
4
3-4 30X0
3-4 30X0
6-8 4010
6-8 5010
180 sec
180 sec
90 sec
90 sec
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Upper Body Program without Chains
A1. Flat BB Press 8
3-5 30X0 150 sec
A2. Sternum Pull-up 8
3-5 30X0 150 sec
B1. Incline DB Press 4
6-8 4010
90 sec
B2. Telle Seated Row 4
6-8 5010
90 sec
6. Number of Exercises
Just as sets and reps are inversely proportionate, so are sets and the number of exercises used in a program.
Simply put, the greater the amount of exercises used in a program means the less amount of sets per exercises. Conversely, the less number of exercises will need more sets for each exercise.
We can apply this to the nature of the athlete’s sport and its influence of how many exercises per training
session are necessary. For example, high jumping requires emphasis on the lower-body musculature, while
judo requires the athlete to be able to apply or resist force at many different angles or planes. Thus, a high
jumper’s strength training may consist of only 3-4 exercises, whereas a judoka’s may contain 8-12 exercises.
Because the high jumper is going to perform only 3-4 exercises, he or she will be able to do more sets for
optimal overloading without compromising the ability to recover. Here are two workouts designed to improve
relative strength with the number of exercises adjusted to the training goal.
Relative Strength – General Population
A1. Flat DB Press Pronating A2. Kneeling Unilateral DB Row B1. Arnold DB Press B2. Lean Back Pronated Pulldown 6
6
4
4
5, 5, 5, 3, 3, 3
5, 5, 5, 3, 3, 3
5-7 5-7 4
4
4
4
4
4
3-5
3-5
4-6
4-6
6-8
8-10
4010
4010
3010
3010
90 sec
90 sec
90 sec
90 sec
Relative Strength – Judoka
A1. Pull-up A2. Incline DB Press B1. Neutral-grip Chin-up
B2. Standing Unilateral DB Press C1. Seated Row to Face C2. Incline DB Front Raise 4010
4010
3010
4010
3011
4010
90 sec
90 sec
90 sec
90 sec
60 sec
60 sec
7. Tolerance and Fatigue
Even though multiple sets induce far greater maximal strength gains than single-set training protocols, those
gains are asymptomatic in that the adaptations increase with the number of sets up to a certain point. That
is, the number of sets is subject to the Law of Diminishing Returns in that the relative reward for every set
diminishes with each additional set.
This principle explains why, when time is limited such as during the competitive season of a professional sport, it is important to perform 1 or 2 sets of an exercise to maintain -- or in some cases gain, maximal
strength. Without the stimulation these sets provide over and above the demands of the sport, this law
comes into play, and the athlete’s strength can begin to diminish. This is called the critical drop-off point.
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The basic premise of the critical drop-off point, which was popularized by track and field coach Charlie
Francis, is that a coach should never increase quantity of stimulus at the expense of quality. It is pointless
to do sets in which the resistance is lowered so much that (a) sufficient tension is not put on the muscle to
elicit strength gains, and/or (b) motor units of a lower threshold are trained. These additional “garbage sets”
would impede recovery by putting excessive strain on the nervous system, energy stores and neuroendocrine
response. The cumulative effect could be overtraining.
The critical drop-off point is highly individual, and can even vary from workout to workout. There is empirical
evidence, however, that athletes with a high fast-twitch fiber makeup tend to reach the critical drop-off point
faster. In contrast, the intake of various substrates such as creatine and ribose will tend to delay the onset of
the critical drop-off point.
The threshold for the critical drop-off point will also depend on which strength quality the coach is attempting to improve. In the case of maximal strength training, once an athlete reaches a 5-7 percent drop in performance, it is time to move to another exercise or body part. That 5-7 percent drop translates into having
to lower the load by the equivalent percentage to maintain a selected rep range (e.g., 6-8 reps), or can be
demonstrated by a sudden drop of 2-3 repetitions from one set to the next one.
If an athlete has not fully recovered from a workout, first reduce the volume (number of sets), not the intensity. It is a mistake to reduce the weight when an athlete is tired; instead, just decrease the number of repeated
efforts performed at that load.
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Chapter 5: Rest Intervals
Rest intervals, also known as rest periods, refer to the length of rest between sets and exercises. We can also
elaborate on the concept of rest between repetitions within a set. Rest is an important but often underestimated loading parameter.
Variables that Influence Rest Intervals
When selecting the correct rest intervals in your training program, there are variables that need to be considered.
1. Training Goal
“What is the training objective?” is the question the trainer must answer before deciding on the length of the
rest intervals. The next question to answer is “Do you want full recovery or incomplete recovery?”
The training effects of various rest periods in strength training have been extensively documented in the
scientific literature. If you want to maximize impact on the nervous system, full recovery is recommended.
When maximal strength is a concern, longer rest intervals will promote strength gains than shorter ones
because near-maximal recovery of force generation parallels restoration of energy substrates.
The neuromuscular basis of relative strength training methods centers around the use of brief, maximal
voluntary contractions. The great voluntary effort normally associated with these brief bursts of maximal
exercise recruits the highest-threshold motor units to make use of their greater strength and rate of force
development. This is why every repetition must be performed with full concentration and maximum effort,
which requires use of long rest intervals.
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The ability to restore neural drive, active muscle tension and energy substrates is a time-dependent process
requiring of a non-contractile period of rest following exercise. Rest intervals need to be prescribed based on
the training intent, such as relative strength, functional hypertrophy and strength endurance.
The length of the rest interval used in heavy resistance training appears to bring about specific changes. Powerlifters, even though accustomed to high-resistance training, have little tolerance to resistance training with
minimal rest intervals. Bodybuilders who tend to train in this fashion tolerate this work with greater ease.
Note the differences in the rest intervals that are prescribed for these two workouts, one for relative strength
and the other for hypertrophy.
With all this information, let’s continue to add to details to our loading parameters:
Strength QualitySets
Reps
RestEnergy System
Relative Strength
6-12 1-5
180-300 sec Anaerobic Alactic
Functional Hypertrophy
5-10 6-8 120-180 sec Anaerobic Lactic
Hypertrophy4-8
9-12
90-120 sec
Anaerobic Lactic
Strength Endurance
3-6 13 + 10-90 sec
Aerobic System
Relative Strength Program
Higher intensities require longer rest periods for optimal nervous system recovery.
A1. Behind the Neck Press A2. Supinated Chin-up B1. Seated DB Lateral Raise B2. Seated Row Rope Handle Face Pull 6
6
4
4
4, 3, 2, 4, 3, 2
4, 3, 2, 4, 3, 2
6-8 6-8 4011
4010
4010
4011
180 sec
180 sec
90 sec
90 sec
Hypertrophy Program
When training for hypertrophy, incomplete rest periods can be used to force the nervous system to recruit
additional muscle fibers and induce fatigue in the muscle fibers recruited.
A1. Flat DB Press 4 8-10 5010 30 sec
A2. Flat Bench DB Flye 4 12-15 3011
90 sec
B1. Pronated Wide-grip Pulldown 4 8-10 4010 30 sec
B2. Straight Arm Pulldown 4 12-15 3020 90 sec
C1. Seated DB Supinated Curl 3 8-10 4010 60 sec
C2. Incline DB Pronating DB Triceps Extension 3 8-10 4010 60 sec
2. Muscles Trained
The larger the muscle mass recruited, the greater the length of the rest interval; for example, back squats
recruit the largest muscles masses in the human body so they require longer rest intervals. Similarly, exercises that recruit smaller muscle groups, such as the elbow flexors with biceps curls, do not require long rest
intervals.
Larger muscle groups require longer rest periods due to the amount of energy substrates used by the muscles trained. Note the length of the rest periods in these two groups of exercises.
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Lower Body
A1. Back Squat Narrow Stance A2. Lying Leg Curl 5
5
6-8
6-8
4010
4010
Remedials
A1. Arm Abducted Sideways on Scott Bench A2. Facing Cable Column Mid-Height Trap 3 3
3
90 sec
90 sec
6-8
6-8
4010
4010
60 sec
60 sec
3. Exercise Qualities
The greater the range of motion, the greater the need for a longer rest interval. For example, deadlifts performed while standing on a 4-inch platform require longer rest intervals than deadlifts performed from the
mid-thigh or even the floor. Also, for a given rep range, heavy dumbbell work is more demanding than barbell
work; so for a 6RM set, incline dumbbell presses require more rest than incline barbell presses for 6RM.
Exercises that are more demanding neurologically require longer rest intervals. Exercises of a highly coordinative nature, such as split jerks and power snatches, need far longer rest intervals than simple isolation
exercises such as rotator cuff work. Olympic lifts and their variations demand very precise patterns of force
application and smooth coordination as opposed to machine exercises, which are relatively no-brainers. This
also explains why heavy dumbbell pressing work requires longer rest intervals than heavy barbell pressing
work. Another example would be single-leg dumbbell calf raises versus the seated one-leg calf press. Here
are specific workout protocols for deadlifts that have different ranges of motion:
Deadlift: Regular Range of Motion
A. Deadlift Clean Grip 5
5
4110
150 sec
Deadlift: Increased Range of Motion
A. Snatch Grip Deadlift on Platform 6
5
4110
180 sec
Deadlift: Reduced Range of Motion with Greater Resistance used than with Full Range of Motion Deadlift
(Short range of motion translates to greater resistance used over regular range of motion exercise, which
means greater rest period)
A. Partial Deadlift off Pins Below the Knee 8 5 2210 240 sec
4. Training Age
As a general rule, the bigger and stronger the trainee, the longer the rest interval should be.
Empirical evidence shows a direct relationship between the length of the rest interval and the weight class of
the weightlifter. In other words, the 54 kg lifter will tend to take shorter rest intervals than the super-heavyweight lifter. Conversely, an offensive lineman would rest longer than the running back.
Tolerance to short rest intervals with loads in the 60-80 percent range (6-20 reps) is a function of years
of accumulated training. Short rest periods are linked to greater psychological anxiety and fatigue, and the
lactate buildup resulting from this type of training is tolerated by only the well-conditioned athlete. Consequently, shortening the rest intervals when working with 10RM loads should be done progressively as the
buffering mechanisms adapt to increased muscle and blood lactate concentrations. Rest intervals should
only be shortened for the advanced trainee, as lactate buildup will interfere with the maintenance of proper
technique in the learning trainee.
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Even with neural training, rest intervals can be progressively shortened with no reduction in training weight.
Adepts of the training methods used by the Westside Barbell Club and Bulgarian weightlifters are proof of
the trainability of this physical quality.
By having the antagonistic pairs contracting alternately (e.g., flexion followed by extension) instead of employing agonist contractions alone (precontraction of antagonists), the ability to achieve full motor unit
activation (MUA) in a muscle contraction is often enhanced. This has the added benefit of allowing you to
double the workload per training unit.
A good plan is to alternate exercises working agonist muscles with exercises working antagonistic muscles
together, while respecting long rest intervals. For example, after doing a 3RM set of close-grip triceps presses, rest 2-3 minutes, perform a heavy set for the antagonist muscle (e.g., a 3RM to 4RM set of dumbbell curls
for the biceps), rest another 2-3 minutes and repeat the above procedure for the required number of sets.
Training in this fashion enables an individual to perform a greater tonnage per training unit. This is because
alternating antagonist pairs has been shown repeatedly to lower drop-off curves more effectively than traditional standard sets even with complete rest intervals.
The paired muscle groups are normally in opposite motor patterns. For example, overhead presses are alternated with forms of chins-ups, and lying forms of presses are alternated with rows. However, you do not
necessarily need to pair large motor patterns with other large ones. For example, deadlifts can be alternated
with tibialis raises, and chin-ups can be alternated with rotator cuff work.
The heavier the athlete, the greater the strain their weight imparts on the cardiovascular system, requiring
longer rest periods to recover optimally. The rest periods in the following two workouts have been adjusted
to deal with the weight of the athlete.
Also, lower intensities may help develop muscular development, and due to what’s known as neurological
inefficiency, women and beginners may thrive on using lighter weights with shorter rest intervals.
Absolute Strength Program for 180lb/81kg Athlete
A1. Front Squat 5
A2. Back Squat (same weight as Front Squat) 5
B1. Romanian Deadlift 4
B2. Horizontal Back Extension 4
3 AMRAP*
6-8 8-10 5010
3010
3110
3011
30 sec
180 sec
90 sec
90 sec
Absolute Strength Program for 260lb/117kg Athlete
A1. Front Squat 5
A2. Back Squat (same weight as Front Squat) 5
B1. Romanian Deadlift 4
B2. Horizontal Back Extension
4
3 AMRAP*
6-8 8-10 5010
3010
3110
3011
45 sec
240 sec
120 sec
120 sec
*As many reps as possible
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Chapter 6: Tempo
Tempo is the least understood of all the strength-training loading parameters and the one most associated
with popular myths. This section teaches you the true principles that regulate tempo of execution prescription.
A Need For a Tempo Prescription
If you don’t carefully manipulate all the loading parameters of training you cannot know exactly what type of
training stimulus you are applying to the body. One of the most commonly overlooked loading parameters is
tempo, or lifting speed. It relates to the “time under tension” of an exercise.
Varying tempo is an excellent way to overcome a plateau and shock the body into adapting. Time under tension governs the amount of stimulus a muscle is exposed to. For instance, performing a set of 10 repetitions
of squats with 60 kg at a 1-second-up and 1-second-down tempo is quite different from the same weight and
reps at a 1-second-up and 4-seconds-down tempo. The difference is in the time exposed to tension. The first
variation takes 20 seconds, while the second variation takes 50 seconds. That is a 30-second difference in
the time the muscles are exposed to the weight.
You should change the amount of time spent on different phases of a lift because it increases intramuscular
tension and provides a new or different type of stimulus to the muscles. It is a great way to stimulate further
strength development once the body has adapted to a rep range or set range and isn’t making progress. Plus,
varied tempo is an ideal way to train for hypertrophy and strength at the same time.
Not only should you vary tempo within a lift, but you should also use different lifts that naturally have distinct speeds for optimal training results. Explosive ballistic contractions such as Olympic lifts bring about
more central nervous system adaptations while slow-speed lifting with varied eccentric and concentric time
phases bring about more metabolic adaptations.
Variables that Influence Tempo Prescription
Taking control of the tempo of your exercises is a proven method of achieving training goals as quickly as
possible. Here are specific variables that influence how you should manipulate the tempo prescription.
1. Training Goal
For relative-strength sports, hypertrophic adaptations should be minimized, hence the need to access only
high-threshold motor units and keep time under tension to a minimum. By keeping the time under tension
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short, you ensure that the high energy phosphagens are the main fuel sources for those high-intensity contractions.
For relative strength development, normally the athlete utilizes 1-5 repetitions per set. Of course, to keep the
total time under tension under 20 seconds, the higher the number of reps per set, the lower the time under
tension per repetition should be.
For an absolute-strength sport with a high power component, such as hammer throwing, the time under tension for a set should not exceed 40 seconds. Yes, such athletes want hypertrophy, but the hypertrophy must
be functional, and this requires that the time under tension be brief. Further, hypertrophy gained by sets of
longer time under tension negatively affects performance.
Now, let’s put time under tension with the rest of our loading parameters:
Strength Quality
Relative Strength
Functional Hypertrophy
Hypertrophy
Strength Endurance
Sets
6-12
5-10
4-8
3-6
Reps
1-5
6-8
9-12
13 +
TUT
0-20 sec
20-40 sec
40-70 sec
50-120 sec
Rest
180-300 sec
120-180 sec
90-120 sec
10-90 sec
Energy System
Anaerobic Alactic
Anaerobic Lactic
Anaerobic Lactic
Aerobic System
2. Exercise Qualities
Some exercises by their very nature must always be performed at high speeds while others can be performed
at any speed.
Exercises that should be performed at only high speeds include the snatch and the clean and jerk, and partial
Olympic lifts, such as power cleans. These exercises train the synchronization of muscular chains to improve
the rate of force development and involve a multitude of joints that have to be used in a precise order for
optimal performance. Normally these are performed at a X0X0 tempo. However, in some instances you may
prescribe an isometric pause right in the middle of the concentric range. For example, during the power clean
a lifter could pause for 2 seconds once the bar clears the knees.
Exercises that can be performed at almost any speed are usually less technically complex and are most often
used for building maximal strength and/or hypertrophy. Examples of these exercises include presses, squats
and bicep curls.
3. Use of Eccentric and Isometric Contractions
An excellent way to target fast-twitch muscle figers is with an isometric pause in the advantageous position
(where the body is strongest based on lever length). For flexion exercises, such as biceps or hamstring curls,
you should pause in the down position for 1 to 2 seconds. For extension exercises such as squats or bench
presses, pause in the up position between the concentric and eccentric motions, when the limbs achieve near
lockout position.
Of course, varying tempo allows you to perform an isometric pause in the disadvantageous position when
you have poor leverage as well. The disadvantageous position for flexion exercises is the up position, and for
extension exercises it is the down position. You can imagine that holding the bottom position of a squat for 1
or 2 seconds would provide a valuable training stimulus while increasing intramuscular tension, a combination that can further boost strength development.
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Take note that it is necessary to train high-threshold motor units and develop maximal strength in slower lifts
such as the squat, deadlift and bench press to improve faster on movements such as Olympic lifts. For example, you may not be able to power snatch 100 kg unless you can squat about 184 kg. If you can back squat
only 160 kg, you may not be able to snatch 100 kg until you increase your squat weight significantly. Varying
tempo is an ideal way to work on this.
An excellent way for more advanced lifters to overcome plateaus and vary tempo is to train with chains or
bands attached to the barbells. This strategy is particularly effective in working the extensor muscles because attaching chains to a barbell will vary the amount of resistance your muscles have to contract against.
For example, if you put chains on the ends of the barbell when squatting, the chains will pile up on the floor
during the eccentric (or down portion) of the lift, decreasing the weight. As you come up from the squat
during the concentric phase, the weight will increase as the chains come off the floor and contribute to your
load. This is effective because it increases the weight during the weaker movement (you have less force capability concentrically), requiring you to train through the most challenging point of the lift.
A recent study of college football players found that the athletes significantly improved maximal strength
and peak power from training with chains and bands. The players who trained with chains and bands improved their 1RM bench press by 10 kg versus players who did a traditional bench press and improved by only
7 kg after a seven-week training program. Researchers also noted that weighted chains supply the added
benefit of training the stabilizer muscles because they swing and oscillate throughout the range of motion of
a lift.
You can use variable resistance on exercises such as deadlifts, squats and bench presses or any exercise in
which your progress has stagnated and in which you can reasonably attach chains or bands to the barbell.
Eccentric hooks (weights with hooks that hang off the sides of a barbell and drop off once the bottom of the
dangling hooks hit the ground) load the lift in the opposite way, making the lift heavier during the eccentric
down portion of the lift, where you are naturally stronger. The hooks come off and you can then explode up
with less resistance in the concentric motion. Be sure to limit variable resistance training to only one workout
out of two, at the most, because it is very taxing on the neuromuscular system.
Poliquin International Certification Program- Level 1 Manual © 1982-2016, Poliquin Group
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Part 3
Basic Anatomy & Structural Balance
Chapter 7:
Basic Anatomy for the Upper Body
Chapter 8:
A History of Structural Balance
Chapter 7: Basic Anatomy for the Upper Body
The Skeletal System
The skeletal system includes all the bones and joints.
Bones are organs that consist of mineral and protein fibers. They represent the structures that transmit force.
There are 206 bones of which belong to either the axial skeleton or the appendicular skeleton. The axial
skeleton consists of 80 bones that are found in the midline of the body and include the skull and vertebral
column. The appendicular skeleton consists of 126 bones found in the limbs, pelvis, and shoulder girdle.
There are five types of bones: long, short, flat, irregular, and sesmoid. A long bone is longer than it’s width,
such as the femur or tibia. A short bone is as wide as they are long, such as the wrist bones known as carpals. Flat
A joint is the point where at least two bones meet, creating an axis for movement. An axis is a straight line
that an object rotates around, and all movements in joints occur in a plane about an axis. Stable joints provide little movement, and unstable joints a permits a wide range of movement.
Muscles and Connective Tissue
A muscle is a type of tissue that can contract to produce movement or maintain body position. The attachment of the muscle that doesn’t move is called the origin, and the attachment of the muscle that moves is
called the insertion. Muscles are also agonist and antagonist; when a muscle contracts it is called the agonist
and the opposing muscle is called the antagonist.
Muscles can be classified as fast twitch, slow twitch, and mixed fiber depending upon their ability to produce
force and resist fatigue. The fast twitch fibers produce the highest levels of force but have the least resistance
to fatigue, the slow twitch fibers have the highest resistance to fatigue but produce the lowest levels of force,
and the mixed fibers are a compromise between the qualities of the fast twitch and slow twitch fibers.
Tendons are fibrous connective tissue that attach muscles to bone so that the bone can move.
Ligaments are fibrous connective tissue that attached bone to bone, thus providing stability.
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Movement Terminology
Cardinal Planes intersect the body at its center of mass and divide it into three planes. The frontal plane separates the body into front and back halves, the transverse plane divides the body into top and bottom, and
the sagittal plane divides the body into right and left sides.
One way to determine the origination of a movement is with planes of movement, of which there are the
following seven:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Anterior = front
Posterior = rear
Proximal = close
Distal = far away
Superior = above
Inferior = below
Medial = towards the midline of the body
Lateral = away from the midline of the body
The following are terms that describe the types of movements that occur in the human body.
-- Flexion: joint angle decreases
-- Extension: joint angle increases
-- Adduction: movement towards the body
-- Abduction: movement away from the body
-- Rotation: pivoting movement around a body part
-- Circumduction: moving in a circle around a joint
-- Pronation: rotation of the foot or forearm so that the sole or palm face down
-- Supination: rotation of the foot or forearm so that the sole or palm face up
Levers influence how much force is produced during a movement. The fulcrum of a level is the joint being
moved, the attachment of the muscle is the point of force application and the point of resistance is where the
resistance is moved. There are three types of levers, first class (fulcrum is in the middle, like a pair of scissors) second class (fulcrum and resistance on one same side, like a bottle opener), and third class (fulcrum is
at one side and the resistance at the other, like a pair of tweezers).
Center of Balance is where the body’s mass is balanced. From a standing position, this position is about in the
middle of the foot.
Center of Gravity is the point where all the mass is focused. From a standing position, this is about a few
inches behind and above the naval.
Force is the quality that enables an object to change it’s position. Compression occurs when the body is
positioned between load and an immobile surface. Tension is a stretching force, and as such is the opposite
of compression. Torque is a force applied in a rotational manner, and shear is when two parts of the body are
pushed in opposite directions.
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Prime Movers, Stabilizers and Decelerators
The agonist is the muscle that causes the primary movement, and the antagonist is the opposite muscle that
is usually relaxed during this movement.
To maintain structural balance, each muscle has an optimal relationship with other muscle groups. For example, some trainers suggest the shoulder Internal Rotators/External Rotators have a ratio of 3:2. In PICP,
we use the following seven primary exercises to determine upper body structural balance. These were those
exercises:
1. Close Grip Bench Press
2. Incline Bench Press
3. Supinated Chin-up
4. Press Behind Neck
5. Scott Barbell Curl
6. Lying Triceps Extension
7. Standing Reverse Curl
Here are those exercises broken down into prime movers (muscles primarily responsible for producing
movement) followed by other muscles that contribute to the movement:
1. Parallel Bar Dips = Deltoids
2. Bi-acromial Bench Press = Triceps
3. Incline Bi-acromial Bench Press = Anterior Deltoids
4. Supinated Chin-ups = Elbow Flexors
5. Press Behind Neck = Medial Deltoids
6. Seated Scott Curl EZ-bar Curl = Elbow Flexors
7. Standing Reverse Curl = Elbow Flexors
We have since expanded the structural balance program to include the following four exercises to provide a
more complete assessment of structural balance that act as stabilizers. Stabilizers are muscles that support a
body segment so that the prime movers can work. For example, the bent-over trap 3 raise doesn’t contribute
to force production but stabilize the shoulder structure so that deltoids, triceps and other muscles can perform movements. Here are those exercises.
Flat Powell Raise = Rhomboids
Bent-over Trap 3 Raise = Lower Trapezius
Elbow on Knee External Rotation = External Rotators of Shoulder
Bent-over Lateral Raise = Rear Deltoids
Here are the prime movers of these exercises. Again, other muscles are involved in these movements, but
these are the ones that contribute the more force to the exercise. For example, if a wide grip was used in the
bench press rather than a Bi-acromial grip, the pectoralis major would take over as the prime mover.
Poliquin International Certification Program- Level 1 Manual © 1982-2016, Poliquin Group
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Flat Powell Raise = Rhomboids
Bent-over Trap 3 Raise = Lower trapezius
Elbow on Knee External Rotation = External Rotators of Shoulder
Bent-over Lateral Raise = Rear Deltoid
Decelerators are muscles the ensure joint integrity by acting in opposition to the prime movers. For example,
the elbow on knee external rotation decelerates the humerous (upper arm bone) during throwing movements. If these muscles are weak, the joint could hyperextend or could decelerate the arm too soon, thus
reducing power.
Strength Curves, Resistance Curves and Torque
Open chain exercises are those in which the body is motionless and a limb moves. A closed chain exercise
is one in which the limb stays motionless and the body moves. A bench press is considered an open-chain
exercise whereas a push-up is considered a closed chain exercise.
One practical way to organize exercises is according to whether they involved pulling or pushing movements,
and whether then work the front (anterior chain) or rear (posterior chain) of the body. Here are these four
types of upper body movement patterns and examples of each with their prime movers:
Horizontal Pulling (Rhomboids)
Seated Cable Row
Suspension Horizontal Pull-ups
Dumbbell Row
Bent-over Row
Horizontal Pushing (Pectoralis Major)
Bench Press, Wide-grip
Supine Dumbbell Flyes
Pec Dec
Cable Crossover
Vertical Pulling (Trapezius)
Upright Row
Shoulder Shrug
Power Snatch from Hip
Power Clean from Hip
Vertical Pushing (Deltoids)
Military Press
Press Behind Neck
Lateral Raise
Push Jerk
A pronated grip rotates the hands palms down, and a supinated grip rotates them palms up. A semi-supinated grip turns the palms facing each other, and a mixed grip has one hand supinated and the other pronated.
Poliquin International Certification Program- Level 1 Manual © 1982-2016, Poliquin Group
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A supinated grip increases the involvement of the biceps, and a pronated grip increases the involvement of
the forearms, especially the biceps muscle called the brachialis.
A strength curve describes how much force a muscle can exert at specific joint angles. In contrast, a resistance curve describes how much resistance an exercise places on specific areas of the strength curve. There
are three types of resistance curves: low range, midrange, and end range. More specifically, the start of an
exercise is the low range, the middle portion is the midrange, and the finish is the end range.
Torque can be thought of as the ability of muscle to cause a lever, such as an elbow joint, to rotate a movement arm, such as a lower arm bone. In training the arms, torque is affected by how the elbows are positioned in relation to the body. Change the torque and you change the resistance curve of an exercise. Also,
because the line of pull changes with the elbow position, by varying your elbow position you will emphasize
different areas of the muscle.
Applying these definitions to biceps training, with a standing biceps curl your muscles encounter the most
resistance at the midrange of the movement when your elbows are alongside the body. With a Scott curl your
elbows are in front of the body, resting on a bench, you encounter the most resistance at the beginning of the
exercise. When your elbows are behind your body, such as with a dumbbell incline curl, you encounter the
more resistance at the top range of the movement. It follows that to stimulate total arm development your
workout could include Scott Curl, standing barbell curl, and dumbbell incline curl.
For the triceps, positioning the elbows overhead emphasizes the end range of the resistance curve; an example of such an exercise is a hairline press performed in a power rack. With your elbows behind your body,
such as occurs with dips, the torque on the exercise changes so the exercise is most difficult at the midrange
of the movement. With your elbows alongside your body you emphasize the low range of the resistance
curve. A triceps pressdown is an example of such an exercise. As such, to create maximum development of
the triceps your workout could include hairline presses (pin press), dips, and triceps pressdown.
There is controversy about whether an individual should just to full range-of-motion exercises or a combination of partial range-of-motion exercises and full range-of-motion exercises. Full range of motion exercises are appropriate for all training populations. However, partial range of motion exercises have value for
overcoming plateaus in training and also for sports specific training. For example, for an individual who has
trouble locking out a bench press after passing the sticking point, he or she could perform board presses to
correct that weakness. However, these athletes should still occasionally perform full-range exercises to prevent muscle imbalances.
Poliquin International Certification Program- Level 1 Manual © 1982-2016, Poliquin Group
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Chapter 8: A History of Structural Balance
Structural balance is the assessment method that forms the core of the first two levels of the Poliquin International Certification Program. The basic premise is that any training program, whether it’s for optimal physical fitness or for improved athletic performance, needs to address specific ratios of strength imbalances. As a
bonus, maintaining structural balance will help prevent injuries.
Here’s an example of the value of restoring structural balance: Several years ago, almost all the players on
a Canadian national volleyball team were suffering from patellar tendonitis. Patellar tendonitis is a chronic
swelling of the tendon that connects the kneecap to the lower-leg bone. Two months after the team began
emphasizing the vastus medialis oblique (VMO) in their workouts, structural balance was restored and the
patellar tendonitis went away in all but one of the team members.
Knee injuries are of particular concern for women and girls. The American Orthopedic Society for Sports
Medicine reports that each year more than 20,000 high school girls suffer serious knee injuries, most involving the ACL. Balancing the muscles surrounding the knee, especially the VMO, can be an extremely valuable
step in preventing this devastating injury. However, the concept of structural balance extends beyond injury
prevention.
Sergey Bubka was a pole-vaulter whose training is discussed in the book, Soviet Training and Recovery Methods by Rick Brunner and Ben Tabachnik, PhD. Included in this book is a table of eight strength and conditioning tests correlated to pole vault performance that Bubka regularly performed throughout his career. Two of
the strength tests in this table include results in the snatch and the bench press.
Here is the yearly progression of Bubka’s results (in kilos) in the snatch from 1975 (at age 11) to 1984: 25, 35,
40, 45, 50, 60, 70, 80, 85, 90. In that same period, his bench press progressively improved from 20 kilos to
110. Bubka and his coaches believed that by increasing his results in these eight tests he would develop the
athletic qualities he needed to be the best in the world. Sure enough, Bubka won the gold in the pole vault at
the 1988 Olympics, and during his career he broke 35 world records.
The concept of structural balance is used in the program design of weightlifters. The two lifts contested in
weightlifting are the snatch and the clean and jerk, but to improve performance in these lifts weightlifters
usually perform many assistance exercises, such as squats. For example, one component of the clean and
jerk is recovering out of the bottom position when the athlete catches the weight on their shoulders, which
equates, basically, to a front squat. As such, the front squat is considered an appropriate assistance exercise
for the clean
One ongoing controversy in weightlifting concerns the relationship between squats and the lifts, as reported
47
by Bud Charniga from many translations of Russian weightlifting textbooks and from personal conversations.
Examples include Americans Mark Henry, who could front squat 325 kilos and clean and jerk 220 kilos, and
Shane Hamman, who could back squat 457 kilos and clean and jerk 237 kilos. Likewise, Russia’s Aslanbek
Yenaldiev reportedly squatted 455 kilos, but at one competition during that time he was unable to rise from
a 240 clean. In contrast, Russia’s Olympic champion Yuri Zakharevich could front squat 250 kilos but could
clean and jerk 250.5 kilos and clean 265 kilos. And the great Vasily Alexeev, who clean and jerked 256 kilos,
claims never to have squatted more than 270 kilos.
In commenting on such ratios, Charniga said, “The strength of the hamstrings (in performing flexion at
the knee) in relation to that of the quads is critical to the speed with which the action of shifting the knees
under the bar occurs. Likewise, hamstring strength (in stabilizing the hip) is crucial as the shins straighten
during the first phase of the pull. So, one needs to be careful not to create a significant imbalance in strength
between the quads and hamstrings.” To add punch to his message, Charniga shared a pithy comment he’d
heard from former world record holder in weightlifting Alexander Kurlovitch: “A lot of squats adversely affect
speed.”
Canadian weightlifting coach Pierre Bergeron has trained numerous Olympians and competitors in the World
Championships. One of his success stories is Maryse Turcotte, who placed fourth at the Sydney Olympics
and was a three-time medalist at the World Championships. To illustrate how to determine structural imbalances in this sport, Bergeron provided the following optimal ratios of the snatch and assistance exercises for
an athlete who can clean and jerk 100 kilos:
Snatch: 80 kg / 82 kg
Power Snatch: 72 kg / 74 kg
Snatch Pulls (sets of 3): 95 kg / 100 kg
Power Clean: 88 kg / 92 kg
Jerks off the Rack: 103 kg / 105 kg
Clean Pull: 115 kg / 120 kg
Front Squat: 115 kg / 120 kg
Back Squat: 128 kg / 132 kg
Deadlift: 138 kg / 145 kg
Shoulder Shrug (sets of 6): 150 kg / 155 kg
Standing Press: 48 kg / 52 kg
The following norms are used by several national teams in Canada:
Olympic Total: 178
Snatch: 78
Clean and Jerk: 100
Power Snatch: 70
Front Squat: 105
Back Squat: 123
Power Clean: 90
Seated Press: 50-55
Further, tests of power such as the vertical jump and standing long jump have been used to ensure that the
training program is not adversely affecting speed. Let’s focus on what these ratios represent and how they
Poliquin International Certification Program- Level 1 Manual © 1982-2016, Poliquin Group
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can affect program design.
The power snatch is considered a strength exercise for the snatch, and its relationship to the full movement
should influence how an athlete’s training should be modified. For example, if an athlete’s power snatch is
nearly the same as the snatch, this may suggest that the athlete needs to work on speed. To accomplish this,
the athlete could perform more snatches and snatch-related lifts at lighter percentages (70-80) and fewer
sets in the heavier percentages (90-100), as well as a lower volume of squats to allow for more complete
recovery from training.
The original results could also indicate the athlete has poor technique, or that there is a structural imbalance
that prevents optimal technique from being executed. For example, because a lighter weight is used in the
power snatch compared to the snatch, it is easier to maintain proper back position at the start of the exercise. If a lifter is rounding their back at the start of the snatch due to weakness in the lower back or hamstrings, this technical problem might be resolved by performing assistance exercises such as deadlifts or
back extensions.
There are many factors that will affect the percentages used for structural balance. One is the size of the
athlete. Heavier weightlifters, especially the super heavyweights, often cannot achieve the extremely low
receiving positions in the snatch and clean that lighter lifters can. Further, their larger size also can affect the
speed at which they can move under the barbell. The result is that heavier athletes have to pull the barbell to
a relatively greater height to catch the barbell during the snatch and clean; this will create differences in the
ratios of the power movements compared to the classical lifts.
Another benefit of structural balance that makes a difference in weightlifting is confidence. Let’s say a male
weightlifter snatches 100 kilos and his best power snatch is 80 kilos. If during the next training cycle he power snatches 85 kilos, he will go into his next competition knowing he is physically strong enough to break his
personal record.
Trainers and coaches must precisely prescribe the programs that will help correct structural imbalances.
Keeping this concept foremost among your goals will enable you to create logical workout plans. Not only is
structural balance essential for your athletes, it distinguishes a great program from one that is merely good.
Poliquin International Certification Program- Level 1 Manual © 1982-2016, Poliquin Group