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AP AMERICAN HISTORY
FUN WITH EARLY AMERICAN HISTORY!
The information contained in this packet needs to be read PRIOR to the
start of class in January. Consider this a streamlined version of American
history to 1800 that roughly corresponds to the first ten chapters of KCB.
If you have the Remini book (A Short History of the United States), this
reading will supplement his first two chapters. In addition, actively use
the AP Test Prep book as you work on this preliminary assignment – you
will find it helpful.
Note the assignment at the end of the document concerning the first
REVIEW TEST that you will take. You are expected to turn in the
assignment during the first week of class in late January.
NOTE CONCERNING THE CLASS WEB SITE
Along with this reading I strongly recommend that you become familiar
with the class web site. You will find the link on the Social Studies
Department web page. In particular, I suggest the following things:
• Read through each of the links on the left side of the CLASS
ORGANIZATION grid
• Complete the REVIEW QUIZZES that correspond with the
information in this document (Topics 1-7). The link for the quizzes
is located on the bottom left of the CLASS ORGANIZATION grid.
Rykken/Early American
Exploration: Europeans Arrive!
Explorers in the late 15th, 16th, and early 17th centuries began the European phase of American
history. Their "discoveries" dispelled rumors of a northwest passage and settled ancient
questions of world geography. Contact between Europeans and Native Americans would have
a dramatic effect on Europe, but a devastating impact on those who were wrongly called
"Indians."
KEY CONCEPTS RELATED TO EUOPREAN COLONIZATION
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The rise of the nation-states in Europe was a factor in stimulating explorations in the
New World.
Spain and Portugal initially colonized the Western Hemisphere.
The Dutch colonized the Hudson River Valley, the French settled in parts of Canada
and the Ohio River Valley, and the English ultimately established a strong foothold on
the eastern seaboard.
The origins of the English colonies varied, as did their social and political systems.
Christopher Columbus: Spanish explorer who, with the backing of Ferdinand V and Isabella I,
discovered the North American continent on October 12, 1492. Though he was originally seeking
a westward route to India, his fleet of ships consisting of the Nina, Pinta and Santa Maria
reached the island of Hispaniola, claiming it for Spain.
Giovanni Verrazano: Mariner who explored the East coast of the United States and Nova Scotia
under the commission of France in 1524. He was commissioned to claim new lands in the New
World and find a route to China. He was the first European to enter New York Bay. His land
claims were not colonized until the 17th century.
Ferdinand Magellan: Portuguese explorer who was the first person to sail across the Pacific
Ocean and to circumnavigate the globe. Sailing under a Spanish commission, he attempted to
reach the Spice Islands. After crossing the Pacific, Magellan was killed battling natives in the
Philippines but two of his ships returned to Spain.
Francisco Pizarro: Spanish explorer and military leader who conquered Peru. Pizarro was part of
many early explorations of the New World and was involved in the colonization of Panama.
When he found the Inca Empire in Peru he organized an expedition of 180 men and destroyed
the empire in 1531.
John Cabot: Explorer sent by Henry VII in 1497 who explored and claimed Newfoundland, Nova
Scotia and the Grand Banks for England. Cabot was originally sent by Henry in violation of the
treaty of Tordesillas to find a direct route to Asia. Cabot, like Columbus thought he had reached
Asia, unaware he was exploring a new continent.
Vasco Nunez de Balboa: Spanish explorer who is best known for being the first to reach the
Pacific Ocean in 1513. While attempting to escape debt he joined an expedition lead by Martin
Fernandez de Enciso where he took control of the party and led it across the Isthmus of Panama
to the Pacific Ocean, which he claimed for the Spanish monarchs.
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Jacques Cartier: French explorer who explored the Saint Lawrence River. In 1534 Cartier lead a
two ship party to find the northwest passage to Asia. He explored Newfoundland and the Gulf of
St. Lawrence. While exploring, he claimed the lands for France which made up most of its claim
to Canada.
Juan Ponce de Leon: Spanish explorer who discovered the present day state of Florida on March
27, 1512. Following reports of a fountain of youth, he sailed from his colony in Puerto Rico to
the eastern shore of Florida where, upon landing, his party was attacked by natives and where
he was mortally wounded before retreating to Cuba.
Hernando Cortez: Spanish conquistador who is best known for the destruction of the Aztec
Empire in present day Mexico. On February 19, 1519 Cortez left Cuba with a force of 600 men.
Upon landing, Cortez was greeted by the Aztecs who he began to subjugate. He destroyed all
resistance and destroyed the Aztec capital in present day Mexico City.
Encomiendas: Grants that give a person the right to take labor in the form of slaves or any type
of homage form a designated group of Indians. Christopher Columbus who was sailing for Spain
and who was one of the first conquistadors also began this practice in Hispaniola.
Spanish Armada, 1588: Naval force launched by Phillip II of Spain to fight England. The Fleet was
the largest of its time in the 16th century. The Armada was severely damaged when it was
attacked off the coast of England on August 7, 1588 and cut nearly in half by storms upon return
to Spain, making Britain the dominant sea power.
Colombian Exchange: The exchange of biological organisms between continents. The diseases
brought to the American continent that helped to nearly destroy the native populations is one
example of that exchange. Besides disease, many plants and animals have been brought to new
environments with varying consequences.
Order of Colonization: (colony, date, prominent figure) Virginia in 1607, John Smith; Plymouth
in 1620, William Bradford; New York in 1626, Peter Minuit; Massachusetts Bay in 1630, John
Winthrop; Maryland in 1633, George Calvert; Rhode Island in 1636, Roger Williams; Connecticut
in 1636, Thomas Hooker; New Hampshire in 1638; Delaware in 1638; North Carolina in 1653;
South Carolina in 1663; New Jersey in 1664; Pennsylvania in 1682, William Penn; Georgia in
1732, James Oglethorpe.
Virginia Settlement: Why significant in American history?
One of the New England colonies and chartered by James I in 1606, Virginia was founded to
give the English territorial claims to America as well as to offer a colonial market for trade.
Jamestown, became a prosperous shipping and tobacco producing colony and the colony
developed the House of Burgesses, a bicameral legislature in 1619.
Joint Stock Company: A business owned by investors through control of stocks. Examples
operated in England and dealt with colonial markets in America. Such companies organized and
supported the colonies through charters from the British government and while they worked
with the government they made private profits.
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Jamestown: The first successful settlement in the Virginia colony founded in May, 1607. Harsh
conditions nearly destroyed the colony but in 1610 supplies arrived with a new wave of settlers.
The settlement became part of the Virginia Company of London in 1620. The population
remained low due to lack of supplies until agriculture was solidly established. Jamestown grew
to be a prosperous shipping port when John Rolfe introduced tobacco as a major export and
cash crop.
starving time: The period early in any settlements development when food and supplies are
scarce due to lack of preparation, unfamiliarity with the surroundings, weather, and inability to
successfully grow crops. The starving time usually cost a large percentage of the settlers’ lives
and lasted for the first few years.
John Smith: Colonial leader who brought structure and stability to Jamestown during its starting
years. As a member of the governing council of Virginia he was chosen to replace the previous
president in 1608. Smith is credited with organizing trade with the Powhatan Confederacy and
leading the colony through its roughest years.
John Rolfe: English colonist and farmer who greatly aided the colony. Rolfe is credited with
introducing tobacco as a crop for export, which ensured the colony of profits as well as bringing
eight years of peace between Indians and colonists through his marriage to Pocahontas.
purpose of Virginia: Virginia was founded primarily for the purpose of profit by the joint-stock
owned Virginia Company of London. It was also important in giving England territorial claims in
America to match Spanish and French expansion, and to also give England markets and
resources in the New World.
indentured servants: People who promised their lives as servants in order to get to the colonies.
The servants, who were usually white, worked for a certain amount of time so to pay off their
debt. This practice led to social tensions with such eruptions as Bacon’s Rebellion and eventually
was replaced by race slavery.
problems and failures of Virginia: Included trouble with Indians and a "starving time" in the
winter of 1609 which the colony barely survived. Virginia also suffered from debt, a high death
rate, fraudulent local officials, and more Indian trouble. The problems eventually made the
Virginia Company go bankrupt.
headright system: System enacted first in Virginia then in Baltimore to attract people to the
sparsely populated colonies. The system worked by granting large amount of land to anyone
who brought over a certain amount of colonists. In Baltimore, anyone bringing five adults at
their own expense would receive two thousand acres.
House of Burgesses: A regular assembly of elected representatives that developed in the
Virginia colony in the 1630’s. The House of Burgesses was split into two chambers in 1650,
creating the House of Burgesses and the Governors Council. The House was a bicameral
legislature that was a model for our congress.
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Successes of Virginia: Virginia succeeded politically in terms of creating the House of Burgesses
as a semi-democratic assembly and forcing governors to cooperate with the legislature. They did
this through the power of the purse as governors did not control money, and therefore
depended on the legislature for their salaries.
Cavalier: The group of supporters of Charles I in the English Civil War which lasted from 16421648. The term Cavalier continued to be used to mean any supporter of the British crown,
especially Americans who were British sympathizers during the American Revolution.
Bacon’s Rebellion: Colonial rebellion against the governor of Virginia in 1676. Nathaniel Bacon
was the leader of the uprising protesting Governor Berkeley’s neglect of calls for a stronger
military presence in the frontier to end problems caused by Indian hostility. The revolt
succeeded in driving away the governor and it appeared it would achieve success when Bacon
died shortly after the initial success before any progress was made and the rebellion dissipated.
Puritans: Who were they and why were they important?
The Puritans first came to America in 1620 on the Mayflower. The Pilgrims, as they were
called, were separating from the Anglican Church and escaping religious persecution in
England by escaping to America. Other Puritans soon flocked to America hoping to "purify"
the Anglican Church and develop a colony which would be a model to the world ("a city upon
a hill")
Calvinism: The teachings and doctrine of John Calvin, a leader in the Protestant reformation.
Calvinism is unique in its rejection of consubstantiation, the Eucharist and in its doctrine of
predestination, the belief that no actions taken during a person’s life would affect their
salvation. The Puritan colonies were based on Calvinist doctrine.
Church of England: The established church in England that is also known as the Anglican Church.
The Church of England was founded in 1534 by Henry VIII after a dispute with the Roman
Catholic Church over the annulment of his marriage which culminated in the Act of Supremacy,
declaring the King to be the head of the church.
SIDEBAR: SAMPLE FREE RESPONSE QUESTION FROM 1994 EXAM
Analyze the ways in which TWO of the following influenced the development of American
society: Puritanism during the late 17th century; the Great Awakening during the 18th century;
the Second Great Awakening during the 19th century.
RYKKEN COMMENTS: This question forces you to see how religious movements play a role in
history at different periods of time – very typical of the types of questions that confront
students on the national exam.
Mayflower Compact: Agreement made by the Pilgrims in 1620 when they landed at Plymouth.
The compact created the Plymouth colony and made a civil government under James I based on
the will of the colonists. The Compact was important in the early organization and success of the
colony.
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William Bradford: The second governor of the Plymouth colony in Massachusetts, he was
elected over John Carver in 1621 and was reelected thirty times. He was important in the
organization and success of the colony and kept a history of the development of the Plymouth
colony that was published in 1856.
Pilgrims: The original group of puritan separatists that fled religious persecution in England and
found refuge in what is now Massachusetts. The Pilgrims sailed across the Atlantic and reached
America in 1620 where they founded the Plymouth colony and organized a government based
on the Mayflower compact.
Puritans: Reform movement in the Anglican Church in the 16th and 17th centuries and came to
America in 1629. The movement aimed at purifying the church of corruption split into
separatists, who wanted to end ties with the established church and non-separatists. Seeking
religious freedom was a strong motivation for colonies in America.
PILGRIMS VS. PURITANS: Pilgrims and Puritans were extremely similar in most practices and
beliefs, but Pilgrims were a distinct group of puritans who were not only against the Anglican
Church but called for total separation from the church, a dangerous belief in religiously tense
England. For this reason they fled the town of Scrooby, England, where they originally had
assembled and ended up in Plymouth with intentions of creating a community free of English
control.
Separatists vs. Non-Separatists: Separatists were a group of Puritans who advocated total
withdrawal from the Church of England and wanted the freedom to worship independently
from English authority. They included the Pilgrims who migrated to America. Non-Separatists
sought to reform the Church from within.
Massachusetts Bay Colony: Colony created by the Massachusetts Bay Company. Under the
leadership of John Winthrop, the colony was created to provide the world with a model
Christian society. The colony was created in 1630 and it was governed through a General Court
selected by church members.
City Upon a Hill: Name given to the Puritan society that was to be created in the New World.
The leader of the Puritan migration, John Winthrop planned to create a utopian society based
on Puritanism that would have no class distinction and would stress the importance of
community and church. The society was to be an example to all the world of what could be
achieved. It was anticipated that once the world saw this great city it would follow it example.
Cambridge agreement: Plan used in 1629 to colonize America by allowing immigration of
puritan settlers who would control the government and the charter of the Massachusetts Bay
Company. The agreement was based on the creation of a market for trade but instead
developed a religiously based government.
Puritan Migration: The term given to the migration of Puritans to America in the early 17th
century. Following the restoration of James I to the throne Puritans in England became
persecuted and with the accession of Charles I to the throne the situation became worse. The
puritans fled England and came to America to have freedom of religion.
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John Winthrop: The first governor and one of the founders of the Massachusetts Bay Colony
and a member of the Massachusetts Bay Company. He played a key role in the puritan migration
and intended to create a utopian society in America. He was elected governor twelve times and
pursued a conservative religious and governmental policy.
New England Way: The Puritan dominance of New England and their desire to create a utopian
society based on their doctrine created a distinct society in New England. Unlike other colonies,
Puritans were guided by their religion and created a government and society tied to the church.
Covenant Theology: Christian Theology that stressed that an agreement was made by God with
humans with the death of Jesus for the salvation of mankind. The theology differs from sect to
sect, some assert that salvation is granted to all, some that it is earned and others that it can be
achieved by faith alone.
conversion relation: Part of the Massachusetts Puritans practice, it was a requirement of new
members. The Relation required that any member of the congregation must go through an
examination before the congregation. Because of its unpleasantness, later generations did not
go accept it and the half-way covenant was adopted.
Congregationalism: Protestant organizational system based on the freedom of each church to
control its affairs. An offshoot of the separatist, it was continued by the pilgrims in America
where it was adopted by the new churches as a way to maintain local independence.
Congregationalism was part of the strong independence of the colonies.
Cambridge Platform: Agreement and plan formed by Puritans before they landed in 1629. The
platform was the source for the Puritans of the government and organization for their colony,
and it established a government under the authority of the King of England.
Contrast Puritan Colonies with others: Because most colonies were created with financial or
political gains in mind, puritan colonies had a special distinction from them. The puritans came
to American seeking religious freedom and had a strong work ethic enabling them to achieve a
success not seen in other colonies.
dissenters: People objected to the accepted doctrine of the established church. The puritans
who migrated to America were dissenters from the Church of England who created a new
church in the colonies. Religious outcasts from the puritan church such as Ann Hutchinson and
Roger Williams were also dissenters.
Anne Hutchinson, antinomianism: Early New England religious leader who founded the doctrine
of antinomianism, the belief that the Gospel frees Christians from required obedience to laws.
She was banished to Rhode Island in 1637 for her belief in antinomianism and her insistence on
salvation by faith and not works.
Roger Williams, Rhode Island: Early colonial clergyman who founded the religiously tolerant
colony of Rhode Island in 1636. Williams was banished from Massachusetts for his belief in
religious freedom, he established a colony at Providence in 1636 that tolerated all dissenters
and was in good relations with the Natives.
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Massachusetts School Law: Law also Known as the Old Deluder Act of 1647 that replaced home
education by creating a system in which small towns would have a person capable of teaching
the children and every town of over one hundred homes would have a school. The law was a
step towards creating a universal education system.
town meetings: The center of Colonial America political life especially in New England. Town
Meetings were gatherings where all the voters in the town or nearby countryside would all
congregate and go over issues that most interested them, such as town officers, and taxes for
the following season.
Voting Granted to Church Members: The New England puritans developed a more democratic
system of government than in England that gave the power to elect the governor to all male
saints. The idea was furthered in 1644 when it adopted a bicameral court with elected
delegates.
Half Way Covenant: A modification in the Cambridge Platform in 1662 that enabled people who
had not experienced the conversion relation to become part of the congregation. With the later
generations of Protestant settlers unwilling to undergo the conversion relation, church
membership was threatened and the compromise was made.
SALEM WITCH TRIALS: The fear of witchcraft that came to a head in the 1691-1963, especially
boiling over in Salem, Massachusetts in 1692. This fear ended with the death of many innocent
women. Most of the women were middle aged wives or widows. Many implicated others for
fear of their lives. The Salem Witch Trials pinpointed the underlying tension that was coming to
head in many colonies due to religion and social standings.
Puritan Ethic: Term that characterizes the strong sense of purpose and discipline that Puritans
had. Part of the work ethic also resulted from a belief that wealth and success were a sign of
saintliness and that idleness was a sin. This work ethic also helped the Puritans find success in
the colonies and translated to an American colonial work ethic.
Regionalism (Why did we develop the way that we did?)
As life in the colonies progressed, certain regions of America developed distinct characteristics
and each had its own unique niche. The contrasts between the different regions were
involving crops, religion, and control. The distinct regions were New England, the Chesapeake
Bay area, the southern colonies, the middle colonies, and the frontier.
NEW ENGLAND: Region of the colonies lying on the northeast Atlantic Coast. It started as a
highly religious, Puritan society, but eventually became a commercialized "Yankee" society. Of
all the colonies, the New Englanders prospered the least, had the most overpopulated towns,
and had the poorest soil. To make up for the lack of farming, New Englanders turned to fishing
and the merchant marine, and by 1700, this was one of the largest industries in the colonies.
New England Confederation, 1643: A concord among the New England colonies of
Massachusetts, Plymouth, Connecticut and New Haven in the years from 1643-1684. The union
was for the purpose of ensuring safety and peace between the colonies. The confederation was
used most effectively advising during King Phillips War.
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The Dominion of New England: Centralized government imposed upon the New England
colonies by England in 1686 as a result of the Restoration monarchy’s need for control and
renewed colonial interest. The Dominion was governed by New York governor Sir Edmund
Andros. The consolidation was strongly opposed by the colonists because of the elimination of
all colonial legislatures, and was ended by colonial insurrection.
Massachusetts Bay Company: Company in 1628 to govern the Massachusetts Bay Colony on
granted by the Council of New England in America. Puritan settlers who founded their
settlement at Boston first colonized the land, starting a trend of religiously independent
settlements. The Company was dissolved in 1684.
Sir Edmund Andros: Political leader appointment as governor of the Dominion of New England
in 1686. Andros was extremely unpopular because of his suppression of colonial legislatures,
town meetings and enforcement of the Navigation Acts. Boston colonists forcefully removed
Andros from office in 1689.
Fundamental Orders of Connecticut: The constitution of the Connecticut colony that was
established in 1639. Written by Thomas Hooker and similar to the government of Massachusetts
Bay, it contained a preamble and 11 orders. Following the puritan ideal, it put the welfare of the
community above that of individuals.
Poor Richard’s Almanack: Publication written by Benjamin Franklin in 1732 that gained an
immense following with its home remedies and practical wisdom. It can be said that Poor
Richard’s Almanack helped define the American culture by giving them traditions and wisdom’s
all their own, separate from Britain.
Phyllis Wheatly: African American poet who was brought to America by slave traders at the age
of eight and was bought by the Wheatly family. In 1767, at the age of 8, Phyllis found her first
fame while escorting one of the Wheatly’s in England. One of her works is "To the University of
Cambridge in New England."
Ann Bradstreet: The first woman to write poems in colonial America and receive acclaim for
them. She was born in 1612 as the daughter of the governor of the Massachusetts Bay Colony.
Her poems, which were published as The Tenth Muse Lately Sprung up in America, asserted that
women had the right to gain knowledge.
SOUTHERN COLONIES: Region consisting mainly of the Carolinas and Georgia. The Southern
Colonies were distinct from other colonies mostly on their dependence for slave labor and for
farming. The main crop in the South was rice, leading to an absence of large cities in the south.
But although most southern cities were tiny, Charleston became the fourth largest city in the
colonies. The Southern Colonies were also the only colonies with a large population of blacks
and an ethnically stratified society.
Georgia: Colony founded in 1733 by a charter granted to James Oglethorpe. The colony started
with a settlement in Savanna created by Oglethorpe as a debtor’s colony. The high ideals of
Oglethorpe, such as bans on slavery and rum, slowed growth as large settlement did not occur
until after slavery was brought to Georgia.
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James Oglethorpe: English soldier and founder of the colony of Georgia in 1733. Oglethorpe
founded Georgia after a grant from King George II and settled with a small group on the Savanna
River. Oglethorpe’s ideals in creating a debtors colony free of vice were a distinction from other
colonies.
Tidewater vs. Piedmont: Two regions of contrasting economic opportunity. The Tidewater was
along the coast, where most of the opportunity was in shipping and fishing. the Piedmont, on
the other hand, was where farming took place. This contrast represented an East-West
dichotomy to accompany the North-South one.
Maryland: Proprietary colony originally intended to be a refuge for English Catholics. Maryland
was created in 1632 when Lord Baltimore (Cecilius Calvert) was given a land grant and created a
manor based state with a headright system. However, Protestants formed a majority and the
manors evolved into plantations.
sugar colonies: Colonies that produced sugar for England, like New Netherlands, New England,
Virginia, Maryland, and the Caribbean. Sugar was produced because it could make people rich
quickly because it was sold at very high prices. Sugar plantation owners liked to use black slaves
because they were able to work harder and longer.
CHESAPEAKE SOCIETY: Society characterized by few neighbors and isolated families whose lives
depended on tobacco. Chesapeake society also revolved around fertile soil near navigable water
because tobacco needed such an environment to be grown profitably. Because of this, most
farms were located along Chesapeake Bay. Chesapeake society also had a powerful merchant
class who controlled both export and import commerce. Slow urbanization also characterized
society around the Chesapeake.
Lord Baltimore: Founder of Maryland who, in 1632, received a charter from King Charles I for a
tract of land to the northeast of the colony of Virginia. It comprised the present-day states of
Maryland and Delaware. He wrote the charter for the colony but died before he got it.
Maryland Act of Toleration: Act that resulted when the Catholics began feeling threatened by
the overwhelming Protestant population. The Maryland Act of Toleration was passed in 1649 so
all types of Christians could have equal political rights. Along with this equality Lord Calvert
allowed a representative assembly for the Catholics.
Maryland’s Protestant Association: Group of Protestants in Maryland during late 1600s who
controlled the lower house but not the upper, which the Catholics ruled. Eventually, after the
Act of Religious Toleration was passed, the Protestant majority barred Catholics from voting and
threw out the governor and repealed the act.
Huguenots: French Protestants. The enlightened and religiously skeptical spirit of the 18th
century, however, was opposed to religious persecution, and during this time the French
Protestants gradually regained many of their rights. The Huguenots slowed the colonization
process for the French, because of the religious wars with French Catholics.
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Carolinas: Colonies created when Charles II rewarded eight of the noblemen who had helped
him regain the throne from the Puritan rule in 1663 by giving them land. North Carolina
originated as an extension of Virginia and South Carolina came from planters from Barbados,
who founded Charleston in 1670.
Charleston: City that became the fourth largest city in North America. It was a place where the
upper class could pass their time so they could stay away from the heat of their plantations.
Many whites were lured to Charleston in hopes of reducing the black majority. These job
seekers usually ended up competing for jobs with the black slaves.
staple crops of the South: The major staple crop of the south was rice, which was picked by
African-American planters who were imported by the Dutch in 1616. Other crops were tobacco,
indigo, various grains, wood, and skins. All of these products were exported to Europe and the
West Indies. Most of the colonists’ profit came from farming.
Middle Colonies: The middle colonies were Pennsylvania, New York, and New Jersey, all of
which produced iron, grain, flour, wood, and tobacco which were exported to Britain, Europe
and the West Indies. Pennsylvania was built on the basis of being a religious haven for Quakers.
New York was built upon the rule of James Duke of York who sent out John Lord Berkeley and Sir
George Carteret to be the first two proprietors of New Jersey.
Restoration Colonies: Colonies created following the Stuart restoration in 1660 when England
again took interest in America. The colonies enabled England to control the East Coast, Carolina,
New York, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania. These colonies had governments that made a social
hierarchy geared toward a dominant wealthy class.
Primogeniture, entail: The practice of passing on land to a son, usually the eldest, when no will
was left for the land. This practice became came over with the colonists and was introduced into
common law, but it did not take long for the practice to die out in the colonies.
quitrents: Federal payments that the freeholders had to pay the people who were getting the
land from proprietors. With the Restoration and the creation of Restoration Colonies, the dues
were still enforced, with the money no longer going to the proprietors but instead to the king or
queen as royal revenue.
Pennsylvania, William Penn: Pennsylvania was founded as a refuge for Quakers by William Penn
in 1681. The Quakers believed that an "inner-light" allowed them to be on a personal level with
God. Penn and his people did not experience a starving time which was very common for
starting colonies. They started with a strong government.
Quakers: Religious movement founded in 1600 by a religious belief that divine revelation is
immediate and individual and that all persons may perceive the word of God in their soul. They
rejected a formal creed and regarded every participant as a potential vessel for the word of God.
They were based in Pennsylvania.
George Fox: Preacher of the "inner-light" doctrine who spoke against formalized religion, mainly
Presbyterianism, and advocated divine communion as he practiced it. He objected to political
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and religious authority, opposed war and slavery, and believed that all human actions must be
directed by inner contemplation.
liberal land laws in PA: Laws that were set up by William Penn which were very liberal because
that was his nature. The 1701 Frame of Government stated that the proprietors had no power
to do mischief. Penn himself carefully oversaw land sales in the colonies to avoid improper
disputes. This liberal planning ensured no starving time.
Holy Experiment: The main part of this theology that George Fox taught was that people had an
inner light that could spiritually inspire their souls. He objected to political and religious
authority, opposed war and slavery, and believed that all human actions should be directed by
inner contemplation and a social conscience inspired by God.
1701 Frame of Government: The first set of laws set up in Pennsylvania which was written by
William Penn. In his constitutional type document Penn preached "that the will of one man may
not hinder the good of the whole company." The document was revised seven times and held a
strong executive, and a limited lower legislative chamber.
New York: Dutch, 1664 English: Charles II gave his brother James title to all the Dutch lands in
America in 1664. James became King in 1685 and appointed Lord Berkeley and Sir George
Carteret as the first proprietors of New Jersey. For years to come there were conflicting claims
to the territory and finally in 1702 it became a royal colony.
East/ West Jersey: They were colonies that resulted from the sale of the Jersey territory to
Quakers. English settlers resisted the original proprietors’ authority, so in 1674 Berkeley sold his
half to a union of Quakers. East Jersey then became dominated by Scottish Quakers whereas
West Jersey became the home to many English Quakers.
patroon system: The system of feudal estates created by large New York landowners in the
early 1700s. The estates were created in order to raise revenue by collecting tenant rents. Later,
by about 1750, the patroon owners emerged as a class of landed elite, almost like the British
landed aristocracy.
Peter Stuyvesant: Dutch governor who was attacked by Charles II in 1664 so that the British
could control North America. Stuyvesant, whose army was already hurt from Indian attacks,
peacefully surrendered and gave New Netherlands to Charles II, forming the New York and
Jersey colonies with a large remaining Dutch population.
the middle colonies as a religious haven: William Penn founded Pennsylvania originally as a
religious haven for Quakers who were not accepted elsewhere in 1681. Similarly, Maryland was
founded by George Calvert in 1632 and served as a refuge for English Catholics. Rhode Island
was founded by Roger Williams in 1644 for dissenting Puritans.
crops in the middle colonies: The middle colonies rich level lands produced lengthy growing
seasons and gave good bumper crops. The middle colonies were major exporting colonies
because of their accessible sea ports. Their exports were rice, iron, grain, flour, wood, and
tobacco which were shipped to Europe and the West Indies.
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Benjamin Franklin: A notable American printer, author, diplomat, philosopher, and scientist, his
contributions epitomized the Enlightenment. In 1731 he founded what was probably the first
public library in America. He first published Poor Richard’s Almanack in 1732 and played a
crucial role in the American Revolution and community.
John Bartram: Botanist who was known as the father of American Botany. Bartram traveled
extensively through the colonies, observing wildlife, writing, collecting plants, and making maps.
He performed important experiments involving plant hybridization and in 1728 he founded the
first botanical garden in America near Philadelphia.
FRONTIER: Area of land important in the development of a distinctly American culture and
political life, as explained by Fredrick Turner’s Frontier Thesis. The frontier also offered limitless
land, which democratized America by eliminating the significance of voting property
requirements. Finally, the frontier represented a raw environment that helped mold American
civilization by giving it coarseness, strength, acuteness, pragmatism, and inventiveness.
North-South economic differences: The North was much more concerned with shipping, fishing,
and industry whereas the South was based on an agricultural society. Also, the North had more
towns, cities, and ports. In contrast, the South was characterized by cash crops, an aristocracy,
and plantations.
SIDEBAR: SAMPLE DBQ FROM THE 1994 AP NATIONAL EXAM
Although New England and the Chesapeake region were both settled largely by people of
English origin, by 1700 the regions had evolved into two distinct societies. Why did this
difference in development occur? Use the documents AND your knowledge of the colonial
period up to 1700 to develop your answer.
RYKKEN COMMENTS: Throughout the semester we will be learning how to respond to
Document Based Questions (DBQs) and this is an example of one related to this material.
What you are not seeing here, of course, are the documents themselves. In DBQs you need to
be able to combine your knowledge of outside information and the ability to analyze
documentary evidence. This is a great example of a question that forces you to analyze
contrasts between different regions of early American development.
Red, White, and Black: Race in American History?
With the colonization of certain regions in America came conflicts with the Native Americans
and the earliest traces of slavery in America. Originally using African-Americans only as
indentured servants, the growers and farmers eventually began to rely on African-Americans
and Native Americans as a free source of labor.
Iroquois Confederacy: The joining of six sects of the Iroquoian family and of the Eastern
Woodlands area. By the 1700s, the tribes in the confederacy were the Onondaga, Cayuga,
Oneida, Mohawk, Seneca, and Tuscarors. By combining they were a stronger force against the
colonists.
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Native American Relations in the first settlements: Relations characterized by resistance to the
expansion of English settlement, submission into "praying towns," and devastation through war
and disease. Many of the Massachusetts Indians sought protection from Winthrop by selling
their land and surrendering their independence.
Pequot War: So-called war consisting of clumsy plundering by Massachusetts troops and raids
by Pequots in 1637. The colonists eventually won the alliance of rival tribes and waged a
ruthless campaign. The war tipped the balance of military power to the English, opening the way
to New England’s settlement.
King Phillips War: War between the Native American tribes of New England and British colonists
that took place from 1675-1676. The war was the result of tension caused by encroaching white
settlers. The chief of the Wampanoags, King Philip led the natives. The war ended Indian
resistance in New England and left a hatred of whites..
praying towns: Towns set up by puritan missionaries for Indian converts to spread puritan
Christianity, the first of which, Natick, was founded in 1651. As the Indian population in the east
waned, assimilation as "Praying Indians" became the only option besides retreating farther
west.
Beaver Wars: Wars that resulted from furious trading and hunting of Beaver pelts by the Dutch,
the French, and the New Netherlands. The over-hunting of Beavers sent prices so high in 1742
that the Dutch armed the Iroquois and what resulted were bloody battles against Pro-French
tribes.
SLAVERY BEGINS: Followed the exploration of the African coast and the establishment of a slave
trade Europe during the 15th and 16th centuries. The slave trade then moved in to America as
the development of a plantation system in Virginia offered a market for slavery and the first
slaves arrived there in 1619. Slavery remained small among the colonies, however because it
was not yet profitable for slavery under the conditions. As trade and agriculture grew and a
plantation system grew so did slavery.
SIDEBAR: SAMPLE AP FREE-RESPONSE QUESTION FROM 2001 EXAM:
How did the economic, geographic, and social factors encourage the growth of slavery as an
important part of the economy in the southern colonies between 1607 and 1775?
RYKKEN COMMENTS: This question forces you to evaluate how slavery, as an institution, was
a product of multiple causation – in other words, many factors came together to cause this
horrible thing to develop in our history. The role of historians is to EXPLAIN why things
happened.
Barbados Code: Code adopted by Carolina in 1696 to control slaves at the will of their masters.
It was often noted as an inhumane code but the society revolved around slaves, so laws like this
were created in order to keep control in the society. White owners relied on force and fear to
control the growing black majority in the Carolinas.
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Maryland Slave Code, 1661: The first actual definition by the colonies of slavery as a "lifelong,
inheritable, racial status." It was issued by Maryland in 1661 in order to set up a distinct place
for the slaves in the society. Out of the Maryland Slave Code of 1661 came the establishing of
other slave codes that set up strict legal codes.
Stono Rebellion: Slave uprising in South Carolina in 1739, in which twenty slaves robbed guns
and ammunition from the Stono River Bridge along with killing civilians. Officials suppressed the
rebellion and stopped any more chaos and damage. It was a significant encounter because it
caused white apprehension and led to a new slave code.
Salutary Neglect
Britain’s absence in colonial America due to pressing issues in England left the colonies alone
for the most part to govern themselves. During this time they flourished and developed a
British origin, yet with a distinctly American flavor. It was because of this absence that the
colonies became more self sufficient and eventually it led them to a feeling of individuality
that they feared losing, thus bringing forth the Declaration of Independence after a series of
events.
mercantilism: features, rationale, impact on Great Britain, impact on the different colonies:
Economic policy prevailing in Europe during the 16th, 17th, and 18th centuries under which
governmental control was exercised over industry and trade in accordance with the theory that
national strength is increased by a majority of exports over imports. The colonies adopted
mercantilism as business in which the mother country could benefit.
triangular trade: Trade that takes place between three places is called triangular trade. Colonial
trade was not very triangular because the Navigation Acts forced American merchants to trade
only with Britain. However, the Americans still managed to smuggle goods with the French
Caribbean and India.
Molasses Act, 1733: Legislation by the British Parliament for taxing and imposing shipment
restrictions on sugar and molasses imported into the profitable colonies from the West Indies. It
was meant to create profitable trade as a protective tariff, but it was never meant to raise
revenue.
Woolens Act, 1699; Hat Act, 1732: Iron Act, 1750: Act specifying certain enumerated goods—
principally tobacco, rice, and indigo—that the colonists could export only to another English
colony or to England. These were attempts to prevent manufacturing in the British colonies that
might threaten the economy of England.
Currency Act, 1751: Act passed by British Parliament that affected the colonies by adjusting the
currency. The point of this attack was to raise revenue for Great Britain. It was a clear example
of how Salutary Neglect was coming to an end with the French and Indian War.
Currency Act, 1764: Another Act passed by the British Parliament that affected the colonies and
was meant to raise revenue for Great Britain. It was very similar to the other previous Currency
Act but this act was targeted towards the people and raising the taxes so that the Parliament
could make more money.
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Petition of Right, 1628: Petition given to Charles I by parliament, asking him to stop sending
soldiers to live in private citizens’ homes, stop taxing without its consent and stop declaring
martial law in a time of peace. This occurred partially because Charles was trying to pay off his
war debt.
Habeas Corpus Act: Act saying that a person can not be held in prison without being charged
and tried. They put this into effect to help stop innocent people from being thrown into jail with
no specific reason why. This idea was adopted into our Constitution in Article 1, Section 9. It can
only be revoked in time of rebellion.
Navigation Acts, 1651-1696: Parliament passed five “acts” during these years to protect English
trade from foreign competition. The laws specified what articles could be traded, who they
could be traded to, and how violators would be punished within the British system of law.
While securing protected trade for the colonials, the Acts ultimately created underlying tensions
that led to revolution.
admiralty courts: These were courts that were created to bring sailors to trial for going against
the navigation acts. They were often held away from the colonies, a fact that the colonies
viewed as being unconstitutional. Also, the courts awarded judges money for every conviction,
thus judges became more apt to find people guilty.
BOARD OF TRADE, (of the Privy Council): This board was part of the Privy Council which was
one of the committees formed by the British Parliament In 1793 Britain’s Privy Council sent out
orders that any foreign ships caught trading with the French Islands located in the Caribbean to
be automatically captured and taken away. They deliberately waited to publish these
instructions so that American ships would be seized, causing over 250 ships were captured.
Robert Walpole: Statesman who is considered Britain’s first prime minister. He entered the
English Parliament in 1701 and became a well known speaker for the Whig Party. In 1708 he was
named Secretary of War. In 1739 he declared war on Spain, which caused division in his party
(Whigs) for support for him in elections.
the Enlightenment: A period in the 1700s when a new method of thought was employed. It was
a time when great minds awoke and started thinking, affecting the colonies as well as Europe.
Some beliefs brought to the forefront were the laws of nature, optimism, confidence in human
reason, and deism. Its ideas lead to revolutionary ideas.
John Locke’s Ideas: John Locke was a philosopher that supported Colonial America. He criticized
the "divine right" kings had and believed that the people should have a say and that the
supreme power should be state power, but only if they were governed by "natural" law. His
ideas can be seen in the Constitution.
John Peter Zenger Trial: Trial involving the founder of the New York Weekly Journal, who
received money from influential town members. So when Zenger published articles by his
contributors that criticized Colonial government he was arrested and put on trial. He was
announced not guilty, his success paving the way for freedom of the press.
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COLONIAL GOVERNMENT: Characterized by regular assemblies and appointed militia, law, and
local administration. Often, these were dominated by the colonial elite despite liberal
qualifications for male voters. Because of low voter participation and indifference toward
politics, colonial government only truly flourished in the major seaports. The most significant
development of colonial government was the rise of the assembly and the limiting of the power
of governors.
PROPRIETARY, CHARTER, ROYAL COLONIES: These are three ways one could come upon owning
land in Colonial America. One such way was for a company to give out land so an area would
become populated. Kings and Queens could also give away land as well as people having
property passed on to them, therefore having an influence on decisions the new powers would
make. All of these ideas helped shape America’s way of government life.
colonial agents: Representatives sent by Great Britain to the colonies during the 17th and 18th
centuries. They would observe the colonies and then send the information back to England. The
problem is by the time it got back to England the information that had once been true was now
old and wrong.
Glorious Revolution: When Mary and William over run James II in England in 1688, British
citizens saw this as a win in liberty for parliament would have more control than ever. Moderate
uprising that came out of the Colonial America during this time ended with William and Mary
taking apart the Dominion of New England.
Bill of Rights, 1689: Bill that said no Roman Catholics could hold a position of king or queen in
England. It also made it illegal for a monarch to postpone laws, have a standing army, or levy
taxes without the okay of the British Parliament. The colonies then interpreted the law and used
it against the British (levy tax).
SIDEBAR: SAMPLE FREE RESPONSE QUESTION FROM THE 1995 AP EXAM
For the period before 1750, analyze the ways in which Britain’s policy of salutary neglect
influenced the development of American society as illustrated in the following: (1) legislative
assemblies, (2) commerce, (3) religion.
RYKKEN COMMENTS: Here they are taking a BIG concept (salutary neglect) and asking you to
explain how it impacted three areas. In any essay work in AP, you must learn to provide
specific examples to support the assertions you are making. Look back at the preceding
material and think about what evidence you would use to respond to this question.
Great Awakening: What role does religion play in our history?
A series of religious revivals swept through the colonies in the 1730s. Key players were
Theodore Frelinghuysen, William and Gilbert Tenant, Jonathan Edwards, and George
Whitefield. Through the awakening emerged the decline of Quakers, founding of colleges, an
increase of Presbyterians, denominationalism, and religious toleration.
Jonathan Edwards - Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God, A Careful and Strict Enquiry into. . .
That freedom of Will: Sermon about how one must have a personal faith and relationship with
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Jesus Christ to gain salvation instead of an afterlife in hell. The sermon also used the fury of the
divine wrath to arouse religious fervor.
George Whitefield: English clergyman who was known for his ability to convince many people
through his sermons. He involved himself in the Great Awakening in 1739 preaching his belief in
gaining salvation. Coming from Connecticut, most of his speeches were based there. His
presence helped raise the population by about 3000 people.
William Tennent: Presbyterian minister who played a chief role in the Great Awakening in
Central New Jersey by calling prayer meetings known as the Refreshings around the 1730’s.
Another one of his significant projects was the founding of his influential Log College which had
teachers educated in all areas of study.
Gilbert Tennent: American Presbyterian minister, in 1740 delivered a harsh sermon, "The
Dangers of Unconverted Ministry," in which he criticized conservative ministers who opposed
the fervor of the Great Awakening. The result was a schism (1741) in the Presbyterian Church
between the "Old Lights" and the "New Lights," led by Tennent.
Old Lights, New lights: Two groups of ministries who frequently had heated debates on the
issue of God during the Great Awakening. The Old Lights rejected the Great Awakening and the
New Lights, who accepted it and sometimes suffered persecution because of their religious
fervor.
Harvard University: University located in Cambridge, Mass. that was founded in 1636 on a grant
from the Mass. Bay Colony. The school was originally organized to educate ministers because of
the scarcity of clergy and lack of an educational institution in the new colony. The university
eventually developed a more secular format
effects of the Great Awakening on religion in America: Long term effects of the Great
Awakening were the decline of Quakers, Anglicans, and Congregationalists as the Presbyterians
and Baptists increased. It also caused an emergence in black Protestantism, religious toleration,
an emphasis on inner experience, and denominationalism.
Great Britain Versus France: Europeans fighting “over here”
With America as a new prospect for both France and Great Britain, tensions grew between the
two countries. The result was a series of wars like King William’s War, Queen Anne’s War, the
War of Jenkin’s Ear, King George’s War, and the French and Indian War.
Changes in land Claims of 1689, 1713, 1763: Before 1689 almost all of the land belonged to
Spain, and France with Britain only starting. Then by 1713 France was dominating the North
America and Britain was spreading up and down the coast. In 1763 with the Treaty of Paris,
Britain became the overwhelming power.
Differences between French and British colonization: The French mostly had fur traders and
posts in North America so they could get goods, they were more inland and made friends with
the Indians. While the English were settling for good on the shore, making homes and
government- they were all there to start a new life.
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Why Great Britain eventually won: When William Pitt joined the British leaders he turned
things around. He began to treat the Americans like equals or allies instead of subordinates. This
lead Americans to feel a sense of pride and a renewed sense of spirit that sent them into several
victories that made France eventually concede.
King William’s War: In Europe a war fought between the Grand Alliance and France which also
embroiled the colonies. The entire war was battled over who would reign in England. In the
colonies the Indians were fighting for the French. In 1697 fighting ceased due to the Peace of
Ryswick which restored Port Royal to the French.
Queen Anne’s War: The second of the four imperial wars that was fought between Britain,
France and Spain. It took place from 1702-1713. Though many Spanish colonial towns were
captured and burned by English forces, American colonists met with military failure creating a
feeling of dependence on Britain. The war ended with Peace of Utrecht.
Peace of Utrecht: Treaty that ended Queen Anne's War in 1713. Due to this treaty France had to
give up Acadia, Newfoundland and the Hudson Bay territory to England but got to keep Cape
Breton Island. The treaty also introduced a period of peace in which the American colonists
experienced growth economically and politically.
War of Jenkin’s Ear: This war was British versus Spain. It was fought in Georgia and North
Carolina. Lieutenant Governor William Gooch led Virginia’s 400 men into the whole 3000 men
colonial army and after their Colonel died Gooch succeeded him. When they attacked Cartagena
it proved disastrous, though Gooch wouldn’t report it that way.
King George’s War: War fought between Britain and France and Spain. It took place not only in
Europe but also in North America with American colonists supporting the British with thousands
of troops. In the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle Britain gained lands in India but lost Louisburg, which
embittered Anglo-American relations.
FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR: The French and Indian war was fought between Britain and France.
It lasted from 1754-1760, with the colonies supporting Britain and the Indians supporting
France. This war spanned three different continents and it was the main factor in the ending of
"salutary neglect." This war planted the seeds of misunderstanding between Britain and the
colonies and indirectly was one of the causes of the Revolutionary War. Britain came out
victoriously with the Treaty of Paris.
Couriers de Bois- Unlicensed trader who traded illegally with Indians. Many young men seeing
only the prospective wealth left their families and traded illegally with Indians, some even
married into the tribes. They also enlisted Indians in the French Army. These Couriers de Bois
were important in setting up fur trade in Canada.
Francis Parkman: Francis Parkman was one of the prominent historians of his time (1823-1893).
Most of his work concerned the conflict that arose between France and Britain for land in
Colonial America. Later on in his career he went west and traveled with tribes, such as the Sioux,
which ended with the book, The Oregon Trail.
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Albany Plan of Union, Benjamin Franklin: Colonial confederation based on the ideas of Franklin
calling for each town to have independence in a large whole, known as a Grand Council. It was
used for military defense and Indian policies and set a precedent for later American unity.
Edward Braddock: Braddock was the General of all the British Troops (French and Indian War),
he led an attack against Fort Duquesne, never reaching his destination for they were attacked by
the Monongahela River where 900 of his 1200 men were wounded or killed. Braddock was
wounded at this battle and died soon afterwards.
William Pitt: Prime minister for Britain, who helped Britain bounce back after the Revolutionary
War and who lead the war effort against France. Pitt had two terms, 1783 to 1801 and 1804 to
1806. He was considered a moderate, with the backing of the king and the parliament. Pitt’s
time in office became a foundation for future prime ministers.
Fort Duquesne: This was the fort that General Braddock tried to take during the French and
Indian War but he and his troops were slaughtered in an ambush at the Monongahela, where
900 of the 1200 troops were wounded or killed. Later General Amherst captured the fort.
Wolfe, Montcalm, Quebec- the Plains of Abraham: The battle of the French and Indian War,
between General Wolfe and General Montcalm in which both were killed . It ended with the
capturing of Quebec and was one of the final steps that lead Montreal to surrender, thus
making Canada no longer a threat.
Land squabbles in North America, where, why and what over: Any of the imperial wars that
were fought in North America, for if when Britain won they would usually gain territory they had
wanted before. Also various battles with Indians over pieces of land because colonists pushed
their way onto Indian land, not caring if it belonged to them.
Treaty of Paris (1763): Treaty that ended the French and Indian War was ended by the Treaty of
Paris. This treaty ended French reign in Canada. The treaty also called for Spain to give Florida to
Britain, and for France to give all lands east of the Mississippi River to Britain. It also was a
precursor, for colonial politics would follow Britain.
Proclamation of 1763: This proclamation stated that no white settlers could go past the crest of
the Appalachians. While this upset many colonists who had claims that far west, Britain
explained it was only temporary, for it was meant to calm the Indians, sure enough five years
later the boundary was moved further west.
Pontiac’s Rebellion, 1763: After France had to give up the territory they had near and around
the Appalachian Mountains the Indians were afraid that the British would come in and start to
settle down permanently, to make sure this didn’t happen Chief Pontiac launched an offensive
at Bushy Run and Pontiac’s forces won for the time being.
Proclamation of 1763: The British issued this in 1763 in hopes of conciliating the Indians and to
lessen white expansion. It banned colonists from settling west if the Appalachian Mountains.
Though it was supposedly a temporary measure, colonists were angered and the line was
moved further west five years later for speculators.
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New British Policy and Colonial Resistance
In order to tighten control over the colonies, Great Britain instated many acts and taxes which
enraged colonists who argued that it was unfair to tax them when they had no direct
representation in Parliament. This resistance was the beginning of America’s revolt against its
mother country.
writs of assistance: The royal governor of Massachusetts allowed British revenue officers to use
this in 1760 in order to capture goods imported illegally in: It was a search warrant allowing
officials to enter buildings in which smuggled goods may be. It required no cause for suspicion
and homes were often ransacked. It also contributed to the Revolution.
James Otis: He was a colonial leader who was also advocate general of the Boston Vice
Admiralty Court in 1756. His opposition to the writs of assistance and Townshend Acts led him
to declare that Parliament did not have the right to violate natural rights of colonists. He thus
published The Rights of the British Colonies Asserted and Proven.
Pontiac’s Rebellion: Ottawa chief Pontiac attacked and besieged ten British forts in May, 1763,
in order to keep British out of the Appalachians. An uneasy truce was negotiated by 1764, and
as a result, the Proclamation of 1763 was put forth in order for Britain to maintain 10,000
soldiers in the U.S. to occupy French ceded territories.
Paxton Boys: This group of Rangers from Pennsylvania Paxton in Lancaster County,
Pennsylvania, killed some Sasquehannock Indians in 1764. The conflict arose as a result of the
desire to expand westward. Governor John Penn in 1764 attempted to punish them, but the
people of the area were so upset that a revolt ensued; Benjamin Franklin solved it.
Grenville’s Program: British Prime Minister George Grenville was the principal architect of the
Sugar Act; his method of taxation and crackdown on colonial smuggling were widely disliked by
Americans. He passed the Stamp Act arguing that colonists received virtual representation in
Parliament, even though Americans didn’t elect members.
SUGAR ACT, 1764: George Grenville introduced this act which amended the Molasses Act that
had taxed all foreign molasses entering the U.S. at sixpence a gallon in 1764. The new act ended
the previous British policy of keeping Americans out of all revenue-raising measures. It stated
that colonists exported certain items to foreign countries only if they passed through Britain
first. Parliament hoped that Americans would buy more British items and it increased British
sale of European wine.
Currency Act, 1764: extended currency Act, 1751: A Parliamentary act, which was originally
applicable only in Massachusetts in 1751, but in 1764, it was applied to all the colonies as a
means of raising revenue. It increased colonial resentment toward Britain because it disallowed
the issuance of colonial money.
vice-admiralty courts: Parliament was responsible for this new form of juryless court in Nova
Scotia. From 1763 to 1765, when Americans were caught smuggling in violation of the Acts of
Trade, they were tried by corrupt judges who received a percentage of the confiscated goods if
they found the defendants guilty.
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A Democracy or not? Colonial America was a place with more liberal voting qualification, no
aristocracy and rise of the assembly. But the ruling class was still the wealthy, they had the
power, also voters turn out wasn’t large. One had a better chance in becoming part of the
"system" but it wasn’t democratic.
Deism: most of the religious thinkers during the Enlightenment were deist. The deists believed
that God was a clockmaker who created the world but now just watches it work. They believed
that we lived in a perfect universe and that we are laws that we created were natural.
Non-consumption: The Sons of Liberty began the idea of non-consumption in 1774 with their
vow of non-importation of British goods. When the Boston Port Bill was passed, colonists once
again agreed to ban all British goods in order to boycott the British until demands were met.
Because of this, state or individual opposition was despised.
virtual, actual representation: Parliament felt colonists had virtual representation because
every member of Parliament considered the rights of all subjects; the House of Commons was
responsible for protecting the rights of all British and colonists. Because the British elected
members, they enjoyed actual representation, but colonists had none.
no taxation without representation: John Adams, in his Circular Letter, in 1768, openly
criticized Parliament’s practice of taxation without proper colonial representation. It was said
that no tax that was issued in order to produce revenue for Great Britain was constitutional
because American representatives had not voted to allow the tax.
colonial view of the constitution: Colonial views toward the Constitution varied greatly in 1781,
due mostly to regional and bipartisan differences. Federalists were those who advocated a
strong central government, at state’s expense. Antifederalists demanded more state power.
Depending on size, states wanted different types of representation.
Compact theory: First expressed by Jefferson and Madison in the Virginia and Kentucky Resolves
of 1798, it declared that each state comprised the national government through a compact
whose provisions were established in the Constitution. Hence, the states could decide when the
compact was broken. It further led to the doctrine of States Rights.
STAMP ACT: British prime minister George Grenville’s most detested act, the Stamp Act was
introduced in 1765 as a means of raising revenue in the colonies, and was passed by Parliament.
It stated that all legal documents, contracts, licenses, pamphlets, and newspapers must carry a
stamp that is taxed. It was intended to raise money for keeping up defense in colonies. It
infuriated colonists because it was an internal tax that few could escape. Opposition to the
Stamp Act led to formation of the Stamp Act Congress.
stamp distributors: These were the men who had the job of accepting money from the special
water-marked paper put into circulation with the passage of the Stamp Act in 1765. They were a
target for such associations as the Loyal Nine and Sons of Liberty who attempted, through
violence, to force the distributors to resign before taxes were due.
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Patrick Henry: He was an orator and statesman who played a key role in igniting patriotism and
leading the colonists toward the American Revolution. In 1763 he became a member of the
House of Burgesses where he introduced seven resolutions against the Stamp Act. He is famous
for his comment "Give me liberty or give me death."
Virginia Resolves: American leader Patrick Henry persuaded the Virginia House of Burgesses to
state their opposition to taxation in 1765. They adopted several resolutions which refuted the
power of Parliament to tax the colonies. Henry’s fiery orations caused, by the end of the year,
eight other colonies to also denounce taxation and declare rights.
Stamp Act Congress, 1765: This was an assembly of delegates from nine of the original thirteen
colonies in 1765 which was intended to protest the Stamp Act. They met in New York City and
presented the Declaration of Rights and Grievances, but the group’s demand for no taxation
without representation was refused by the House of Commons.
Non-importation: There existed, between many of the colonial merchants, an agreement to not
import any British goods until the Townshend acts were repealed. When the tea tax was kept,
they were unsure whether or not to keep the boycott going. When non-importation collapsed,
the Sons of Liberty agreed not to consume British tea in protest.
SONS OF LIBERTY: Members included Samuel Adams and Paul Revere; it was a secret society of
patriots which was organized in 1765 in the colonies. They formed a Committee of
Correspondence to defend themselves against British actions. One of the actions they took was
to adopt a policy of non-importation in which merchants refused to import goods sent from
Great Britain. They also participated in terrorizing the stamp distributors through housewrecking and tar-and-feathering in order to achieve respect.
Daughters of Liberty: Upper class female patriots who formed a union in 1765 in order to give
aid to the cause of defeating the reviled Stamp Act. They proved their value to the cause both by
attending political rallies and protests and also by refusing association with men who were
Loyalists, however, they ultimately played a small role.
internal/external taxes: Introduced by the British Parliament in 1765, the Stamp Act was an
internal tax which few colonists could escape, all of the colonists were drastically affected by
this tax. An example of an external tax is the Sugar Act passed in 1764 which raised costs only
for a select group of people; public opposition to the tax was minute.
Revenue Act: Parliament passed the Revenue taxes in 1767. The Act taxed glass, paint, lead,
paper, paint, and tea. In colonial opinion, it was just like the Stamp Act in that, though it was
said to be an external tax, it was still put into effect solely to raise revenue for the British
treasury. It further angered colonial resentment to Charles Townshend.
Right of revolution: In John Lock’s Two Treatises of Government, written in 1690, it is stated
that "It is a state of perfect freedom [for man] to do as they wish and dispose of themselves and
their possessions." He claims that any person has the right to revolt if the government does not
fulfill its duties. His ideas led to the Declaration of Independence.
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The Loyal Nine: A group of middle class workers joined this association in the summer of 1765 in
order to resist the Stamp Act. They realized that if they could intimidate stamp distributors with
house-wrecking and tar-and-feathers, they could bully them into resigning before the act could
be put into effect, making it impracticable.
Guy Fawkes Day: Thousands of ardent Bostonians gathered to celebrate this day on November
5, 1765. The day was named for the anniversary of the day Catholic Guy Fawkes attempted to
blow up Parliament and King James I. In celebration of his failure, mobs gathered in the streets
of Boston to protest and to set fire to figures of the Pope.
Declaratory Act. 1766: This was a Parliamentary act which was issued in 1766 in order to
confirm the British government’s right to pass acts which were legally binding to the colonists.
Because the Stamp Act was so opposed by the colonists as well as the British business
community, it was repealed, but only with the passage of this confirmation.
Quartering Act (called the Mutiny Act by the British): Passed by Congress, this was one of the
Intolerable Acts in 1774. It effectively served to further punish the colonists. Basically, it allowed
for much-hated British officers to be permitted to requisition empty, private buildings. All
resistance was repressed by this blatant attempt to force troops in.
TOWNSHEND ACTS, REACTION: Under the control of British Prime Minister Charles Townshend,
Parliament passed these measures in 1767. The first called for suspension of the New York
Assembly because it would not abide by the Quartering Act. The Revenue Act called for customs
duties on imports of glass, lead, paint, paper, and tea. As a result of unrest over these acts, the
Massachusetts legislature was dissolved. Colonial reaction was that of further discontent toward
their motherland.
John Dickinson, "Letters From a Farmer in Pennsylvania": He was a lawyer in Philadelphia and a
leader in the movement against taxation on the colonies in the 1760s. Formulating a declaration
of rights at the Stamp Act Congress, he argued against the duties of the Townshend acts in this
publication. He sought appeasement of the British.
Massachusetts Circular Letter: The Massachusetts legislature sent the other 12 colonies a letter
in 1767 in response to the Townshend Acts and asked for a united response from the colonies.
The British threatened to dissolve the Massachusetts court unless it was withdrawn. They
refused and were dismissed. The other assemblies defiantly signed.
SAM ADAMS: He was an outspoken advocate of the Sugar Act, and served on the General Court
of Massachusetts in 1765. Moreover, he was a main proponent of opposition to the Townshend
Acts and a key figure in the formation of the Sons of Liberty. Starting a movement for an
uprising against the Boston Massacre, he led several other angry colonists in the Boston Tea
Party of 1773. Due to his literary agitation, Adams contributed to the movement for revolution.
The Association: The First Continental Congress agreed to this "association," which was a simple
sort of agreement in 1774. It was formed in response to anger over the recently passed Tea Act.
Members pledged not to import, export, or consume products of Britain unless their demands
were met. This led to increased hostility toward the colonists.
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repeal of the Townshend Acts except tax on tea: Lord North, in a Parliamentary act in 1770,
wanted to eliminate the Townshend duties due to increased hostility against the British and to
keep the boycott from gaining momentum. However, he still recommended they maintain the
tea tax, because it was profitable for the Royal Treasury in Great Britain.
AMERICAN BOARD OF CUSTOMS COMMISSIONERS: Townshend introduced legislation in 1767,
serving to create an American Board of Customs Commissioners whose sole job would be to
enforce the Navigation Acts. They were created because Townshend wanted to crack down on
colonial smuggling. The corrupt members of the Board practiced customs racketeering, which
was a legalized form of piracy. This led to a major movement between colonists of anger and
violence toward the Board members.
John Hancock’s Liberty: Customs commissioners in Boston requested an armed force for
protection and the government dispatched the Romney to Boston in June, 1768. When told that
a customs official had been locked up, while John Hancock unloaded without paying the duty,
the Liberty was seized. This led to further discontent towards Britain.
Boston Massacre, 1770: British troops, (which were resumed in the city in 1770 in order to
discourage opposition to the Townshend Acts), when hit by hecklers within the crowd, opened
fire upon the innocent; five men were killed. Eight soldiers were tried for murder; their attorney
was John Adams. Many were acquitted and anti-British feelings rose.
Crispus Attucks: He was the leader of a group of colonists who were killed in the 1770 Boston
Massacre. Though he was the first man to be shot, he was only one of five colonists. He was
either African-American or Native American and he may have been a runaway slave. In 1888 a
monument of him was erected in his honor in Boston.
John Adams: He was the lawyer for the soldiers who were tried for murder in the Boston
Massacre in 1770. He successfully defended his clients in defense that they were trying to
protect their own lives. He additionally denounced the Stamp Act, analyzed the demands facing
the colonists, and was a member of both Continental Congresses.
Carolina Regulators: This name applies to several groups of insurgents who, in 1764, wanted to
protect the rights of their community. The North Carolina Regulators threatened to rebel and
not pay taxes. The South Carolina Regulators, in 1767, opposed corrupt government and cleared
their homeland of outlaw bands of terrorists.
Battle of the Alamance: The North Carolina Regulators found their movement peak in this battle
on May 16, 1771. With an army of 2500, these Regulators fought a band of eastern militia
started up by the governor of North Carolina, and 300 casualties were inflicted. The Regulator
uprising fell apart and colonies found it harder to resist British.
Gaspee Incident: A customs schooner was beached in Providence, RI, on June 9, 1772. This
upset Americans because it was one of the last of the customs racketeering ships. Stuck in the
mud, it was burned down by local inhabitants. When investigators were sent to find the
initiators, they failed; the suspects would have faced trial without jury.
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Governor Thomas Hutchinson of Mass.: A colonial governor, he opposed taxes that harmed U.S.
trade, but still supported Britain’s right to impose taxes. When the Stamp Act controversy was in
effect, his home was ransacked in 1765. In 1773, he refused to allow British ships to be returned
without unloading and the Boston Tea party resulted.
committees of correspondence: They were colonial groups in 1772 which were organized to
form resistance to British tyranny. The Boston town meeting made up a 21 member committee
"To state the Rights of Colonists and of this Province in Particular." This committee became a
major political force responsible for the Boston Tea Party.
Lord North: He was a British member of the House of Commons during the 1770s. Under the
orders of King George III, he taxed Americans, though he found it morally wrong to do so. By
1776, he demanded an early peace with the Americans hoping to put an end to the
Revolutionary War. By 1779, he realized the war was a lost cause.
Tea Act: The Parliamentary Tea Act eliminated import duties entering England, lowering the
selling price to consumers, also allowing selling directly to consumers, hurting middlemen.
Colonial smuggling was very harmful to the East India Company which had held a monopoly on
tea. The act provided savings for Britain.
BOSTON TEA PARTY: A group of Boston citizens organized a protest on December 16, 1773,
which was against the British tax on tea imported to the colonies the citizens were angry and
disallowed three British ships to unload their cargo in Boston. Led by Samuel Adams and
members of the Sons of Liberty, the group, disguised as Indians boarded the ships and dumped
all the tea into Boston Harbor in protest. The American government later refused to pay for the
tea and was punished through closure of the port.
COERCIVE ACTS: Passed by the British Parliament, several laws were composed in 1774 in
response to colonial rebellion. The Boston Tea Party was the last straw leading to the passage of
these harsh acts as measures against the colony of Massachusetts. The four measures passed
were to serve as warnings to the rest of the colonies. They included the Boston Port Act, the
Massachusetts Government Act, the Quartering Act, and the Administration of Justice Act.
Americans united in sympathy for Massachusetts.
Boston Port Act: Parliament passed this act on April 1, 1774, as one of the Intolerable Acts; it
ordered the U.S. navy to close Boston Harbor. Unless they paid for the ruined tea, the port
would be subject to permanent closure. They imposed a deliberately short deadline to ensure
that the harbor would close, which would lead to economic difficulties.
Massachusetts Government Act: Parliament passed this act in 1774 as the second of the
Townshend Acts which revoked the Massachusetts charter and restructured the government.
The Governor gained control over naming sheriffs, who, in turn, gained control over jurymen.
The number of Massachusetts town meetings were also reduced.
Quebec Act: Parliament passed this greatly detested law which established Roman-Catholicism
as the official religion in Quebec, making Protestants angry. Also, Canada’s government was
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awarded an abundance of powers, but was in turn, given no legislature. The law also extended
Quebec’s 1774 land claims, further angering colonists.
FIRST CONTINENTAL CONGRESS, 1774: The First Continental Congress convened in Philadelphia
in September, 1774, to consider the situation resulting from the Intolerable Acts. They issued
the Declaration of Rights and Grievances to George III, and called for the Continental
Association, and agreement to boycott trade with Britain. committees of Safety were in charge
of enforcing the Continental Association. Before it was adjourned, the delegates agreed to meet
in May, 1775 if the situation still hadn’t been resolved.
Suffolk Resolves: The first Continental Congress passed this in 1774 in response to the
Intolerable Acts. They called for non-importation and preparation of local soldiers in the event
that the British should have resorted to military force. The passage of these resolves marked the
willingness of the colonies to defend their rights militarily.
Galloway Plan: Joseph Galloway called for a union of the colonies and a rearrangement of
relations with Parliament, but it was reflected by Congress by a narrow margin. Most delegates
felt that such a mild measure would not help, since matters had already gone too far.
"country ideology": The plain farmer had this mind set in the 1770s due to the corruption of
rulers and "court" hangers-on. It warned against the natural tendency of all governments to
infringe on the natural rights to liberty for all its people. This honest wisdom further led to the
Quid’s mind set during the time of Jeffersonian Democracy.
Continental Association: Issued by the First Continental Congress, it was an agreement to
boycott trade with Britain, or non-importation, designed to pressure Britain’s economy. Any
colony that did not follow those provisions was to be boycotted. By taking these drastic
measures, the colonies moved away from reconciliation towards war.
Revolt to Revolution: Why and how did this all happen?
With such events as Lexington and Concord as well as the actions of the Second Continental
Congress and America’s faith held in the Declaration of Independence and Thomas Paine’s
"Common Sense," America’s revolt against Great Britain became a revolution.
LEXINGTON AND CONCORD, APRIL 19, 1775: American Captain John Parker and seventy
Minutemen waited for the British at Lexington, on April 19. A British officer ordered the
Minutemen to lay down their arms, but a shot from an unknown source was fired. The British
then opened fire and charged. Afterwards, the British continued on the Concord only to find
that almost all of the weapons and supplies had been moved. While retreating to Boston, they
were fired on by Minutemen from local cities.
Paul Revere, William Dawes: Seven hundred British troops, on the night of April 18, 1775, were
sent to find and destroy a cache of colonial weapons and supplies at Concord. However, they
were detected by Americans, and news was dispatched throughout the countryside by Paul
Revere and William Dawes.
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SECOND CONTINENTAL CONGRESS: The Second Continental Congress convened in Philadelphia
on May 10, 1775. They drew up the Olive Branch Petition, which begged George III to restore
peace, and adopted a Declaration of the Causes and Necessity for Taking up Arms. Congress was
divided into two main factions: the delegates that were ready to go to war and declare
independence, and those that weren’t ready to go that far. The Second Continental Congress
later evolved into the revolutionary government.
Olive Branch Petition: The Second Continental Congress issued this petition to King George III
on July 5, pleading with him to intercede with Parliament to restore peace. After he ignored it,
he issued a Prohibitory act, which declared all colonies in a state of rebellion no longer under his
protection. Thus, Americans prepared for an all out war with Britain.
Thomas Paine, Common Sense: Thomas Paine published this in January 1776, which called for
immediate independence. Although its arguments were extreme, it had much influence in favor
of independence. Combined with the Prohibitory Act, it convinced many Americans that the
British had every intention to carry out a full scale war.
natural rights philosophy: Thomas Jefferson was influenced by the natural rights philosophy. He
emphasized the equality of all people and their natural right to justice, liberty, and selffulfillment. In the writing of the Declaration of Independence, he draws upon some of the ideas
of natural rights.
John Locke, Second Treatise of Government: John Locke stressed that governments were
legitimate only if they rested on the consent of the governed and protected basic rights of their
people. If the government and laws lacked the consent, then they were not legitimate, and had
to be dissolved and replaced with legitimate government or just laws.
George III: After the Battle of Bunker Hill, the people of Britain wanted retaliation, and King
George III, on August 23, proclaimed New England in a state of rebellion. In December
Parliament declared all colonies in a state of rebellion, and made their ships liable to seizure.
Richard Henry Lee’s Resolution: Colonial leader Richard Henry Lee presented several formal
resolutions to Congress on June 7, 1776. These resolutions called for independence and a
national government. As a result, the Committee on Independence was formed to further
accommodate his proposal.
Committee on Independence: After Richard Henry Lee’s resolution on June 7, 1776, the
Committee on Independence was formed. Members included Thomas Jefferson, Benjamin
Franklin, John Adams, Robert Livingston, and Roger Sherman. Its purpose was to draft a
statement of reasons for independence which led to the Declaration of Independence.
JULY 4, 1776 AND THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE: Written by the Committee on
Independence, he Declaration of Independence contained a list of grievances placing the blame
on George III. Additionally, it asserted certain natural rights: "Life, liberty, and the pursuit of
happiness" and the "Consent of the governed" to revolt against tyrannical governments. The
English Revolution of 1688 and Enlightenment writers inspired some of the ideas in the
Declaration of independence.
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SIDEBAR: Sample Free Response Essay from the 1986 AP National Exam
“The history of the present King of Great Britain is a history of repeated injuries and
usurpation, all having, in direct object, the establishment of an absolute tyranny over these
states.” Evaluate this accusation made against George III in the Declaration of Independence.
RYKKEN COMMENTS: You are being asked to assess this statement – what do you know about
the document that it comes from? Was the accusation valid? What evidence can you provide
to argue that it was (or was not) a credible charge being laid at the feet of George III? Use the
“bracketing” technique when reflecting on this – in other words, go 10 years on either side of
the issuing of the Declaration (1776) for historical context. What important names and events
would you need to raise? Think like a lawyer who must defend a position in front of a jury.
slavery clause in the Declaration of Independence: Two passages in Jefferson’s original draft
were rejected by the Second Continental Congress in 1775. The first passage was an exorbitant
reference to the English people, and the second passage was an attack on the slave trade.
Somerset Case (in Great Britain): Despite the Enlightenment’s condemnation of black slavery,
sugar produced by black slaves was considered of utmost importance. Granville Sharp defended
several blacks in the case Somerset v. Stewart. The decision reached was regarded as the end of
slavery in England.
Quock Walker case- Mass: Nathaniel Jennison was accused of assaulting Quock Walker, a
Negro. Jennison defended himself on the grounds that Walker was his slave. Although slavery
wasn’t forbidden by the constitution of Massachusetts, the Superior Court rejected his defense
because it was unconstitutional in the Commonwealth of Massachusetts.
War for Independence: What should we know about that?
With the Declaration of Independence as its fuel, America entered a war for independence
with Great Britain: the Revolutionary War. Throughout the war, America developed its first
real feelings of nationalism and ended up being victorious in its fight for freedom.
SIDEBAR: SAMPLE FREE RESPONSE QUESTION FROM 1992 EXAM
Evaluate the relative importance of the following as factors prompting Americans to rebel in
1776:
parliamentary taxation, British military measures, restriction of civil liberties, the legacy of
colonial religious and political ideas
RYKKEN COMMENTS: This question forces you to weigh various factors as to their importance
in causing the rebellion and revolution. You are given 4 factors to examine, each of which
played an important role in prompting the colonials to rebel. Which was most important?
Least important? This type of question enables you to narrow your focus because they
provide you with the variables for consideration. Your job is to provide convincing evidence
for your assertions.
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Advantages/Disadvantages for Britain: The British were well equipped, well trained, and well
disciplined. They had a strong navy to land troops, transport troops, guard communication and
supply lines. Also, they had a large sum of money which could be used to hire foreign
mercenaries. However, they were outnumbered by the U.S.
Advantages/Disadvantages for U.S.: Many colonists knew how to use firearms. They had a
superior rifle range and accuracy over the smoothbore British muskets. Washington was a highly
respected, experienced commander-in-chief, and they were fighting in their own territory.
However, their naval power was less than that of Britain.
LOYALISTS, TORIES: They were Anglican clergymen, ethnic and religious minorities, government
officials, and some wealthy merchants comprised the Loyalists. About one-fifth to one-third of
the population remained loyal to Britain. They felt that war was unnecessary to preserve the
rights of the colonists, and maintained a respect for the monarchy. The majority of ethnic and
religious minorities, however, were supporters of the revolution. Eighty thousand Loyalists left,
leaving their positions for others.
John Adams: He was one of the first men to propose American independence when the
Revolution began. Moreover, he served on the Committee on Independence, and also helped
persuade the Second Continental Congress to adopt the Declaration of Independence. In
Congress and in diplomatic missions abroad, he served the patriot cause.
Abigail Adams: Even though she had a scarce formal education, she was among the most
influential women of her day, particularly as a leader of fashion and social mediator. She was
the wife of John Adams, and mother of John Quincy Adams. Also, she challenged the lack of
equality for women and was a strong advocate of the Revolutionary War.
Mercy Otis Warren: Before the imperial crisis, she was known for her nonpolitical poetry, but
soon began writing political satires in the early 1770s. In doing so, she challenged the
assumption that women were naturally dependent on men. The subordination of women, which
was taken for granted, later became the subject of debate.
GEORGE WASHINGTON AND THE REVOLUTION: George Washington created the Continental
Army that had fought against the British. He was a strong influence in persuading the states to
partake in the Constitutional Convention, and he used his prestige to help gain ratification of the
Constitution. He earned a good reputation from the French and Indian War in 1763. His early
military experience taught him the dangers of overconfidence and the necessity of
determination when faced with defeat.
Edmund Burke: In 1766 he was elected to Parliament. Almost immediately Burke sought repeal
of the Stamp Act. He urged justice and conciliation towards the American colonies in a
pamphlet, Thoughts on the Cause of the Present Discontents, and in two speeches, "On
American Taxation" and "Conciliation with America".
Benjamin Franklin and the Revolution: From, Pennsylvania, he served on the Committee for
Independence in 1776. Moreover, as a prime minister to Britain, he along with John Adams and
John Jay signed a peace treaty between the U.S. and England, which concerned new American
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borders, on November 30, 1782.
Lafayette: The Marquis de Lafayette’s close connections with the French court in 1778 indicated
that Louis XVI might recognize U.S. independence and declare war on Britain. After France and
the United States entered into an alliance against Great Britain, Lafayette returned to France to
further the granting of financial and military aid to the Americans.
George Rogers Clark: George Rogers Clark led 175 militia and French volunteers down the Ohio
River and took several British forts along the northwestern Ohio Valley in the spring of 1778. He
was a surveyor and a frontiersman who also led successful military operations against Indians
allied to the British on the western frontier.
Benedict Arnold: He led one of the Continental Armies into Canada but was defeated. A fervent
patriot, he later turned into a traitor. With 400 men, he attacked Fort Ticonderoga in April of
1775, along with Ethan Allen, who raised an army for the same purpose, but without command.
Robert Morris: When the United States, under the Articles of Confederation, was unable to
prevent national bankruptcy, Congress turned to him. Hoping to panic the country into creating
a regular source of national revenue, he engineered the Newburgh conspiracy along with
Alexander Hamilton.
John Paul Jones: United States Captain John Paul Jones attacked the British territory, which
raised American morale and prestige. He also led the famous ship, Bonhomme Richard, against
Britain’s ship, the Serapis, in which the war was brought to England’s shores, boosting American
morale and credibility.
The War at Sea: American captains such as John Paul Jones fought in this War at Sea during the
War for Independence against Britain. Despite Britain’s naval advantage, on September 23,
1779, Jones engaged the British frigate, the Serapis, in the North Sea. This was the most famous
naval battle in the war.
Continental Army: Composed of colonial men, the Continental Army consisted of less than
10,000 men prepared for duty at one time. Out of the potential 250,000 men living in the
colonies, the Continental Army was quite diminutive at the dawn of the war. Led by George
Washington, this army fought in various battles such as Valley Forge.
Native Americans in the Revolutionary War: The colonists’ expansion into the Ohio Valley drove
the western Indians into allying with the British. In the East, the Iroquois in New York were
neutral until 1777, when the Six Nations of the Iroquois Confederacy split, leaving all but the
Tuscaroras and most Oneidas on the side of the British.
Black Americans in the Revolutionary War: About 5,000 blacks served in the army and navy,
mostly New England freemen, and fought in every major battle of the war. However, the South
feared possible slave revolts, which inhibited use of blacks in the South. Governor Dunmore
offered freedom to slaves who joined the British army.
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Invasion of Canada: U.S. General Richard Montgomery forced the British to evacuate Montreal
in 1775 and invade Canada. A second force led by Benedict Arnold invaded the land by
combining an attack on Quebec; however, it was a failure in that Montgomery was killed,
Benedict was shot, and one-third of the colonial troops were killed or captured.
Battle of Bunker Hill (Breed’s Hill): Three British generals arrived in Boston in May, 1775 to
assist General Gage. After two failed British attacks on Breed’s Hill, the colonists ran out of
ammunition, and the British succeeded. The colonists now had two choices: to commit to a fullscale revolution, or to accept the rule of the British.
"Bonhomme Richard" and the "Serapis": John Paul Jones took command of a rebuilt French
merchant ship and renamed it the U.S.S. Bonhomme Richard. On September 23, 1779, he
engaged the British frigate, the Serapis, in the North Sea. This was the most famous naval battle
in the American Revolution.
Conway Cabal: United States Major General Thomas Conway wrote a letter to General Horatio
Gates that revealed a military side of the Conway Cabal, which aimed at the removal of
Washington as the leader of the Continental Army. Conway later resigned after subsequent
public revelations, and was replaced by Friedrich von Steuben.
FRENCH ALLIANCE OF 1778, REASONS FOR IT: France entered into two treaties with America, in
February, 1778. The first was a treaty of goodwill and commerce, and granted most favored
nation status to one another. The second treaty was the French Alliance of 1778, to be effective
if war broke out between Britain and France.
Saratoga: British General John Burgoyne felt overwhelmed by a force three times larger than his
own, and surrendered on October 17, 1777. This forced the British to consider whether or not to
continue the war. The U.S. victory at the Battle of Saratoga convinced the French that the U.S.
deserved diplomatic recognition.
Valley Forge: American survivors from the Battle at Brandywine Creek marched through Valley
Forge in early December, 1777. The Continental Army marched through Valley Forge while the
British army rested miles away in Philadelphia. After the arrival of Baron Friedrich von Steuben,
the Continental army emerged from Valley Forge.
Hessians: They were German mercenaries who were comprised of approximately 30,000
soldiers in the British army during the Revolutionary War. They fought among 162,000 other
Britons and loyalists but were outnumbered by the 220,000 troops of the Continental Army.
the "black" regiment: They were a group of dignified clergymen who preached against British
tyranny and resistance to British authority in 1765. Because sermons were such a common form
of communication, nearly every colonist saw public fasting and communication and were
infected with the idea that it was a sin not to reject Britain.
General Thomas Gage: He was the commander in chief of Britain’s military forces in America
from 1763 to 1775. In April 1775, he issued the order for British troops to march on to concord
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and seize American weapons stored up there. During his career as commander in chief, he was
appointed as the new governor of Massachussetts.
British Generals: Henry Clinton, William Howe, John Burgoyne: General Howe planned to set
up headquarters in New York in 1776 but was delayed by Washington’s escape to Long Island.
General Burgoyne was trapped at Saratoga in 1777 and was forced to surrender. General Clinton
succeeded Howe as commander in chief in 1778.
Yorktown, Lord Cornwallis: Washington, along with Admiral de Grasse’s French fleet, trapped
British General Cornwallis on the Yorktown peninsula. The Siege of Yorktown began in
September of 1781, and ended when Cornwallis realized that he lost three key points around
Yorktown and surrendered.
League of Armed Neutrality: The empress of Russia, Catherine II, made a declaration in 1780,
restricting the category of contrabands to munitions and essential instruments of war. She also
secured the freedom of the navigation of neutral nations, even to ports of belligerents. The U.S.
could not join because it was fighting in the Revolutionary war.
Treaty of Paris, 1783: Great Britain and the United States signed the Treaty of Paris, which
brought an end to the American Revolution, on September 3. Great Britain recognized the
former 13 colonies as the free and self-governing United States of America.
French and British intrigue over U.S. boundaries (in Treaty of Paris): France and Britain shared
much interest in American territory following the War for Independence. The French wanted to
further continue their residence in Virginia, which led to further dispute between them and the
colonists.
social impact of the war: Women did not receive the status implied by the American
Revolution’s ideals. Though the Revolution was fought in the name of liberty, slavery still
existed, creating a paradox between the slavery and the freedom. However, slavery virtually
ended in the North during the Revolutionary era.
HOW REVOLUTIONARY? : Even though the former colonies were joined under a central
government provided by the Articles of Confederation, they still acted independently in various
areas. Some state constitutions were identical to the English charters that had governed them.
On the other hand, the idea of the separation of church and state grew stronger, toleration of
religious minorities became more prevalent, inflation became widespread, industry was
stimulated, and trade with foreign nations increased.
Disestablishment, Virginia Statue of Religious Freedom: Thomas Jefferson worked on the
Virginia Statute of Religious Freedom after independence was declared. It became a law in 1786,
and was the model for the clause in the First Amendment guaranteeing freedom of religion.
Separation of church and state became more popular.
NEW STATE CONSTITUTIONS: It was necessary for the former colonies to assemble new state
governments after the fall of British authority in 1775. Massachusetts voters insisted that a
constitution were made by a convention rather than the legislature, in hopes of implicitly
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making it superior to the legislatures. Most state constitutions included a bill of rights, although
the constitutions ranged from extremely democratic models to unicameral legislatures.
Newburgh conspiracy: The new nation under the Articles of Confederation was in a financial
crisis. Through the Newburgh Conspiracy, which was engineered by Alexander Hamilton and
Robert Morris, the army, whose pay was overdue, threatened to force the states into
surrendering more power to the national government.
SIDEBAR: INTERPRETING THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION
“IT ALL DEPENDS ON YOUR POINT OF VIEW . . .”
One of the things we will deal with extensively in class is the complex nature of historical
interpretation. The American Revolution provides an excellent example of an event that was
viewed very differently in Britain than in America. Note the following contrasting views of the
same events:
BRITISH RATIONALE
COLONIAL RATIONALE
Proclamation of 1763: provided a temporary
measure to gain time to devise a more
permanent solution to conflict between Indians
and settlers.
Reaction to the Proclamation of 1763: Colonists
saw the Proclamation as an attempt to “hem
them in” and keep them under British control.
Sugar Act: provided that colonists should be
taxed for costs of the empire at a rate
comparable to levels of taxation for those at
home.
Reaction to the Sugar Act: Colonists believed
Britain had no right to tax for revenue without
the colonists having representation in the
Parliament.
Currency Act: required colonists to pay British
merchants in gold and silver, rather than
inflated colonial paper currency.
Reaction to the Currency Act: Mercantilism had
created a chronic trade deficit for the colonies;
the British were asking the impossible in
demanding payments in gold or silver when
colonial resources were continually being
drained.
Stamp Act: imposed a tax on the colonists for
their own protection.
Reaction to the Stamp Act: Britain had no right
of taxation without representation, and no
offenders should be tried in admiralty courts
without juries.
Quartering Act: required colonists to help
provide for their own protection.
Reaction to the Quartering Act: Colonists
viewed this, too, as taxation without
representation; they also questioned Britain’s
motive in sending troops to America when
foreign enemies had been removed; perhaps the
troops were there to control the people?
Repeal of the Stamp Act and Passage of the
Declaratory Act: meant that Britain backed
Reaction to the repeal of the Stamp Act and
passage of the Declaratory Act: The colonists
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down on a particularly hated tax but retained
the principle of British supremacy.
had forced the British to back down; in their glee,
they overlooked the implications of the
Declaratory Act.
Townshend Duties: reiterated the British
belief that they had a legitimate right to collect
taxes from the colonies for the protection they
received. They gain in to the colonists to the
extent they used the kind of indirect taxes
about which the colonists had not complained
before 1763.
Reaction to the Townshend Duties: The
colonists now believed the indirect taxes they
had accepted earlier as a legitimate way to
control trade in mercantilism were now being
used to control collect revenue; they
considered this, then, another example of
taxation without representation.
Tea Act: represented an attempt to save the
British East India Company, which had been
floundering since the repeal of all Townshend
duties except the tax on tea. The act was an
attempt to conceal a tax by lowering prices
for British tea with reduced transportation
costs.
Reaction to the Tea Act: Even though British
tea became cheaper, colonists were still being
taxed without representation.
Coercive or “Intolerable Acts”: punished
Americans for property lost in the Boston Tea
Party.
Reaction to the Coercive or “Intolerable Acts”:
Colonists viewed the acts as sweeping and
unjustified denials of their constitutional
liberties.
Lexington and Concord: were attempts to
capture colonial leaders and war supplies to
prevent the possibility of a successful
colonial revolt.
Paine’s “Common Sense” provided a rationale
for freeing America from British tyranny, by
force if necessary. The British had now killed
colonists and provided cause for further
resistance.
Articles of Confederation: Why was this a CRITICAL PERIOD?
Drafted in 1796 by John Dickinson, the Articles of Confederation established a single-chamber
national Congress elected by state legislatures, in which each state held only one vote. These
Articles notably left out both and executive and judicial branch, and provided Congress no
power to tax or regulate commerce. However, the Articles established states’ rights and also
provided for American independence, uniting all the colonies during the war.
Maryland, cession of western land claims: Maryland waited to agree to the new government
until lands north of the Ohio River were turned over to the United States in 1779. Maryland did
not want big states (NY, VA) to grow and dominate the new nation, instead equalizing the power
of the states and opening the union up for expansion.
STRENGTHS OF THE ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION: The thirteen states established a
permanent government in 1781 in the form of a confederation which included a congress that
represented the states and had the power to conduct Indian and foreign affairs, mediate
disputes between states, and establish a standard for weights and measures. The Articles
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protected against an oppressive central government, such as a monarchy or oligarchy, by
placing power within the fragmented states.
WEAKNESSES OF THE ARTCILES OF CONFEDERATION: The government established in 1781, was
a confederation; each state was its own powerful entity and had its own tariffs and currencies,
making it harder for interstate commerce to occur. The federal government lacked the power to
tax and form a militia without the approval of all the states. Amending the Articles was a difficult
and tedious process, because the amendment would have to be accepted by each state in order
to be passed.
Pennsylvania militia routs Congress, 1783: Eighty soldiers marched from Lancaster to
Philadelphia to obtain justice from the state government and Congress on June 17, 1783.
Protesting in front of Independence Hall, which housed Congress and the state government, the
rebels were successful in moving the government away from Philadelphia.
Northwest Posts: After the Revolutionary war, the British did not leave their posts in an effort to
preserve both the flourishing fur trade and the improving relations with the Native Americans.
This showed Britain’s unwillingness to give up and the weakness of the American government,
problems which culminated in the War of 1812.
Land Ordinance of 1785: Congress enacted this law to set a uniform procedure for surveying
land in 1785. It established that the settlement of a town would be six square miles and would
contain land set aside for schools, setting a precedent for the public education system in the
United States.
Northwest Ordinance, 1787: Congress passed this law to define the steps for the formation and
admission of states into the Union in 1787. It applied to the lands north of the Ohio River which
had been established as the Northwest Territory. The existence of slavery could be determined
by popular sovereignty in these territories.
Proposed Jay-Gardoqui Treaty, 1785: John Jay tried to negotiate with Spain for trading rights in
New Orleans in 1785, but returned with a treaty that renounced Spanish claims to southwestern
lands and opened Spanish markets to eastern merchants. In exchange, the U.S. gave up
Mississippi trading rights, thus fueling the North-South conflict.
Shays’ Rebellion: A group of Massachusetts farmers led by Daniel Shays protested after taxes
were raised to pay for Revolutionary debts in 1786. The high taxes, combined with the
depression that hit after British markets were lost, forced the farmers to revolt. The result was
an increase in tension between the North and South.
Annapolis Convention, 1786: A group of delegates from five states met in Annapolis, Maryland
in 1786, in an effort to solve the problems of interstate commerce. Because there was little
representation, the delegates decided that a convention of all states should be held the year
after in order to amend the Articles of Confederation.
1780’s depression: The first major depression of the American states occurred after the
Revolutionary War in New England. The causes included high taxes imposed to finance the war
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debt, the tightening of credit, and a short growing season that kept crop yields low. Shays’
rebellion occurred ultimately because of this depression.
MEMORY AID: "ARTICLES
A Annapolis Convention, 1786
R ratification debate between Federalists and Antifederalists
T reaty of Paris, 1783
I nternational challenges from England, Spain, France and Barbary Pirates
C onstitutional Convention, 1787
L and legislation (Land Ordinance of 1785; NW Ordinance of 1787)
E conomic depression (no regulation of interstate commerce)
S hays’ Rebellion
SIDEBAR: SAMPLE DBQ FROM THE 1985 NATIONAL EXAM
From 1781 to 1789, the Articles of Confederation provided the United States with an effective
government. Using the documents and your knowledge of the period, evaluate this
statement.
RYKKEN COMMENTS: This is a typical DBQ that relates to the Critical Period. Note that you
are given the time period within the assertion to be evaluated – this should help you with
OUTSIDE INFORMATION, an important part of any DBQ response. What events during those
years would help you build a credible response to this question? Also, realize that you are not
seeing the documents here, but certainly there would be many clues within the documents as
to the time period and areas of focus. Remember that we will work hard with document skills
throughout the semester. Typically, by the way, the Articles are considered a failure in our
history. As a good history student, however, you should be able to provide evidence on either
side of this question.
STRENGTHENING OF THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT
Adapted from American Pageant
Under Articles of Confederation
A loose confederation of states –“a firm league of
friendship.”
Under Federal Constitution
A firm union of people where the national government
was supreme.
1 vote in Congress for each state
2 votes in Senate for each state; representation by
population in House (Art.I, Secs. II., III)
2/3 vote (9 states in Congress for all important measures)
Simple majority vote in Congress, subject to presidential
veto (Art. I, Sec. VII, para. 2)
Laws executed by committees of Congress
Laws executed by powerful president (Art. II, Secs. II, III)
No congressional power over commerce. States free to
impose levies, and restrictions on trade with other states
and enter economic agreements with foreign countries.
Congress to regulate both foreign and interstate
commerce (Art. I, Sec. VIII, para. 3)
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No congressional power to levy taxes – payment of taxes
by states was voluntary.
Extensive power in Congress to levy taxes (Art. I, Sec. VIII,
para. 1)
No federal courts – states free to resolve their own
matters, or conflicts with other states.
Unanimity of states for amendment
Federal courts, capped by Supreme Court (Art. III)
No authority to act directly upon individuals and no power
to coerce states
Ample power to enforce laws by coercion of individuals
and to some extent of states
Amendment less difficult (Art. V) – 2/3 Congress and ¾ of
the states
The Constitution
After the Revolutionary War, the problems with the Articles of Confederation became
increasingly obvious, resulting in the Philadelphia Convention, whose purpose was to rewrite
the Articles. However, instead of submitting the Articles for revision, the delegates decided to
begin again, resulting in the drafting of a new frame of government outlined in the
Constitution, a document that compromised conflicting interests, unifying all the states under
a powerful federal government.
PHILADELPHIA CONVENTION: A congressional convention met in Philadelphia to amend the
Articles of Confederation in 1788. The delegates, which included Madison, Hamilton, and
Franklin, believed that there should be checks and balances in the government to give each
branch equal amounts of power. The convention ultimately scrapped the Articles and came up
with the much more effective Constitution, in which various compromises were made to pacify
sectional differences.
Delegates: Alexander Hamilton, George Washington, Benjamin Franklin: At the Philadelphia
Convention in 1788, George Washington presided over the convention while he and Franklin
helped in mediating heated debates. Hamilton wrote the "Federalist Papers," along with John
Jay, in defense of the Constitution.
Montesquieu, The Spirit of Laws: Montesquieu was a French writer whose writings helped bring
about the French Revolution. His book "The Spirit of the Laws," written in 1748, examines types
of government and how each evolves through factors such as location and climate. He believed
in separate and balanced branches of government.
Hobbes: Thomas Hobbes wrote Leviathan in 1651, as a commentary on his doctrine of
sovereignty. His philosophies represented a reaction against the chaotic Reformation of the
seventeenth century. These ideas generally stated that all men should submit to absolute
supremacy, influencing the idea of sovereignty in the United States.
James Madison, "Father of the Constitution": Madison drafted the Virginia Plan of national
government that became the basis for its bicameral structure in 1788. He also assisted in the
writing of the "Federalist Papers" in order to persuade delegates who were fearful of centralized
power.
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GREAT COMPROMISE: Also called the Connecticut compromise, this compromise was
introduced by the Connecticut delegation in 1788, and contained both the Virginia Plan and the
New Jersey Plan. It provided for a presidency, a senate with states represented with two
senators each, and a House of Representatives with representation according to population. The
plan resolved the dilemma of using only one of the two self serving documents in the
Constitution.
VA Plan, NJ Plan: The Virginia Plan called for an executive branch with two houses of Congress
which were both based on population. The New Jersey Plan, introduced by William Patterson,
called for a legislature with equal representation and increased powers for the national
government.
Checks and balances—examples: Examples of checks and balances in the Constitution are the
congressional power to impeach the president and the presidential power to appoint his
cabinet. This system helps to keep all three branches of the government in check and maintain
equal amounts of power.
North-South Compromises: There are two main North-South compromises in the Constitution.
One dealt with the structure of Congress, the Great Compromise; the other dealt with slavery
and the three-fifths clause. Both aided in easing the problems that arose because of the
imbalance of power between states in the Articles of Confederation.
Slavery and the constitution: slave trade, three-fifths clause, Fugitive Slave law: Although the
word "slavery" was not used in the Constitution, the idea surfaces in three places in the
Constitution: the three-fifths clause, which lessened the power of the voting south by making
the votes of three slaves equal that of five white votes; the Fugitive Slave Law, which captured
and returned runaway slaves who fled into free territories, and lastly Congress’ option to ban
the slave trade in Washington D. C. after 1808.
procedures for amendments: To amend the Constitution, a bill must first be proposed by either
two-thirds of both houses or each state conventions. For the amendment to be ratified, threefourths have to approve the bill. In order to protect the United States and its citizens, this
process made it difficult to alter the Constitution without valid reason.
Beard thesis, his critics: Beard criticized the Constitution in his "Economic Interpretation of the
Constitution" in 1913. Unlike his opponents, who believed in the Constitution’s democratic
purpose, Beard argues that it was written to give them economic advantages that would stem
from the stability of the economy.
Fiske, The Critical Period of American History: John Fiske, an American historian and
philosopher, wrote The Critical Period of American History, 1783-1789 in 1788. In the book, Fiske
argues that the Constitution had saved the nation from imminent interstate conflict.
Antifederalists: Antifederalists were opponents of the Constitution who thought that it failed to
balance power between the national and state governments. Believing that a balance was
impossible to reach, the opponents thought that the new government would ultimately ruin the
states.
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supporters of the Constitution: The supporters of the Constitution, including Hamilton, Jay, and
Madison, who called themselves the Federalists. These men became important in the
ratification process of the Constitution; they persuaded many of its opponents to ratify it
through their speeches, the Federalist Papers, and other propaganda.
opponents of the Constitution: The opponents of the Constitution were called the
Antifederalists; they opposed it because it failed to balance power between the national and
state governments. They thought that a balance would be impossible to reach and that the new
government would ultimately ruin the states.
George Mason, Bill of Rights: Mason was a delegate at the Constitutional Convention and
helped draft the Constitution. Troubled by its power and its failure to limit slavery or contain a
bill of rights, he would not sign it. Some states refused to ratify the Constitution until 1791,
when a bill of rights was added to the Constitution.
The ratification fights: Critics, such as Sam Adams, were successfully won over by the Federalists
in Massachusetts. The fight in Virginia ended after the addition of the Bill of Rights, defeating
Mason and Henry, and affected the decision in New York, where Hamilton won the fight using
the "Federalist Papers."
The Federalist Papers, Jay, Hamilton, Madison: The Federalist papers were written by Jay,
Hamilton, and Madison in 1788, during the Philadelphia Convention as a response to
Antifederalist objections to the Constitution. The eighty-five newspaper essays offered a glimpse
of the framers’ intentions in designing the Constitution, and shaped the American philosophy of
the government. They explained that the Constitution would protect the minority’s rights but
would not make them too powerful.
The Federalist, number 10: Madison, in the Federalist number ten, rejected the Antifederalist
argument that establishing a republic in United States would lead to a struggle for power. He
also argued that the Constitution would prevent the formation of national factions and parties.
implied powers, elastic clause, necessary and proper clause: An implied power is one not
granted in a job description, yet is meant to be taken. The elastic clause was included into the
Constitution to allow flexibility. Congress was granted the right to make all laws which they
deemed necessary and proper thus expanding their power.
loose, strict interpretation of the Constitution: The strict interpretation of the constitution
meant that it was to be followed exactly to the word, a philosophy adopted by Jefferson.
Hamilton believed in a loose interpretation, or that powers implied within the Constitution
should be included in the new government to fit changes over time.
RESERVED AND DELEGATED POWERS: Delegated powers were specifically enumerated rights
granted to Congress and the President. The delegated powers of Congress included the ability to
tax, issue currency, borrow money, declare war and sustain an army. All powers not stated
specifically in the Constitution were reserved to the states as stated in the Tenth Amendment.
These reserved powers were the result of flexibility in the Constitution to adapt over time.
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Undemocratic Elements in the Constitution: According to Charles Beard, the Constitution was
written to the advantage of the elite in the United States. The founding fathers did not believe in
total democracy, or mob rule, and so used state legislatures and the electoral college to elect
senators and the president, respectively.
Flexibility in the Constitution: The flexibility in the Constitution enabled it to adapt over time;
there have only been sixteen amendments since 1791. Our founding fathers used vague
language, and so Supreme Court interpretations of the Constitution changed over time; the
Elastic clause and the reserved powers are examples of this ambiguity.
Upper and Lower House: The senate was seen as the upper house because there were less
delegates, the age requirement was higher, and the term limits were six years as opposed to
two for the House of Representatives. As a result the Senate was seen as more of an elitist
institution while the House was viewed as reflective of the common people.
Electoral College: In order to protect the interests of the elite, land owning class, the framers of
the Constitution added the electoral college as a safeguard against the majority opinion. As a
result, electors could elect a presidential candidate without considering the popular vote and
elections could be won without a majority in the popular vote.
SIDEBAR: TYPICAL FREE RESPONSE QUESTIONS FROM NATIONAL EXAM
What evidence is there for the assertion that basic principles of the Constitution were firmly
grounded in the political and religious experience of America’s colonial and revolutionary
periods? (1985)
RYKKEN COMMENTS: This is a fairly complex question and requires you to have a solid
understanding of the lead-up to the American Revolution as well as the basic principles of the
Constitution. You would need to take both strands (political and religious) and evaluate them
one at a time. What political experiences, for example, were in the minds of the framers as
they put together the Constitution? How did they limit the power of government? How did
they safeguard personal liberties? Could you bring John Locke into this? Could you go back to
ideas that were talked about in the Declaration of Independence as a statement of colonial
motivations? The religious side of this question would be more difficult, beyond the obvious
idea of protecting religious freedom.
Evaluate the relative importance of domestic and foreign affairs in shaping American politics
in the 1790s. (1994)
RYKKEN COMMENTS: A very straight-forward question that requires you to have a solid
understanding of the decade of the 1790s. Again, the word “relative” is the key here – were
the party divisions caused more by disagreements over domestic policies or foreign policies?
Or, were the two strands of policy so intertwined that one cannot separate them? Our
approach to this period in class will prepare you well for that type of question.
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Washington and Hamilton: The all-important relationship!
As the first president of the newly formed United States, George Washington played a largely
passive role, suggesting few laws to Congress, attempting to reassure the public he was above
favoritism and sectional interests. Alexander Hamilton, on the other hand, took advantage of
Washington’s reluctance to be involved with domestic issues, and, as secretary of the
treasury, attempted to restore American credit by advocating a perpetual debt.
Post Revolutionary America—West: In the late eighteenth century, masses of people had
moved into the trans-Appalachian frontier to escape post-revolutionary depression, despite the
risk of violence presented by Indians and the British in their Northwest posts. Congress aided
the expansion with the Land and Northwest Ordinances
Post Revolutionary America—South: Many of the southern citizens had bought land in the west
and watched the price of land eagerly. Aside from the unstable land speculation, the south had
recovered from the war. It had diversified its crops and exported them at prewar levels.
Post Revolutionary America—North: Plagued by high taxes, overpopulation, and rebellion, the
North’s efforts at postwar recovery was impeded by the depression of the 1780s. Manufacturing
and merchant marine industries were also, negatively affected by independence; the British
imposed new embargoes and tariffs on the United States.
President George Washington: George Washington was elected president in 1788 and again in
1792. Washington’s two terms set the precedent for being President of the United States. He
tended to shy away from the affairs of Congress and also formed the first Presidential cabinet,
appointing two of the ablest men into high positions of responsibility into his cabinet. His
farewell address cautioned the American people to stay out of international affairs, remain
isolationist, and to beware of impending bipartisanship.
Washington’s Definition of the Presidency: George Washington set the precedent for being the
President of the United States. He humbly served two terms and appointed the first cabinet.
Washington stayed out of Congress’ way and supported the United States’ isolationist stance in
world affairs.
Vice President John Adams: Because he ran second to George Washington in the elections of
1788 and 1792, he became the nation’s first Vice President, limiting himself to presiding over
the senate. Prior to his term as Vice President, he was a diplomat to European nations such as
France, Britain, and the Dutch Republic.
Judiciary Act, 1789: The Congress passed the Judiciary Act in 1789, in an effort to create a
federal-court system and replace the old system, in which the courts varied from state to state.
They were burdened with filling in the holes of the judiciary system left by the Constitution.
Secretary of Treasury Hamilton: Hamilton was appointed in 1789, when the nation’s economy
was in shambles. In 1790, he submitted to Congress a Report of the Public Credit that provided
for the payments of all debts assumed during the war. He wanted a national bank and
encouraged manufacturing through financial government protection.
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Secretary of State Jefferson: As Secretary of State for Washington’s first term, Thomas Jefferson
wanted to establish reciprocal trade agreements with European nations and deny it to the
British. This plan, in 1783, died in Congress, along with his other plans to try to manipulate the
European countries. He resigned after the Citizen Genet scandal.
Secretary of War Knox: Henry Knox was the Secretary of War from 1789-1794, the first one
under the United States Constitution. Prior to this, he fought in major Revolutionary battles, was
in command of the West Point fortress in New York, and was the Secretary of War under the
Articles of Confederation.
Attorney General Randolph: Edmund Jennings Randolph was the Attorney General under the
Washington Administration from 1789-1794; before which he was the head of the Virginia
delegation at the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia and submitted the Virginia Plan.
Hamilton’s program: ideas, proposals, reasons for it: Alexander Hamilton wrote to Congress a
Report on Public Credit which proposed a way in which the national and foreign debts could be
funded and how the federal government would take charge of the debts left by states from the
resolution in 1790. The plans attempted to end wartime debt problems. Hamilton believed that
constant deficit was necessary to stimulate the nation’s economy, and also believed that the
U.S. should immediately repay its foreign debt.
Hamilton’s Legacy: Hamilton’s devices for restoring the credit of the nation led to great
monetary gains for merchants, speculators, and others working in the port cities. The
government’s takeover of state debts freed those of New England, New Jersey, and South
Carolina from harsh taxes.
Tariff of 1789: A revenue raising tariff enacted by Congress, it encouraged the people of the U.S.
to manufacture earthenware, glass, and other products in their home in order to avoid
importation. With a duty of 8.5%, the tariff succeeded in raising much needed funds for
Congress
Bank of the U.S.: Chartered by the newly formed federal government, the bank was established
in Philadelphia in 1791, and was permitted by the government to issue legal tender bank notes
that could be exchanged for gold. The bank successfully established a national currency, but the
charter ended in 1811, for economic and political reasons.
national debt, state debt, foreign debt: National debt accumulated by the US during the
Revolutionary war continued to plague Americans. The states were also in debt after borrowing
heavily from the government. Hamilton, in his Report on Public Credit, wanted to pay off foreign
debt immediately and then through tariffs repay the national debt.
excise taxes: A fixed charge on items of consumption, usually used for revenue raising. The first
excise tax placed upon the United States in 1791, by Parliament was one which taxed all
domestic distilled spirits. Anger towards this excise tax led directly to the Whiskey Rebellion.
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Report on Manufacturers: Presented to Congress in 1791, by Alexander Hamilton, the report
suggested that protective tariffs on imports from foreign lands would lead Americans to
produce more in their homelands, thus building national wealth and attracting foreigners.
Report on Public Credit: Hamilton submitted his report to Congress in 1790, hoping to seize it as
an opportunity to rebuild the country’s credit base. He reported that the US was 54 million
dollars in debt: 12 million to foreigners, and the rest to Americans. On top of that, he estimated
that the states held debts of over 25 million dollars.
location of the capital: logrolling, D.C.: The nation’s capital was originally located in New York,
but later was transferred to Washington D.C.. Originally planned by Charles L’Enfant, the city
consisted of beautiful walkways, tree lined streets, and masterfully architecture buildings.
Indian Decline: The frontier warfare during the post-revolutionary era combined with the
continuing penetration of western ways into Indian culture caused severe reductions in Indian
population and territory. An increasing amount of hatred towards the "redskins" further
encouraged the violence towards Indians.
Residence Act: Determined that a ten mile square area for the capital of the United States
would be chosen along the Potomac River along the Virginia-Maryland boarder. The area was to
be named the District of Columbia, after Christopher Columbus, and was selected by George
Washington.
Major L’Enfant, Benjamin Banneker: Pierre Charles L’Enfant was the French architect who, in
1791, drew the plans for the nation’s capital in Washington D.C., on which the city is now based.
Benjamin Banneker was appointed in 1791, by President Washington to assist L’Enfant in
surveying the land where the capital city was to be built.
Whiskey Rebellion: An organized resistance in 1794, to the excise tax on whiskey in which
federal revenue officials were tarred and feathered, riots were conducted, and mobs burned
homes of excise inspectors. The federal militia captured many of the protesters, but most were
released.
French Alliance of 1778: Alliance made between France and the United Sates during America’s
civil war in 1778. The alliance was used to convince French citizens living in United States
territory to become citizens of American, and therefore to bear arms or participate in the war.
French Revolution: The revolution was a period consisting of social and political upheaval from
1789-1799. Caused by the inability of the ruling class and clergy to solve the states problems,
the hunger of the workers, the taxation of the poor, and the American Revolution, it led to the
establishment of the First Republic and the end of the monarchy.
Citizen Genet: Sent to the United States by the French in 1793 to find soldiers to attack British
ships and conquer the territories held by the Spanish, Edmund Genet founded the American
Foreign Legion despite Washington’s April 22 proclamation of American neutrality.
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Neutrality Proclamation: Issued by President George Washington on April 22, 1793, the
Neutrality Proclamation stated that the United States would remain a neutral faction in the war
with France against Britain and Spain despite heavy French pressures to join their forces. Many
Americans felt the war to be a violation of their neutrality.
XYZ Affair, Talleyrand: When a commission was sent to France in 1797 in order to negotiate
problems between the two countries, they were told by the French foreign minister Talleyrand
that the agents X, Y, Z, three officials who did not take the process seriously, would only
negotiate for a lend of $10 million to the French government.
undeclared naval war with France: Otherwise known as the Quasi-War, the undeclared conflict
between the two nations lasted from 1798 to 1800. In the conflict, the United States managed
to capture ninety-three French ships while France captured just one U.S. ship.
British seizure of American ships: The Privy Council issued a secret order on November 6, 1793,
to confiscate any foreign ships trading with French Caribbean islands. In this decision, they
seized over 250 American ships which were conducting trade with the islands.
Royal Navy: They navy of the British empire, the Royal Navy began to inspect American ships in
1793 for suspected defects of the British Navy, who they then forcibly placed back into their
own navy. These bold actions commonly referred to as impressment, further strengthened
hostilities between the two countries.
Jay’s Treaty: Negotiated between the United States and France in 1794, the treaty evacuated
British posts in the West, appointed a committee to set up the U.S.-French boundary, and
named a commission to determine how much the British should pay for illegally seizing
American ships. It did not resolve the British West Indies trade dispute.
Pinckney’s Treaty, right of deposit at New Orleans: Ratified in 1796, the treaty gave westerners
the right to access the world markets duty-free through the Mississippi River. Spain promised to
recognize the thirty-first parallel, to end U.S. camps, and to discourage Indian attacks on
western settlers.
Spanish intrigue in the Southwest: Spain attempted, in many cases, to detach the West from
the United States, hoping to further expand their territory into the vast land. Washington’s
attempts at a failed alliance with the Creek Indians to expand into their lands only led to further
conflicts between America and Spain.
James Wilkinson: An American soldier who participated in the American Revolution and the
War of 1812. Wilkinson was the man who reported Burr’s conspiracy to access Louisiana to
President Jefferson. He served as Secretary to the Board of War and was a brigadier general
under Anthony Wayne.
"Mad" Anthony Wayne: Known as Mad Anthony due to his quick temper and his bravery,
Wayne was a General during the American Revolution. He began his service with the
Pennsylvania militia. He participated in the battles of Brandywine and Germantown and
distinguished himself in the Battle of Monmouth.
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Battle of Fallen Timbers: At the Battle of Fallen Timbers, in 1794, Anthony Wayne defeated a
coalition of Native American tribes as the major general and commander in chief of the troops.
The battle took place around present day Toledo and led to the Treaty of Greenville which
opened up the Northwest to American settlers.
Treaty of Greenville, 1795: This treaty, which was drafted in 1795, opened the Northwest
Territory to settlement by white United States citizens. The territory had formerly only been
inhabited by Indians, so therefore the treaty between the two races was an important one. The
treaty served to end white-Indian hostilities for sixteen years.
Barbary Pirates: Following the American Revolution, the Barbary pirates began to raid the ships
of the United States. The United States therefore formed treaties with Morocco, Tripoli, and
Tunis, as European nations already had, that gave them immunity from these attacks.
Tripolitan War: From 1801-1805, the war was a battle between the North African state Tripoli
and the United States. The Tripolitans had seized U.S. ships in the U.S. refusal to pay in increase
in the tribute paid to the pasha of Tripoli. In the end, the demand for payment was ended and
the U.S. paid $60,000 to free Americans caught captive.
Washington’s Farewell Address: In his realization of the important role that he had take in
developing the role of the president of the United States, Washington’s farewell address asked
the citizens of the United States to avoid involvement in political problems between foreign
nations.
SIDEBAR: THE POLITICAL WORLD OF THE 1790s
If you woke up tomorrow morning and it was 1792, would you be a FEDERALIST? If so, the
following statements apply to you:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
Rule by the “best” people
Hostility to the extension of democracy
Central government should be stronger than the states
Loose constitutional interpretation (three cheers for the elastic clause!)
Government should foster business
Protective tariffs are good and necessary
Pro-British (conservative tradition). The French Revolution is bad – an example of “too
much” democracy.
National Debt – that’s OK, if funded – it ties the rich to the government
Expanding bureaucracy is OK
Powerful central bank – that’s a good thing
Restrictions on speech and press – necessary at times (“I may disagree with what you
say, and, frankly, I don’t even want you to say it!”)
Members concentrated on the seacoast
Hamilton is a great guy and Jefferson – he’s dangerous, man!
Washington – OK, he’s the greatest man that ever lived
By the way, your party will be slowly dying out by 1800 . . . .
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If you woke up tomorrow morning and it was 1792, would you be an ANTI-FEDERALIST
(eventually “Democratic-Republicans”)? If so, the following statements apply to you:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
Rule by the “informed” masses
Extending democracy is a good thing
States’ rights are paramount over central authority
The constitution must be strictly interpreted (bravo! for the 10th Amendment!)
No special favors for business – agriculture is preferred
No favors for manufacturers – let the Europeans do that!
Pro-French (radical tradition). You wear your tricolors proudly!
National Debt – that’s bad.
Reduction in the bureaucracy – that’s important
State banks are preferred over any “monstrous” central bank
Free speech – very important (“I may disagree with what you say, but I will defend to
the death your right to say it!”).
Members are concentrated in the south, the southwest, and the frontier
Jefferson is a great guy, Hamilton is a jerk
Washington is the greatest man that ever lived, although Hamilton corrupted him a bit.
You’re a member of a party of the future!
Federalists and Republicans: Where it all started!
By the election of 1796, the United States political system had become bipartisan, largely a
result of the disagreements over Hamilton’s programs and foreign policies. The split in the
Federalist Party became official with Jefferson’s resignation from Washington’s cabinet in 1793,
upon which he formed the Republicans, whose ideology claimed that the Federalists had
become a party geared toward enriching the wealthy at the expense of the poor.
election of 1796: President Adams, Vice-president Jefferson: Jefferson was supported by the
Republicans, while Adams was supported by the Federalists. Adams was victorious in the
election, Jefferson was made Vice-president, as a constitutional law stated that the candidate
with the second highest number of electoral votes got that position.
new states: Vt, Ky, Tenn: Vermont, Kentucky, and Tennessee were all admitted into the United
States between 1791 and 1796 by the federal government. Their admission was spurred by the
hope that they would then become completely loyal to the Union, as they had not been before.
Society of the Cincinnati: A post-war organization of veteran officers from the Continental
Army, the Society of the Cincinnati was feared by many because its charter had the possibility of
becoming a hereditary aristocracy, as it gave membership to descendants.
Democratic Societies: An organization in which the wealthy are on a level of equality with the
poor. This is best exemplified by the Philadelphia Democratic Society, in which Republicans were
united by wealth rather then by status, as well as believed that those with talent and ambition
should not forget their dreams.
Alien and Sedition Acts: In 1798, the Neutralization Act said residence must remain in the
United States for five years before becoming naturalized while the Alien Act allowed the
exportation of any alien believed to be a threat to national security. The Alien Enemies Act
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allowed the President to export aliens during times of war and the Sedition Act made it a
criminal offense to plot against government. These acts were criticized because they oppressed
the people’s First Amendment rights.
Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions: Written by Jefferson and Madison in protest to the Alien
and Sedition Acts, the Virginia Resolution stated that states possessed the right to intervene in
unconstitutional acts in government, and the Kentucky Resolution stated that federal
government could not extend powers outside of constitutionally granted powers.
doctrine of nullification: A group of Kentucky Resolutions adopted in 1799, the Doctrine of
Nullification stated that any federal laws considered by the people to be "objectionable" may be
nullified by the states. The passage of these resolutions proved the probability of upcoming
violent disagreements of how the law should be interpreted.
Convention of 1800: The Federalist Party split into two factions during the Convention of 1800,
as the party was undecided as to who their presidential candidate should be. The Federalists
wanted to nominate Adams, while the "High Federalists," led by Alexander Hamilton,
denounced his candidacy.
Second Great Awakening: Occurring mainly in the frontier states, the Second Great Awakening
began in the 1790s and was characterized by "camp meetings," or open air revivals which lasted
for weeks at a time where revivalists spoke of the second coming of Jesus. Charles Finney, an
especially prominent preacher of the time, preached not only the second coming of Jesus, but
also the gospel of free will, which lead to a greater democratic power commonly seen in the
ideals of Jacksonian democracy.
Fugitive Slave Law: Enacted by congress in 1793, the law required judges to give a slave back to
its owner or his representative if caught after running away. This law indicated tightening racial
tensions, as well as stripped slaves of the right to trial by jury or presentation of evidence of
freedom.
Gabriel’s Rebellion: Led by Gabriel Prosser in August 1800, the rebellion broke out near
Richmond, Virginia when 1,000 slaves marched to the capital. Thirty five slaves were executed
by a swift state militia, but whites still feared what many occur in the future with slave uprisings.
The rebellion increased tensions between the North and the South.
Logan Act: Enacted in 1795 by the legislative assembly, the Logan Act allowed city councils the
power to establish, as well as to support and to regulate, a system consisting schools for the
general public. This act led to the establishment of school systems throughout the U.S.
Legal equality for free blacks: These measures first appeared in the 1780s and 1790s, when
states dropped restrictions on freedom of movement, protected the property of blacks, and
allowed them to enroll in the state militia. By 1796, all but three states allowed blacks voting
rights.
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Alexander McGillivray: The leader of the Creek Indians, who in 1790 signed a peace treaty with
the United States that allowed whites to occupy lands in the Georgia piedmont, but spared the
rest of the Creek lands from white settlement. He received a large bribe for signing the treaty.
Gilbert Stuart: An American painter who is particularly well known for his many portraits of
wartime hero and President George Washington. His three styles of portrait painting: the
"Vaughan" half-length, the "Lansdowne" full-length, and the "Athenaeum" head have often
been mimicked.
Charles Wilson Peale: As a portrait painter of the Federalist period, Peale is best known for his
fourteen portraits of George Washington. In 1786, Peale began a museum of parts of nature in
Independence Hall, Philadelphia of portraits and helped to found the Pennsylvania Academy of
the Fine Arts in 1805.
THE PRELIMINARY ASSIGNMENT IS ON THE NEXT
TWO PAGES. IT IS DUE DURING OUR FIRST WEEK
OF CLASS. SEE ME THROUGHOUT SEMESTER 1 IF
YOU HAVE QUESTIONS OR NEED HELP!
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PRE-AP WORK
REVIEW TEST PROMPTS #1
1607-1800
In early February you will be completing the first of several REVIEW TESTS for this class. The test
will cover the period from roughly 1607-1800 and will introduce you to the format of the
National AP Exam. The pre-1800 phase of American history typically makes up 15-20% of the
multiple choice section of the National Exam (in the 2007 exam, for example, 17 out of 80
questions dealt with this period). The following terms/ideas/concepts will be imbedded in your
first review test.
PRE-AP ASSIGNMENT (DUE ON WEDNESDAY 27 JANUARY!)
Throughout the semester in AP History you will be completing RFS ASSIGNMENTS (“Reading for
Significance”) that will indicate to me that you are reading the assigned material (we will talk
more about the specifics related to RFS work during the first week of class). YOUR FIRST ONE OF
THESE will correspond to the “Fun With Early American History” reading that you receive in the
fall. The expectation here is that you look for these as you read and provide definitions for each
(note: the list is drawn from actual AP Exams going back to 1988 and some of the terms may
require outside research on your part – I suggest using the internet for those). Please create a
word document with the solid definitions written in your own words – what I am looking for
here is that you “show the work” indicating you have read and thoughtfully studied each item –
make sure you include dates where applicable. For those of you that like very specific direction,
I’m looking for 2-3 sentences for each and that you address WHAT the item actually is and WHY
it is important. What you are creating is a study document that will enable you to score well on
our first REVIEW TEST.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
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12.
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20.
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23.
Line of Demarcation
Spanish Armada
New World crops introduced into Europe
Spanish vs. English Approach to Native People in the New World
Differences between English and French colonial approaches
Iroquois Confederation
The Dominion of New England
Puritans
Half-Way Covenant (Puritanism)
Virginia Company/ “headright” system
New England “Town” System
Europe’s Wars for Empire 1688-1763
Zenger Trial
French and Indian War
Proclamation Line of 1763
Slavery in the colonial period
Causes of the American Revolution
Coercive Acts
“virtual representation” argument
Boston Massacre
Tories
Deism/ The Great Awakening
Advantages/Disadvantages of Colonials and British during Revolutionary War
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24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
36.
37.
38.
39.
40.
41.
42.
Tom Paine/ Common Sense
Declaration of Independence
Battle of Saratoga
Treaty of Paris 1783
Articles of Confederation/ Focus on weaknesses
Land Ordinance of 1785
Shays’ Rebellion
Northwest Ordinance of 1787
Concept of “republican motherhood”
Great Compromise/ Constitutional Convention
The Federalist
“necessary and proper” clause of the Constitution
Ratification Process/ US Constitution
grievances against Britain during Washington’s Administration
Hamilton’s economic program
Whiskey Rebellion
Alien and Sedition Acts
Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions
Nullification Theory (or Doctrine)
“I want you TO BE PREPARED
FOR AP HISTORY IN JANUARY!”
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