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017-21-0101s3 10/11/02 3:26 PM 3 Page 17 Page 1 of 5 Civilization CASE STUDY: Ur in Sumer MAIN IDEA WHY IT MATTERS NOW Prospering agricultural villages, food surpluses, and new technology led to the rise of civilizations. Contemporary civilizations share the same characteristics typical of ancient civilizations. TERMS & NAMES • • • • • • • • • civilization specialization artisan institution scribe cuneiform Bronze Age barter ziggurat SETTING THE STAGE Agriculture marked a dramatic change in how people lived together. They began dwelling in larger, more organized communities, such as farming villages and towns. Gradually, from some of these permanent settlements, cities emerged, forming the backdrop of a much more complex way of life—civilization. Villages Grow into Cities Over the centuries, people settled in stable communities that were based on agriculture. Domesticated animals became more common. The invention of new tools— hoes, sickles, and plow sticks—made the task of farming easier. As people gradually developed the technology to control their natural environment, they reaped larger harvests. Settlements with a plentiful supply of food could support more heavily populated communities. As the population of some early farming villages increased, social relationships became more complex. The change from a nomadic hunting-gathering way of life to settled village life took a long time. Likewise, the change from village life to city life was a gradual process that spanned several generations. Economic Changes To cultivate more land and to produce extra crops, ancient peo- ple in larger villages built elaborate irrigation systems. The resulting food surpluses freed some villagers to pursue other jobs and to develop skills besides farming. Individuals who learned to become craftspeople created valuable new products, such as pottery, metal objects, and woven cloth. In turn, people who became traders profited from a broader range of goods to exchange—craftwork, grains, and many raw materials. Two important inventions also fostered the expanded trade between villages. The wheel and the sail enabled traders to transport more goods over longer distances. Social Changes A more complex and prosperous economy affected the social structure of village life. For example, building and operating large irrigation systems required the cooperation and labor of many people. As other special groups of workers formed, social classes with varying wealth, power and influence began to emerge. A system of social classes would later become more clearly defined as cities grew. Religion also became more organized. During the Old Stone Age, prehistoric This photograph shows the wellpreserved remains of Skara Brae. This small agricultural village emerged around 3000 B.C. It is located on an island off the coast of northern Scotland. 017-21-0101s3 10/11/02 3:26 PM Page 18 Page 2 of 5 peoples’ religious beliefs centered around nature, animal spirits, and some idea of an afterlife. During the New Stone Age, farming peoples worshiped the many gods and goddesses who they believed had power over the rain, wind, and other forces of nature. Early city dwellers developed rituals founded on these earlier religious beliefs. As populations grew, common spiritual values became lasting religious traditions. What Is Civilization? Most historians believe that one of the first civilizations arose in Sumer, a region that is now part of modern Iraq. Sumer was located in Mesopotamia. Just what set the Sumerians apart from their neighbors? Most scholars define civilization as a complex culture with these five characteristics: (1) advanced cities, (2) specialized workers, (3) complex institutions, (4) record keeping, and (5) advanced technology. Advanced Cities Cities were the birthplaces of the first civilizations. In fact, the word civilization comes from the Latin word for city. A city is more than a large group of people living together. The size of the population alone does not distinguish a village from a city. One of the key differences is that a city is a center of trade for a larger area. Like their modern-day counterparts, ancient city dwellers depended on trade. Farmers, merchants, and traders brought goods to market in the cities. The city dwellers themselves produced a variety of goods for exchange. Specialized Workers As cities grew, so did the need for more specialized workers, such as traders, government officials, and priests. Food surpluses provided the opportunity for specialization—the development of skills in a specific kind of work. An abundant food supply allowed some people to become expert at jobs besides farming. In early civilizations, some city dwellers became artisans—skilled workers who make goods by hand. Specialization helped artisans develop their skill at designing jewelry, fashioning metal tools and weapons, or making pottery. The wide range of crafts that artisans produced helped cities become thriving centers of trade. Complex Institutions The soaring populations of early cities made government, or a system of ruling, necessary. In civilizations, leaders emerged to maintain order among people and to establish laws. Government is an example of an institution—a long-lasting pattern of organization in a community. Complex institutions, such as government, religion, and the economy, are another characteristic of civilization. With the growth of cities, religion became a formal institution. Most cities had great temples where dozens of priests took charge of religious duties. Sumerians believed that every city belonged to a god who lived in POTLIGHT N the temple and governed the city’s activities. The temple became the The Inca’s System of hub of both government and religious affairs. It also served as the Record Keeping city’s economic center. There food and trade items were distributed The empire of the ancient Inca to the city’s residents. S O civilization stretched along the western coast of South America. Though the Inca had no writing system, they kept records using a quipu, a complicated set of colored strings tied with different-sized knots at various intervals. Each knot represented a certain amount or its multiple. The colors of each cord represented the item being counted: people, animals, land, and so on. The quipucamayoc, special officials who knew how to use the quipu, kept records of births, deaths, marriages, crops, and even important historical events. 18 CHAPTER 1 Record Keeping As government, religion, and the economy became more complex and structured, people recognized the need to keep records. In early civilizations, government officials had to document tax collections, the passage of laws, and the storage of grain. Priests needed some way to keep track of the yearly calendar and important rituals. Merchants had to record accounts of debts and payments. Most civilizations developed a system of writing, though some devised other methods of record keeping. Around 3000 B.C., Sumerian scribes—or professional record keepers—invented a system of writing called cuneiform (KYOO nee uh FAWRM), which means “wedge-shaped.” (Earlier versions of Sumerian writing consisted of signs called pictographs—symbols of the objects or things • • • THINK THROUGH HISTORY A. Drawing Conclusions Why were cities essential to the growth of civilizations? A. Possible Answer Cities were the centers of trade, worship, and government and offered a broad range of jobs in which people could specialize. 017-21-0101s3 10/11/02 3:26 PM Page 19 Page 3 of 5 they represented.) The scribe’s tool, called a stylus, was a sharpened reed with a wedge-shaped point. It was pressed into moist clay to create symbols. Scribes baked their clay tablets in the sun to preserve the writing. People soon began to use writing for other purposes besides record keeping. They also wrote about their cities’ dramatic events—wars, natural disasters, the reign of kings. Thus, the beginning of civilization in Sumer also signaled the beginning of written history. Advanced Technology New tools and techniques Background Toolmakers discovered how to combine copper with a small amount of tin to make bronze. Bronze is harder than copper. are always needed to solve the problems that emerge when large groups of people live together. In early civilizations, some farmers began to harness the powers of animals and nature. For example, they used oxdrawn plows to turn the soil. They created elaborate irrigation systems to expand planting areas. Artisans relied on new technology to make their tasks easier. Around 3500 B.C., Sumerian artisans first used the potter’s wheel to shape jugs, plates, and bowls. Sumerian metalworkers discovered that melting together certain amounts of copper and tin made bronze. After 2500 B.C., skilled metalworkers in Sumer’s cities turned out bronze spearheads by the thousands. The period called the Bronze Age refers to the time when people began using bronze, rather than copper and stone, to fashion tools and weapons. The Bronze Age began in Sumer around 3000 B.C., but the starting date varied in different parts of Europe and Asia. The wedgeshaped symbols of cuneiform are visible in this close-up of a clay tablet. PATTERNS OF CHANGE: Key Traits of Civilizations Characteristics Examples from Sumer Advanced Cities • Uruk—population of about 10,000, which doubled in two centuries • Lagash—population of about 19,000 • Umma—population of about 16,000 Specialized Workers • priests • metalworkers • weavers • merchants • scribes • soldiers • government officials • potters • teachers • farmers Complex Institutions • Formal governments with officials and laws • Priests with both religious and political power • A rigorous education system for training of scribes Record Keeping • Cuneiform tablets—records of business transactions, historical events, customs, and traditions Advanced Technology By around 3000 B.C.: • The wheel, the plow, and the sailboat probably in daily use • Bronze weapons and body armor that gave Sumerians a military advantage over their enemies S K I L L B U I L D E R : Interpreting Charts 1. Based on the chart, what is one important feature of a city? 2. What kinds of social behavior are basic to the five characteristics of civilizations? PATTERNS OF CHANGE 19 017-21-0101s3 10/11/02 3:26 PM Page 20 The City of Ur 2 ● 1 ● Page 4 of 5 1 Ziggurat A massive temple ● 2 Court of Nanna Sacred place of Ur’s moon god ● 3 Home of the High Priestess Place where a woman ● 5 ● with great religious authority lived 4 ● The white lines indicate the shape of the original structure, which once rose as high as 80 feet. 4 Surrounding Wall Defense for ● ● protecting Ur residents 3 6 ● 5 Temple and Treasury ● Administrative centers in Ur 6 Royal Cemetery ● Burial site of the queen and king of Ur Aerial photograph of Ur taken in 1930. The underlying photograph at the right shows how the temple mound looked after Leonard Woolley excavated it during the 1920s and 1930s CASE STUDY: Ur in Sumer Civilization Emerges in Ur Ur, one of the earliest cities in Sumer, stood on the banks of the Euphrates River in what is now southern Iraq. Some 30,000 people once lived in this ancient city. Ur was the site of a highly sophisticated civilization. After a series of excavations from 1922 to 1934, English archaeologist Leonard Woolley and his team unraveled the mystery of this long-lost civilization. Woolley’s archaeological dig at Ur revealed important clues about Ur’s past. Woolley concluded that around 3000 B.C., Ur was a flourishing urban civilization. People in Ur lived in well-defined social classes. Priests and rulers wielded great power. Wealthy merchants profited from foreign trade. Artists and artisans created many extraordinary works, such as lavish ornaments and jewelry, musical instruments, and gold helmets and daggers. Woolley’s finds have enabled historians to reconstruct scenes illustrating Ur’s advanced culture. An Agricultural Economy Imagine a time nearly 5,000 years ago. Outside the mud-brick walls surrounding Ur, ox-driven plows cultivate the fields. People are working barefoot in the irrigation ditches that run between patches of green plants. With stone hoes, the workers widen the ditches. The ditches carry water into their fields from the reservoir a mile away. The people of Ur have developed this large-scale irrigation system to provide Ur with food surpluses, which keep the economy thriving. The government officials who plan and direct this public works project ensure its smooth operation. A Glimpse of City Life A broad dirt road leads from the fields up to the city’s wall. Inside the city gate, the city dwellers go about their daily lives. Most people live in small, windowless, one-story, boxlike houses packed tightly together along the street. However, a few wealthy families live in two-story houses with an inner courtyard. Down another street, accomplished artisans work full-time in their shops. A metalworker makes bronze by carefully mixing molten copper with just the right quantity of tin. Later he will hammer the bronze to make sharp spears—weapons to help Ur’s well-organized armies defend the city. As a potter spins his potter’s wheel, he expertly shapes the moist clay into a large bowl. These artisans and other craftworkers produce trade goods that help the city of Ur prosper. 20 CHAPTER 1 THINK THROUGH HISTORY B. Analyzing Causes How did Ur’s agricultural way of life foster the development of civilization there? B. Possible Answer Food surpluses freed Ur residents to develop specialized skills other than farming; sparked a need for advanced technology such as irrigation systems; allowed Ur’s economy to flourish; provided a wide range of goods for trade. 017-21-0101s3 10/11/02 3:26 PM Page 21 Page 5 of 5 Ur’s Thriving Trade The narrow streets open out into a broad avenue where merchants squat under their awnings and trade farmers’ crops and artisans’ crafts. This is the city’s bazaar, or marketplace. People do not use coins to make purchases because money has not yet been invented. However, merchants and their customers know roughly how many pots of grain a farmer must give to buy a jug of wine. This way of trading goods and services without money is called barter. More complicated trades require the services of a scribe. He carefully forms cuneiform signs on a clay tablet. The signs show how much barley one farmer owes a merchant for a donkey. The Temple: Center of City Life Farther down the main avenue Background The ziggurat of Ur was a huge temple dedicated to the moon god Nanna. The tiers are supposed to represent steps leading toward the heavens. CONNECT to TODAY Ziggurat’s Role in Persian Gulf War After 4,000 years, the city of Ur is still making history. During the Persian Gulf War in 1991, the Iraqi military established an air base near the site of the city of Ur. The ziggurat there had been reconstructed. Hoping that U.S. and Allied forces would not risk destroying the ancient ziggurat, Iraqi forces parked aircraft next to the structure at Ur for protection. However, enemy planes targeted the city of Ur. Exploding bombs caused large craters at the site. Machine-gun attacks from enemy planes also left many bullet holes in the sides of the ziggurat itself. stands Ur’s tallest and most important building—the temple. Like a city within a city, the temple is surrounded by a heavy wall. Within the temple gate, a massive, tiered structure towers over the city. This pyramid-shaped monument is called a ziggurat (ZIHG uh RAT), which means “mountain of god.” On the exterior of the ziggurat, a flight of perhaps 100 mud-brick stairs leads to the top. At the peak, priests conduct rituals to worship the city god who looms over Ur. Every day, priests with shaved heads climb these stairs. They often drag a plump goat or sheep for a sacrifice. The temple also houses storage areas for grains, woven fabrics, and gems—offerings to the city’s god. • • A Religious Ritual Recorded A poem preserved in cuneiform tablets reveals Sumerians’ burial rituals and their belief in an afterlife. The following is a lament for a young woman’s lover who was killed in a distant land. These lines describe what foods she will provide for his spirit when his body is returned home for his funeral: A V O I C E F R O M T H E PA S T I will offer him cakes and herbs of the grove, I will provide him with the fruits of the field, I will provide him with roasted barley and dates . . . I will provide him with grapes on the vine, I will provide him with apples of the wide earth, I will provide him with figs of the wide earth . . . I will provide him with dates on their cluster. Quoted in From the Poetry of Sumer by Samuel Kramer The fruits, grains, and other foods mentioned in these lines also suggest the wide range of crops that Sumerians either grew themselves or received as trade goods. The first early cities such as Ur represent a model of civilizations that continued to arise throughout history. While the Sumerians were advancing their culture, civilizations were also developing in Egypt, China, and other countries in Asia. Section 3 Assessment 1. TERMS & NAMES Identify • civilization • specialization • artisan • institution • scribe • cuneiform • Bronze Age • barter • ziggurat 2. TAKING NOTES Create a two-column chart like the one below. List the five characteristics of civilization and give an example from Ur. 3. MAKING INFERENCES In what ways does the ziggurat of Ur reveal that Sumerians had developed an advanced civilization? THINK ABOUT Characteristics of Civilization 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Example from Ur • the skills required to build the monument • the various purposes of the ziggurat • its location 4. THEME ACTIVITY Economics Role-play a character from Ur who has a specialized skill, such as an artisan, a trader, or a scribe. Write a monologue explaining how you contribute to the economic welfare of the city. PATTERNS OF CHANGE 21 027-32-0102s1 10/11/02 1 3:27 PM Page 27 Page 1 of 6 TERMS & NAMES City-States in Mesopotamia MAIN IDEA WHY IT MATTERS NOW The earliest civilization in Asia arose in Mesopotamia and organized into city-states. The development of this civilization reflects a pattern that has occurred repeatedly throughout history. SETTING THE STAGE Two rivers flow from the mountains of what is now Turkey, down through Syria and Iraq, and finally to the Persian Gulf. Six thousand years ago, the waters of these rivers provided the lifeblood that allowed the formation of farming settlements. These grew into villages and then cities. This pattern would also occur along other river systems in northern Africa, India, and China, as the world’s first civilizations developed. Geography of the Fertile Crescent A desert climate dominates the landscape between the Persian Gulf and the Mediterranean Sea in Southwest Asia. Yet within this dry region lies an arc of land that provides some of the best farming in Southwest Asia. The region’s curved shape and the richness of its land led scholars to call it the Fertile Crescent. • • • • • • • • • Fertile Crescent silt irrigation city-state dynasty cultural diffusion polytheism empire Hammurabi The Zagros Mountains in Iran lie to the east of Mesopotamia. Melting snows from this and other ranges swelled the Tigris and Euphrates rivers each spring. Fertile Plains In the eastern part of the Fertile Crescent, the Tigris (TY grihs) and Euphrates (yoo FRAY teez) rivers flow southeastward to the Persian Gulf. (See the map on page 28.) Between them lies a plain that became known as Mesopotamia (MEHS uh puh TAY mee uh), which in Greek means “land between the rivers.” The Tigris and Euphrates rivers flooded Mesopotamia at least once a year. As the floodwater receded, it left a thick bed of mud called silt. In this rich, new soil, farmers could plant and harvest enormous quantities of wheat and barley. The surpluses from their harvests allowed villages to grow. • • • • THINK THROUGH HISTORY A. Clarifying Why was silt so important to the inhabitants of Mesopotamia? A. Answer A new bed of fertile soil each year, it produced surplus harvests and allowed villages to grow. • • • • Environmental Challenges People first began to settle and farm in southern Mesopotamia before 4500 B.C. Around 3500 B.C., the people called the Sumerians, whom you read about in Chapter 1, arrived on the scene. The Sumerians mixed with the local farmers, and their language became dominant in the region. No one knows for sure where the Sumerians came from. Good soil was the advantage that attracted these settlers to the flat, swampy land of Sumer. There were, however, three disadvantages to their new environment. Early River Valley Civilizations 27 027-32-0102s1 10/11/02 3:27 PM Page 28 Page 2 of 6 C as 40°N pi 50°E The Fertile Crescent, 2500 B.C. an Se 40°E a 50°E 30°E Present-day Persian Gulf Ti A N A T O L I A gri sR T SYRIAN DESERT Sumer Fertile Crescent Direction of flow of the Tigris and Euphrates O M S M KUWAIT O U IA N TA Dead Sea SAUDI ARABIA IN f In 2500 B.C. the Persian Gulf was larger than it is today. Over time the Tigris and Euphrates have joined together and filled in this shallow area. The ancient coastline is shown 30°N above with a dotted blue line. S Pe Agade AKKAD Babylon Kish SUMER Umma Lagash Uruk Ur Jordan River ul G A 30°N r an r O Ur rsi ive P GR IRAN Pe sR IRAQ Euphr ates R ive r ate ive phr ZA sR Mediterranean Sea O gri Eu Ti M E S r MT S . ive TAU RU S rs ia n E G Y P T Nile Riv er ARABIAN DESERT Re d 0 G ul f 250 Miles Se 0 500 Kilometers a G E O G R A P H Y S K I L L B U I L D E R : Interpreting Maps 1. Location Where is the Tigris and Euphrates river valley found? 2. Place What are the physical characteristics of this valley? First, the flooding of the rivers was unpredictable. Sometimes it came as early as April, sometimes as late as June. After the flood receded, the hot sun quickly dried out the mud. Little or no rain fell, and the land became almost a desert. How could Sumerian farmers water their fields during the dry summer months in order to make their barley grow? Second, Sumer was a small region, only about the size of Massachusetts. The villages were little clusters of reed huts standing in the middle of an open plain. With no natural barriers for protection, a Sumerian village was almost defenseless. How could the villagers protect themselves? Third, the natural resources of Sumer were extremely limited. Without a good supply of stone, wood, and metal, what were the Sumerians to use for tools or buildings? Creating Solutions Over a long period of time, the people of Sumer created solutions to deal with these problems. To provide water, they dug irrigation ditches that carried river water to their fields and allowed them to produce a surplus of crops. For defense, they built city walls with mud bricks. Finally, Sumerians traded with the peoples of the mountains and the desert for the products they lacked. Sumerians traded their grain, cloth, and crafted tools for the stone, wood, and metal they needed to make their tools and buildings. These activities required organization, cooperation, and leadership. It took many people working together, for example, for the Sumerians to construct their large irrigation systems. Leaders were needed to plan the projects and supervise the digging. These projects also created a need for laws to settle disputes over how land and water would be distributed. These leaders and laws were the beginning of organized government. 28 Chapter 2 B. Answer: A people called Sumerians lived there; they irrigated, grew crops, traded, and developed organized government. THINK THROUGH HISTORY B. Making Inferences What were the human characteristics of the Tigris and Euphrates river valley? 027-32-0102s1 10/11/02 3:27 PM Page 29 Page 3 of 6 Sumerians Create City-States The Sumerians stand out in history as one of the first groups of people to form a civilization. Five key characteristics set Sumer apart from earlier human societies: (1) advanced cities, (2) specialized workers, (3) complex institutions, (4) record keeping, and (5) advanced technology. All the later peoples who lived in this region of the world built upon the innovations of Sumerian civilization. By 3000 B.C., the Sumerians had built a number of cities, each surrounded by fields of barley and wheat. Although these cities shared the same culture, they developed their own governments, each with its own rulers. Each city and the surrounding land it controlled formed a city-state. A city-state functioned much as an independent country does today. Sumerian city-states included Uruk, Kish, Lagash, Umma, and Ur. As in Ur, which Chapter 1 describes, the center of all Sumerian cities was the walled temple with a ziggurat at its center. There the priests appealed to the gods for the well-being of the city-state. The Power of Priests Sumer’s earliest governments were controlled by the temple priests. The farmers believed that the success of their crops depended upon the blessings of the gods, and the priests acted as go-betweens with the gods. In addition to being a place of worship, the ziggurat was like a city hall. From the ziggurat the priests managed the irrigation system. They also demanded a portion of every farmer’s crop as taxes. The writing on this Sumerian copper figurine from about 2100 B.C. tells that a king of Ur erected a temple for the goddess Inanna. Monarchs Take Control In time of war, however, the priests did not lead THINK THROUGH HISTORY C. Analyzing Causes How did monarchs gain power in the city-states? C. Answer Frequent wars led Sumerians to give military leaders control of standing armies; these leaders eventually took political power. the city. Instead, the men of the city chose a tough fighter who could command the city’s soldiers. At first, a commander’s power ended as soon as the war was over. After 3000 B.C., wars between cities became more and more frequent. Gradually, Sumerian priests and people gave commanders permanent control of standing armies. In time, some military leaders became full-time rulers, or monarchs. These rulers usually passed their power on to their sons, who eventually passed it on to their own heirs. Such a series of rulers from a single family is called a dynasty. Between 3000 and 2500 B.C., many Sumerian city-states came under the rule of dynasties. The Spread of Cities Sumer’s city-states grew prosperous from the surplus food produced on their farms. These surpluses allowed Sumerians to increase long-distance trade, exchanging the extra food and other goods for items they needed but did not have. As their population and trade expanded, the Sumerians came into contact with other peoples, and their ideas—such as living in cities—spread. By 2500 B.C., new cities were arising all over the Fertile Crescent, in what is now Syria, northern Iraq, and Turkey. So, too, did the Sumerians absorb ideas such as religious beliefs from neighboring cultures. This process of a new idea or a product spreading from one culture to another is called cultural diffusion. Sumerian Culture The belief systems, social structure, technology, and arts of the Sumerians reflected their civilization’s triumph over its harsh environment. A Religion of Many Gods Like many peoples in the Fertile Crescent, the Sumerians believed that many different gods controlled the various forces in nature. The belief in many gods is called polytheism (PAHL ee thee ihz uhm). Enlil, the god of clouds and air, was among the most powerful gods. Sumerians feared him as “the raging flood that has no rival.” Lowest of all the gods were demons known as Wicked Udugs, who caused disease, misfortune, and every kind • • • • Early River Valley Civilizations 29 027-32-0102s1 10/11/02 This panel made of shells and stone comes from the Sumerian city of Ur. It shows people and livestock captured in war being presented to the victorious king. 3:27 PM Page 30 Page 4 of 6 of human trouble. Altogether, the Sumerians believed in roughly 3,000 gods. Sumerians described their gods as doing many of the same things humans do— falling in love, having children, quarreling, and so on. Yet the Sumerians also believed that their gods were both immortal and all-powerful. Humans were nothing but their servants. At any moment, the mighty anger of the gods might strike, sending a fire, a flood, or an enemy to destroy a city. To keep the gods happy, the Sumerians built impressive ziggurats for them and offered rich sacrifices of animals, food, and wine. Sumerians worked hard to earn the gods’ protection in this life. Yet they expected little help from the gods after death. The Sumerians believed that the souls of the dead went to the “land of no return,” a dismal, gloomy place between the earth’s crust and the ancient sea. No joy awaited souls there. A passage in a Sumerian poem describes the fate of dead souls: “Dust is their fare and clay their food.” Some of the richest accounts of Mesopotamian myths and legends appear in a long poem called the Epic of Gilgamesh. It is one of the earliest works of literature in the world. Through the heroic adventures of Gilgamesh, a legendary king, the narrative offers a glimpse into the beliefs and concerns of the ancient Sumerians. The epic tells of Gilgamesh’s unsuccessful quest for immortality, a theme that recurs in ancient literature. A V O I C E F R O M T H E PA S T Gilgamesh, whither are you wandering? Life, which you look for, you will never find. For when the gods created man, they let Death be his share, and withheld life In their own hands. Epic of Gilgamesh Sumerian beliefs and legends such as those in the Epic of Gilgamesh greatly influenced other ancient cultures, including the Hebrews and the Greeks. Life in Sumerian Society With civilization came greater differences between groups in society, or the beginning of what we call social classes. Priests and kings made up the highest level in Sumerian society. Wealthy merchants ranked next. The vast majority of ordinary Sumerian people worked with their hands in fields and workshops. At the lowest level of Sumerian society were the slaves. Some slaves were foreigners who had been captured in war. Others were Sumerians who had been sold into slavery as children to pay the debts of their poor parents. By working obediently day and night, Sumerian slaves could hope to earn freedom. Social class affected the lives of both men and women. On the whole, Sumerian women could pursue most of the occupations of city life, from merchant to farmer to artisan. They could hold property in their own name. Women could also join the lower ranks of the priesthood. However, Sumer’s written records mention few female 30 Chapter 2 Vocabulary epic: a long heroic poem that tells the story of a historical or legendary figure. 027-32-0102s1 10/11/02 3:27 PM Page 31 Page 5 of 6 scribes. Therefore, scholars have concluded that girls were not allowed to attend the schools where upper-class boys learned to read and write. Even so, Sumerian women had more rights than women in many later civilizations. Sumerian Science and Technology Sumerians invented the wheel, the sail, and the plow; they were the first to use bronze; and they developed the first system of writing, cuneiform. Cuneiform tablets provide evidence of other Mesopotamian innovations. One of the first known maps was made on a clay tablet in about 2300 B.C. Other tablets contain some of the oldest written records of scientific investigations in the areas of astronomy, chemical substances, and symptoms of disease. Many other new ideas arose from the Sumerians’ practical needs. In order to erect city walls and buildings, plan irrigation systems, and survey flooded fields, they needed arithmetic and geometry. They developed a number system in base 60, from which stem the modern units for measuring time (60 seconds = 1 minute) and the 360 degrees of a circle. Sumerian building techniques, including the use of mud bricks and mortar, made the most of the resources available. Their architectural innovations—such as arches, columns, ramps, and the pyramid-shaped design of the ziggurat—permanently influenced Mesopotamian civilization. The First Empire Builders From 3000 to 2000 B.C., the city-states of Sumer were almost constantly at war with one another. The weakened city-states could no longer ward off attacks from the peoples of the surrounding deserts and hills. Although the Sumerians never recovered from the attacks on their cities, their civilization did not die. Succeeding sets of rulers adapted the basic ideas of Sumerian culture to meet their own needs. Sargon of Akkad About 2350 B.C., a conqueror named Sargon defeated the city-states of Sumer. Sargon led his army from Akkad (AK ad), a city-state north of Sumer. Unlike the Sumerians, the Akkadians were a Semitic (suh MIHT ihk) people—that is, they spoke a language related to Arabic and Hebrew. The Akkadians had long before adopted most aspects of Sumerian culture. Sargon’s conquests helped to spread that culture even farther, beyond the Tigris-Euphrates Valley. By taking control of both northern and southern Mesopotamia, Sargon created the world’s first empire. An empire brings together several peoples, nations, or previously independent states under the control of one ruler. At its height, the Akkadian Empire extended from the Mediterranean Coast in the west to present-day Iran in the east. Sargon’s dynasty lasted only about 200 years, after which it declined due to internal fighting, invasions, and a severe famine. This bronze head depicts Sargon of Akkad, who created the world’s first empire. • • THINK THROUGH HISTORY D. Contrasting How does an empire differ from a city-state? D. Answer Both are independent political units. However, a citystate controls only a city and its surrounding territory, whereas an empire controls many peoples, nations, or states. • Babylonian Empire In about 2000 B.C., nomadic warriors known as Amorites, another Semitic group, invaded Mesopotamia. Within a short time, the Amorites overwhelmed the Sumerians and established their capital at Babylon, on the Euphrates River. The Babylonian Empire reached its peak during the reign of Hammurabi, from 1792 B.C.to 1750 B.C. Hammurabi’s most enduring legacy is the code of laws he put together. Early River Valley Civilizations 31 027-32-0102s1 10/11/02 3:27 PM Page 32 Page 6 of 6 ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ Hammurabi’s Code Although individual Sumerian cities had ■HISTORY ■ ■ ■ ■MAKERS ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ developed codes of laws, Hammurabi recognized that a single, uni- Hammurabi ? –1750 B.C. The noted lawgiver Hammurabi was also an able military leader, diplomat, and administrator of a vast empire. Hammurabi himself described some of his accomplishments: When [the gods] Anu and Bel gave me the land of Sumer and Akkad to rule, . . . I dug out the Hammurabi-canal named Nuhus-nisi, which bringeth abundance of water unto the land of Sumer and Akkad. Both the banks thereof I changed to fields for cultivation, and I garnered piles of grain, and I procured unfailing water for the land. . . . As for the land of Sumer and Akkad, I collected the scattered peoples thereof, and I procured food and drink for them. In abundance and plenty I pastured them, and I caused them to dwell in peaceful habitation. form code would help to unify the diverse groups within his empire. He therefore collected existing rules, judgments, and laws into the Code of Hammurabi. Hammurabi had the code engraved in stone, and copies were placed all over his empire. The code lists 282 specific laws dealing with everything that affected the community, including family relations, business conduct, and crime. The laws tell us a great deal about the Mesopotamians’ beliefs and what they valued. Since many were merchants and traders, for example, many of the laws related to property issues. Although the code applied to everyone, it set different punishments for rich and poor and for men and women. It frequently applied the principle of retaliation (an eye for an eye and a tooth for a tooth) to punish crimes. Following are two of the laws: A V O I C E F R O M T H E PA S T • If a man has stolen an ox, a sheep, a pig, or a boat that belonged to a temple or palace, he shall repay thirty times its cost. If it belonged to a private citizen, he shall repay ten times. If the thief cannot pay, he shall be put to death. • If a woman hates her husband and says to him “You cannot be with me,” the authorities in her district will investigate the case. If she has been chaste and without fault, even though her husband has neglected or belittled her, she will be held innocent and may return to her father’s house. . . . If the woman is at fault, she shall be thrown into the river. Code of Hammurabi, adapted from a translation by L. W. King Despite its severity, Hammurabi’s Code carried forward an important idea in Mesopotamian civilization. It reinforced the principle that government had a responsibility for what occurred in society. For example, if a man was robbed and the thief was not caught, the government was required to compensate the victim for his loss. Two centuries after Hammurabi’s reign, the Babylonian Empire fell to nomadic warriors. Over the years, new groups dominated the Fertile Crescent. Yet many ideas of the early Sumerians would be adopted by the later peoples, including the Assyrians, Phoenicians, and Hebrews. Meanwhile, a similar pattern of development, rise, and fall, was taking place to the west, along the Nile River in Egypt. Egyptian civilization is described in Section 2. THINK THROUGH HISTORY E. Recognizing Effects How did Hammurabi’s law code advance civilization? E. Possible Answers It established a uniform law code for all the groups in his empire; it reinforced the principle that government had a responsibility to its citizens. Section 1 Assessment 1. TERMS & NAMES Identify • Fertile Crescent • silt • irrigation • city-state • dynasty • cultural diffusion • polytheism • empire • Hammurabi 32 Chapter 2 2. TAKING NOTES Recreate the chart below on your paper. List three environmental challenges the Sumerians faced and their solutions to these challenges. Challenges Solutions 3. MAKING INFERENCES What advantages did living in cities offer the people of ancient Mesopotamia? Do modern cities offer any of the same advantages? Support your answer with references to the text. THINK ABOUT • characteristics of Sumer’s city-states • characteristics of Sumer’s economy and society • development of organized government 4. ANALYZING THEMES Interaction with Environment Do you think that living in a river valley with little rainfall helped or hurt the development of civilization in Mesopotamia? Explain your response.