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Civilization
CASE STUDY: Ur in Sumer
MAIN IDEA
WHY IT MATTERS NOW
Prospering agricultural villages, food
surpluses, and new technology led to
the rise of civilizations.
Contemporary civilizations share the
same characteristics typical of ancient
civilizations.
TERMS & NAMES
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•
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•
•
•
•
•
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civilization
specialization
artisan
institution
scribe
cuneiform
Bronze Age
barter
ziggurat
SETTING THE STAGE Agriculture marked a dramatic change in how people lived
together. They began dwelling in larger, more organized communities, such as farming
villages and towns. Gradually, from some of these permanent settlements, cities
emerged, forming the backdrop of a much more complex way of life—civilization.
Villages Grow into Cities
Over the centuries, people settled in stable communities that were based on agriculture. Domesticated animals became more common. The invention of new tools—
hoes, sickles, and plow sticks—made the task of farming easier. As people gradually
developed the technology to control their natural environment, they reaped larger
harvests. Settlements with a plentiful supply of food could support more heavily populated communities.
As the population of some early farming villages increased, social relationships
became more complex. The change from a nomadic hunting-gathering way of life to
settled village life took a long time. Likewise, the change from village life to city life
was a gradual process that spanned several generations.
Economic Changes To cultivate more land and to produce extra crops, ancient peo-
ple in larger villages built elaborate irrigation systems. The resulting food surpluses
freed some villagers to pursue other jobs and to develop skills besides farming.
Individuals who learned to become craftspeople created valuable new products, such
as pottery, metal objects, and woven cloth. In turn, people who became traders profited from a broader range of goods to exchange—craftwork, grains, and many raw
materials. Two important inventions also
fostered the expanded trade between villages. The wheel and the sail enabled
traders to transport more goods over
longer distances.
Social Changes A more complex and
prosperous economy affected the social
structure of village life. For example,
building and operating large irrigation
systems required the cooperation and
labor of many people. As other special
groups of workers formed, social classes
with varying wealth, power and influence
began to emerge. A system of social
classes would later become more clearly
defined as cities grew.
Religion also became more organized.
During the Old Stone Age, prehistoric
This photograph
shows the wellpreserved remains
of Skara Brae. This
small agricultural
village emerged
around 3000 B.C.
It is located on
an island off the
coast of northern
Scotland.
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peoples’ religious beliefs centered around nature, animal spirits, and some idea of an
afterlife. During the New Stone Age, farming peoples worshiped the many gods and
goddesses who they believed had power over the rain, wind, and other forces of nature.
Early city dwellers developed rituals founded on these earlier religious beliefs. As populations grew, common spiritual values became lasting religious traditions.
What Is Civilization?
Most historians believe that one of the first civilizations arose in Sumer, a region that
is now part of modern Iraq. Sumer was located in Mesopotamia. Just what set the
Sumerians apart from their neighbors? Most scholars define civilization as a complex
culture with these five characteristics: (1) advanced cities, (2) specialized workers,
(3) complex institutions, (4) record keeping, and (5) advanced technology.
Advanced Cities Cities were the birthplaces of the first civilizations. In fact, the
word civilization comes from the Latin word for city. A city is more than a large
group of people living together. The size of the population alone does not distinguish
a village from a city. One of the key differences is that a city is a center of trade for a
larger area. Like their modern-day counterparts, ancient city dwellers depended on
trade. Farmers, merchants, and traders brought goods to market in the cities. The city
dwellers themselves produced a variety of goods for exchange.
Specialized Workers As cities grew, so did the need for more specialized workers,
such as traders, government officials, and priests. Food surpluses provided the opportunity for specialization—the development of skills in a specific kind of work. An
abundant food supply allowed some people to become expert at jobs besides farming.
In early civilizations, some city dwellers became artisans—skilled workers who make
goods by hand. Specialization helped artisans develop their skill at designing jewelry,
fashioning metal tools and weapons, or making pottery. The wide range of crafts that
artisans produced helped cities become thriving centers of trade.
Complex Institutions The soaring populations of early cities made government,
or a system of ruling, necessary. In civilizations, leaders emerged to maintain order
among people and to establish laws. Government is an example of an institution—a
long-lasting pattern of organization in a community. Complex institutions, such as
government, religion, and the economy, are another characteristic of civilization.
With the growth of cities, religion became a formal institution. Most cities had
great temples where dozens of priests took charge of religious duties.
Sumerians believed that every city belonged to a god who lived in
POTLIGHT N
the temple and governed the city’s activities. The temple became the
The Inca’s System of
hub of both government and religious affairs. It also served as the
Record Keeping
city’s economic center. There food and trade items were distributed
The empire of the ancient Inca
to the city’s residents.
S
O
civilization stretched along the
western coast of South America.
Though the Inca had no writing
system, they kept records using a
quipu, a complicated set of colored
strings tied with different-sized
knots at various intervals. Each knot
represented a certain amount or its
multiple. The colors of each cord
represented the item being counted:
people, animals, land, and so on.
The quipucamayoc, special
officials who knew how to use the
quipu, kept records of births,
deaths, marriages, crops, and even
important historical events.
18 CHAPTER 1
Record Keeping As government, religion, and the economy
became more complex and structured, people recognized the need
to keep records. In early civilizations, government officials had to
document tax collections, the passage of laws, and the storage of
grain. Priests needed some way to keep track of the yearly calendar
and important rituals. Merchants had to record accounts of debts
and payments.
Most civilizations developed a system of writing, though some
devised other methods of record keeping. Around 3000 B.C.,
Sumerian scribes—or professional record keepers—invented a system of writing called cuneiform (KYOO nee uh FAWRM), which
means “wedge-shaped.” (Earlier versions of Sumerian writing consisted of signs called pictographs—symbols of the objects or things
•
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THINK THROUGH HISTORY
A. Drawing
Conclusions
Why were cities
essential to the
growth of civilizations?
A. Possible Answer
Cities were the centers of trade, worship, and government
and offered a broad
range of jobs in
which people could
specialize.
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they represented.) The scribe’s tool, called a stylus,
was a sharpened reed with a wedge-shaped point. It
was pressed into moist clay to create symbols.
Scribes baked their clay tablets in the sun to preserve the writing.
People soon began to use writing for other purposes besides record keeping. They also wrote about
their cities’ dramatic events—wars, natural disasters,
the reign of kings. Thus, the beginning of civilization
in Sumer also signaled the beginning of written history.
Advanced Technology New tools and techniques
Background
Toolmakers discovered how to combine copper with a
small amount of tin
to make bronze.
Bronze is harder
than copper.
are always needed to solve the problems that emerge
when large groups of people live together. In early
civilizations, some farmers began to harness the powers of animals and nature. For example, they used oxdrawn plows to turn the soil. They created elaborate
irrigation systems to expand planting areas.
Artisans relied on new technology to make their
tasks easier. Around 3500 B.C., Sumerian artisans first
used the potter’s wheel to shape jugs, plates, and bowls.
Sumerian metalworkers discovered that melting
together certain amounts of copper and tin made
bronze. After 2500 B.C., skilled metalworkers in Sumer’s
cities turned out bronze spearheads by the thousands.
The period called the Bronze Age refers to the time when people began
using bronze, rather than copper and stone, to fashion tools and weapons. The Bronze
Age began in Sumer around 3000 B.C., but the starting date varied in different parts
of Europe and Asia.
The wedgeshaped symbols
of cuneiform are
visible in this
close-up of a
clay tablet.
PATTERNS OF CHANGE: Key Traits of Civilizations
Characteristics
Examples from Sumer
Advanced Cities
• Uruk—population of about 10,000, which doubled in two centuries
• Lagash—population of about 19,000
• Umma—population of about 16,000
Specialized Workers
• priests
• metalworkers
• weavers • merchants
• scribes
• soldiers
• government officials • potters
• teachers
• farmers
Complex Institutions
• Formal governments with officials and laws
• Priests with both religious and political power
• A rigorous education system for training of scribes
Record Keeping
• Cuneiform tablets—records of business transactions, historical events,
customs, and traditions
Advanced Technology
By around 3000 B.C.:
• The wheel, the plow, and the sailboat probably in daily use
• Bronze weapons and body armor that gave Sumerians a military
advantage over their enemies
S K I L L B U I L D E R : Interpreting Charts
1. Based on the chart, what is one important feature of a city?
2. What kinds of social behavior are basic to the five characteristics of civilizations?
PATTERNS OF CHANGE
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The City of Ur
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1 Ziggurat A massive temple
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2 Court of Nanna Sacred place of Ur’s moon god
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3 Home of the High Priestess Place where a woman
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with great religious authority lived
4
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The white lines
indicate the shape of
the original structure,
which once rose as
high as 80 feet.
4 Surrounding Wall Defense for
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protecting Ur residents
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5 Temple and Treasury
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Administrative centers in Ur
6 Royal Cemetery
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Burial site of the
queen and
king of Ur
Aerial photograph of Ur
taken in 1930.
The underlying photograph at the right
shows how the temple mound looked
after Leonard Woolley excavated it
during the 1920s and 1930s
CASE STUDY: Ur in Sumer
Civilization Emerges in Ur
Ur, one of the earliest cities in Sumer, stood on the banks of the Euphrates River in
what is now southern Iraq. Some 30,000 people once lived in this ancient city. Ur was
the site of a highly sophisticated civilization.
After a series of excavations from 1922 to 1934, English archaeologist Leonard
Woolley and his team unraveled the mystery of this long-lost civilization. Woolley’s
archaeological dig at Ur revealed important clues about Ur’s past. Woolley concluded
that around 3000 B.C., Ur was a flourishing urban civilization. People in Ur lived in
well-defined social classes. Priests and rulers wielded great power. Wealthy merchants
profited from foreign trade. Artists and artisans created many extraordinary works,
such as lavish ornaments and jewelry, musical instruments, and gold helmets and daggers. Woolley’s finds have enabled historians to reconstruct scenes illustrating Ur’s
advanced culture.
An Agricultural Economy Imagine a time nearly 5,000 years ago. Outside the
mud-brick walls surrounding Ur, ox-driven plows cultivate the fields. People are working barefoot in the irrigation ditches that run between patches of green plants. With
stone hoes, the workers widen the ditches. The ditches carry water into their fields
from the reservoir a mile away. The people of Ur have developed this large-scale irrigation system to provide Ur with food surpluses, which keep the economy thriving.
The government officials who plan and direct this public works project ensure its
smooth operation.
A Glimpse of City Life A broad dirt road leads from the fields up to the city’s wall.
Inside the city gate, the city dwellers go about their daily lives. Most people live in
small, windowless, one-story, boxlike houses packed tightly together along the street.
However, a few wealthy families live in two-story houses with an inner courtyard.
Down another street, accomplished artisans work full-time in their shops. A metalworker makes bronze by carefully mixing molten copper with just the right quantity
of tin. Later he will hammer the bronze to make sharp spears—weapons to help Ur’s
well-organized armies defend the city. As a potter spins his potter’s wheel, he expertly
shapes the moist clay into a large bowl. These artisans and other craftworkers produce
trade goods that help the city of Ur prosper.
20 CHAPTER 1
THINK THROUGH HISTORY
B. Analyzing
Causes
How did Ur’s agricultural way of life foster
the development of
civilization there?
B. Possible Answer
Food surpluses freed
Ur residents to
develop specialized
skills other than farming; sparked a need
for advanced technology such as irrigation
systems; allowed Ur’s
economy to flourish;
provided a wide range
of goods for trade.
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Ur’s Thriving Trade The narrow streets open out into a broad
avenue where merchants squat under their awnings and trade farmers’ crops and artisans’ crafts. This is the city’s bazaar, or marketplace. People do not use coins to make purchases because money
has not yet been invented. However, merchants and their customers
know roughly how many pots of grain a farmer must give to buy a
jug of wine. This way of trading goods and services without money is
called barter. More complicated trades require the services of a
scribe. He carefully forms cuneiform signs on a clay tablet. The signs
show how much barley one farmer owes a merchant for a donkey.
The Temple: Center of City Life Farther down the main avenue
Background
The ziggurat of Ur
was a huge temple
dedicated to the moon
god Nanna. The tiers
are supposed to represent steps leading
toward the heavens.
CONNECT to TODAY
Ziggurat’s Role in Persian
Gulf War
After 4,000 years, the city of Ur
is still making history. During the
Persian Gulf War in 1991, the Iraqi
military established an air base near
the site of the city of Ur. The ziggurat
there had been reconstructed.
Hoping that U.S. and Allied
forces would not risk destroying
the ancient ziggurat, Iraqi forces
parked aircraft next to the
structure at Ur for protection.
However, enemy planes targeted
the city of Ur. Exploding bombs
caused large craters at the site.
Machine-gun attacks from enemy
planes also left many bullet holes
in the sides of the ziggurat itself.
stands Ur’s tallest and most important building—the temple. Like a
city within a city, the temple is surrounded by a heavy wall. Within
the temple gate, a massive, tiered structure towers over the city. This
pyramid-shaped monument is called a ziggurat (ZIHG uh RAT),
which means “mountain of god.” On the exterior of the ziggurat, a
flight of perhaps 100 mud-brick stairs leads to the top. At the peak,
priests conduct rituals to worship the city god who looms over Ur.
Every day, priests with shaved heads climb these stairs. They often
drag a plump goat or sheep for a sacrifice. The temple also houses storage areas for
grains, woven fabrics, and gems—offerings to the city’s god.
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A Religious Ritual Recorded A poem preserved in cuneiform tablets reveals
Sumerians’ burial rituals and their belief in an afterlife. The following is a lament for a
young woman’s lover who was killed in a distant land. These lines describe what foods
she will provide for his spirit when his body is returned home for his funeral:
A V O I C E F R O M T H E PA S T
I will offer him cakes and herbs of the grove,
I will provide him with the fruits of the field,
I will provide him with roasted barley and dates . . .
I will provide him with grapes on the vine,
I will provide him with apples of the wide earth,
I will provide him with figs of the wide earth . . .
I will provide him with dates on their cluster.
Quoted in From the Poetry of Sumer by Samuel Kramer
The fruits, grains, and other foods mentioned in these lines also suggest the wide
range of crops that Sumerians either grew themselves or received as trade goods.
The first early cities such as Ur represent a model of civilizations that continued to
arise throughout history. While the Sumerians were advancing their culture, civilizations were also developing in Egypt, China, and other countries in Asia.
Section 3 Assessment
1. TERMS & NAMES
Identify
• civilization
• specialization
• artisan
• institution
• scribe
• cuneiform
• Bronze Age
• barter
• ziggurat
2. TAKING NOTES
Create a two-column chart like the
one below. List the five
characteristics of civilization and
give an example from Ur.
3. MAKING INFERENCES
In what ways does the ziggurat of
Ur reveal that Sumerians had
developed an advanced
civilization?
THINK ABOUT
Characteristics
of Civilization
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Example from Ur
• the skills required to build the
monument
• the various purposes of the
ziggurat
• its location
4. THEME ACTIVITY
Economics Role-play a
character from Ur who has a
specialized skill, such as an
artisan, a trader, or a scribe.
Write a monologue explaining
how you contribute to the
economic welfare of the city.
PATTERNS OF CHANGE
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TERMS & NAMES
City-States in
Mesopotamia
MAIN IDEA
WHY IT MATTERS NOW
The earliest civilization in Asia arose
in Mesopotamia and organized into
city-states.
The development of this civilization
reflects a pattern that has occurred
repeatedly throughout history.
SETTING THE STAGE Two rivers flow from the mountains of what is now Turkey,
down through Syria and Iraq, and finally to the Persian Gulf. Six thousand years ago,
the waters of these rivers provided the lifeblood that allowed the formation of farming
settlements. These grew into villages and then cities. This pattern would also occur
along other river systems in northern Africa, India, and China, as the world’s first civilizations developed.
Geography of the Fertile Crescent
A desert climate dominates the landscape between the Persian Gulf and the Mediterranean Sea in Southwest Asia. Yet within this dry region lies an arc of land that provides some of the best farming in Southwest Asia. The region’s curved shape and the
richness of its land led scholars to call it the Fertile Crescent.
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Fertile Crescent
silt
irrigation
city-state
dynasty
cultural diffusion
polytheism
empire
Hammurabi
The Zagros
Mountains in Iran
lie to the east of
Mesopotamia.
Melting snows from
this and other
ranges swelled
the Tigris and
Euphrates rivers
each spring.
Fertile Plains In the eastern
part of the Fertile Crescent, the
Tigris (TY grihs) and Euphrates
(yoo FRAY teez) rivers flow
southeastward to the Persian
Gulf. (See the map on page 28.)
Between them lies a plain that
became known as Mesopotamia
(MEHS uh puh TAY mee uh),
which in Greek means “land
between the rivers.”
The Tigris and Euphrates
rivers flooded Mesopotamia at
least once a year. As the floodwater receded, it left a thick bed
of mud called silt. In this rich,
new soil, farmers could plant and
harvest enormous quantities of
wheat and barley. The surpluses
from their harvests allowed villages to grow.
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THINK THROUGH HISTORY
A. Clarifying Why
was silt so important
to the inhabitants of
Mesopotamia?
A. Answer A new
bed of fertile soil
each year, it produced
surplus harvests and
allowed villages to
grow.
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Environmental Challenges People first began to settle and farm in southern
Mesopotamia before 4500 B.C. Around 3500 B.C., the people called the Sumerians,
whom you read about in Chapter 1, arrived on the scene. The Sumerians mixed with
the local farmers, and their language became dominant in the region. No one knows
for sure where the Sumerians came from. Good soil was the advantage that attracted
these settlers to the flat, swampy land of Sumer. There were, however, three disadvantages to their new environment.
Early River Valley Civilizations 27
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C
as
40°N
pi
50°E
The Fertile Crescent, 2500 B.C.
an
Se
40°E
a
50°E
30°E
Present-day Persian Gulf
Ti
A N A T O L I A
gri
sR
T
SYRIAN
DESERT
Sumer
Fertile Crescent
Direction of flow
of the Tigris and
Euphrates
O
M
S
M
KUWAIT
O
U
IA
N
TA
Dead
Sea
SAUDI ARABIA
IN
f
In 2500 B.C. the Persian Gulf was
larger than it is today. Over time the
Tigris and Euphrates have joined
together and filled in this shallow
area. The ancient coastline is shown
30°N above with a dotted blue line.
S
Pe
Agade AKKAD
Babylon
Kish SUMER
Umma
Lagash
Uruk
Ur
Jordan River
ul
G
A
30°N
r
an
r
O
Ur
rsi
ive
P
GR
IRAN
Pe
sR
IRAQ
Euphr
ates R
ive
r
ate
ive
phr
ZA
sR
Mediterranean
Sea
O
gri
Eu
Ti
M E
S
r
MT S .
ive
TAU RU S
rs
ia
n
E G Y P T
Nile Riv
er
ARABIAN DESERT
Re
d
0
G
ul
f
250 Miles
Se
0
500 Kilometers
a
G E O G R A P H Y S K I L L B U I L D E R : Interpreting Maps
1. Location Where is the Tigris and Euphrates river valley found?
2. Place What are the physical characteristics of this valley?
First, the flooding of the rivers was unpredictable. Sometimes it came as early as
April, sometimes as late as June. After the flood receded, the hot sun quickly dried
out the mud. Little or no rain fell, and the land became almost a desert. How could
Sumerian farmers water their fields during the dry summer months in order to make
their barley grow?
Second, Sumer was a small region, only about the size of Massachusetts. The villages were little clusters of reed huts standing in the middle of an open plain. With no
natural barriers for protection, a Sumerian village was almost defenseless. How could
the villagers protect themselves?
Third, the natural resources of Sumer were extremely limited. Without a good supply of stone, wood, and metal, what were the Sumerians to use for tools or buildings?
Creating Solutions Over a long period of time, the people of Sumer created solutions to deal with these problems. To provide water, they dug irrigation ditches that
carried river water to their fields and allowed them to produce a surplus of crops. For
defense, they built city walls with mud bricks. Finally, Sumerians traded with the peoples of the mountains and the desert for the products they lacked. Sumerians traded
their grain, cloth, and crafted tools for the stone, wood, and metal they needed to
make their tools and buildings.
These activities required organization, cooperation, and leadership. It took many
people working together, for example, for the Sumerians to construct their large
irrigation systems. Leaders were needed to plan the projects and supervise the digging. These projects also created a need for laws to settle disputes over how land
and water would be distributed. These leaders and laws were the beginning of
organized government.
28 Chapter 2
B. Answer: A people
called Sumerians
lived there; they
irrigated, grew crops,
traded, and developed
organized government.
THINK THROUGH HISTORY
B. Making
Inferences What
were the human
characteristics of the
Tigris and Euphrates
river valley?
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Sumerians Create City-States
The Sumerians stand out in history as one of the first groups of people to form a
civilization. Five key characteristics set Sumer apart from earlier human societies:
(1) advanced cities, (2) specialized workers, (3) complex institutions, (4) record keeping, and (5) advanced technology. All the later peoples who lived in this region of the
world built upon the innovations of Sumerian civilization.
By 3000 B.C., the Sumerians had built a number of cities, each surrounded by fields
of barley and wheat. Although these cities shared the same culture, they developed
their own governments, each with its own rulers. Each city and the surrounding land
it controlled formed a city-state. A city-state functioned much as an independent
country does today. Sumerian city-states included Uruk, Kish, Lagash, Umma, and Ur.
As in Ur, which Chapter 1 describes, the center of all Sumerian cities was the walled
temple with a ziggurat at its center. There the priests appealed to the gods for the
well-being of the city-state.
The Power of Priests Sumer’s earliest governments were controlled by the temple
priests. The farmers believed that the success of their crops depended upon the blessings of the gods, and the priests acted as go-betweens with the gods. In addition to
being a place of worship, the ziggurat was like a city hall. From the ziggurat the
priests managed the irrigation system. They also demanded a portion of every farmer’s
crop as taxes.
The writing on this
Sumerian copper
figurine from about
2100 B.C. tells that a
king of Ur erected a
temple for the
goddess Inanna.
Monarchs Take Control In time of war, however, the priests did not lead
THINK THROUGH HISTORY
C. Analyzing
Causes How did
monarchs gain power
in the city-states?
C. Answer Frequent
wars led Sumerians to
give military leaders
control of standing
armies; these leaders
eventually took political power.
the city. Instead, the men of the city chose a tough fighter who could command the city’s soldiers. At first, a commander’s power ended as soon as
the war was over. After 3000 B.C., wars between cities became more and
more frequent. Gradually, Sumerian priests and people gave commanders permanent control of standing armies.
In time, some military leaders became full-time rulers, or monarchs. These rulers usually passed their power on to their sons, who
eventually passed it on to their own heirs. Such a series of rulers from a
single family is called a dynasty. Between 3000 and 2500 B.C., many
Sumerian city-states came under the rule of dynasties.
The Spread of Cities Sumer’s city-states grew prosperous from the surplus
food produced on their farms. These surpluses allowed Sumerians to increase
long-distance trade, exchanging the extra food and other goods for items they
needed but did not have.
As their population and trade expanded, the Sumerians came into contact with
other peoples, and their ideas—such as living in cities—spread. By 2500 B.C.,
new cities were arising all over the Fertile Crescent, in what is now Syria, northern Iraq, and Turkey. So, too, did the Sumerians absorb ideas such as religious
beliefs from neighboring cultures. This process of a new idea or a product
spreading from one culture to another is called cultural diffusion.
Sumerian Culture
The belief systems, social structure, technology, and arts of the Sumerians
reflected their civilization’s triumph over its harsh environment.
A Religion of Many Gods Like many peoples in the Fertile Crescent, the
Sumerians believed that many different gods controlled the various forces in
nature. The belief in many gods is called polytheism (PAHL ee thee ihz uhm).
Enlil, the god of clouds and air, was among the most powerful gods. Sumerians
feared him as “the raging flood that has no rival.” Lowest of all the gods were
demons known as Wicked Udugs, who caused disease, misfortune, and every kind
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•
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This panel made of
shells and stone
comes from the
Sumerian city of Ur.
It shows people
and livestock
captured in war
being presented to
the victorious king.
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of human trouble. Altogether, the Sumerians believed in roughly 3,000 gods.
Sumerians described their gods as doing many of the same things humans do—
falling in love, having children, quarreling, and so on. Yet the Sumerians also believed
that their gods were both immortal and all-powerful. Humans were nothing but their
servants. At any moment, the mighty anger of the gods might strike, sending a fire, a
flood, or an enemy to destroy a city. To keep the gods happy, the Sumerians built
impressive ziggurats for them and offered rich sacrifices of animals, food, and wine.
Sumerians worked hard to earn the gods’ protection in this life. Yet they expected little
help from the gods after death. The Sumerians believed that the souls of the dead went
to the “land of no return,” a dismal, gloomy place between the earth’s crust and the
ancient sea. No joy awaited souls there. A passage in a Sumerian poem describes the fate
of dead souls: “Dust is their fare and clay their food.”
Some of the richest accounts of Mesopotamian myths and legends appear in a
long poem called the Epic of Gilgamesh. It is one of the earliest works of literature
in the world. Through the heroic adventures of Gilgamesh, a legendary king, the
narrative offers a glimpse into the beliefs and concerns of the ancient Sumerians.
The epic tells of Gilgamesh’s unsuccessful quest for immortality, a theme that recurs
in ancient literature.
A V O I C E F R O M T H E PA S T
Gilgamesh, whither are you wandering?
Life, which you look for, you will never find.
For when the gods created man, they let
Death be his share, and withheld life
In their own hands.
Epic of Gilgamesh
Sumerian beliefs and legends such as those in the Epic of Gilgamesh greatly influenced other ancient cultures, including the Hebrews and the Greeks.
Life in Sumerian Society With civilization came greater differences between
groups in society, or the beginning of what we call social classes. Priests and kings
made up the highest level in Sumerian society. Wealthy merchants ranked next. The
vast majority of ordinary Sumerian people worked with their hands in fields and workshops. At the lowest level of Sumerian society were the slaves. Some slaves were foreigners who had been captured in war. Others were Sumerians who had been sold
into slavery as children to pay the debts of their poor parents. By working obediently
day and night, Sumerian slaves could hope to earn freedom.
Social class affected the lives of both men and women. On the whole, Sumerian
women could pursue most of the occupations of city life, from merchant to farmer to
artisan. They could hold property in their own name. Women could also join the
lower ranks of the priesthood. However, Sumer’s written records mention few female
30 Chapter 2
Vocabulary
epic: a long heroic
poem that tells the
story of a historical or
legendary figure.
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scribes. Therefore, scholars have concluded that girls were not allowed to
attend the schools where upper-class
boys learned to read and write. Even so,
Sumerian women had more rights than women
in many later civilizations.
Sumerian Science and Technology
Sumerians invented the wheel, the sail, and the
plow; they were the first to use bronze; and
they developed the first system of writing,
cuneiform. Cuneiform tablets provide evidence
of other Mesopotamian innovations. One of the
first known maps was made on a clay tablet in
about 2300 B.C. Other tablets contain some of the oldest written records of scientific
investigations in the areas of astronomy, chemical substances, and symptoms of disease.
Many other new ideas arose from the Sumerians’ practical needs. In order to erect
city walls and buildings, plan irrigation systems, and survey flooded fields, they
needed arithmetic and geometry. They developed a number system in base 60, from
which stem the modern units for measuring time (60 seconds = 1 minute) and the
360 degrees of a circle. Sumerian building techniques, including the use of mud
bricks and mortar, made the most of the resources available. Their architectural
innovations—such as arches, columns, ramps, and the pyramid-shaped design of the
ziggurat—permanently influenced Mesopotamian civilization.
The First Empire Builders
From 3000 to 2000 B.C., the city-states of Sumer were almost constantly at war with
one another. The weakened city-states could no longer ward off attacks from the peoples of the surrounding deserts and hills. Although the Sumerians never recovered
from the attacks on their cities, their civilization did not die. Succeeding sets of rulers
adapted the basic ideas of Sumerian culture to meet their own needs.
Sargon of Akkad About 2350 B.C., a conqueror named Sargon
defeated the city-states of Sumer. Sargon led his army from Akkad
(AK ad), a city-state north of Sumer. Unlike the Sumerians, the
Akkadians were a Semitic (suh MIHT ihk) people—that is, they
spoke a language related to Arabic and Hebrew. The Akkadians
had long before adopted most aspects of Sumerian culture.
Sargon’s conquests helped to spread that culture even farther,
beyond the Tigris-Euphrates Valley.
By taking control of both northern and southern Mesopotamia, Sargon created the world’s first empire. An empire
brings together several peoples, nations, or previously independent states under the control of one ruler. At its height, the
Akkadian Empire extended from the Mediterranean Coast in the
west to present-day Iran in the east. Sargon’s dynasty lasted only
about 200 years, after which it declined due to internal fighting,
invasions, and a severe famine.
This bronze head
depicts Sargon of
Akkad, who created
the world’s first
empire.
•
•
THINK THROUGH HISTORY
D. Contrasting How
does an empire differ
from a city-state?
D. Answer Both are
independent political
units. However, a citystate controls only a
city and its surrounding territory, whereas
an empire controls
many peoples,
nations, or states.
•
Babylonian Empire In about 2000 B.C., nomadic warriors
known as Amorites, another Semitic group, invaded Mesopotamia.
Within a short time, the Amorites overwhelmed the Sumerians and
established their capital at Babylon, on the Euphrates River. The Babylonian Empire
reached its peak during the reign of Hammurabi, from 1792 B.C.to 1750 B.C. Hammurabi’s most enduring legacy is the code of laws he put together.
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■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ Hammurabi’s Code Although individual Sumerian cities had
■HISTORY
■ ■ ■ ■MAKERS
■ ■ ■ ■
■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ developed codes of laws, Hammurabi recognized that a single, uni-
Hammurabi
? –1750 B.C.
The noted lawgiver Hammurabi was
also an able military leader, diplomat,
and administrator of a vast empire.
Hammurabi himself described some
of his accomplishments:
When [the gods] Anu and
Bel gave me the land of Sumer
and Akkad to rule, . . . I dug
out the Hammurabi-canal
named Nuhus-nisi, which
bringeth abundance of water
unto the land of Sumer and
Akkad. Both the banks thereof
I changed to fields for cultivation, and I garnered piles of
grain, and I procured unfailing
water for the land. . . .
As for the land of Sumer and
Akkad, I collected the scattered peoples thereof, and I
procured food and drink for
them. In abundance and
plenty I pastured them, and I
caused them to dwell in
peaceful habitation.
form code would help to unify the diverse groups within his empire.
He therefore collected existing rules, judgments, and laws into the
Code of Hammurabi. Hammurabi had the code engraved in stone,
and copies were placed all over his empire.
The code lists 282 specific laws dealing with everything that
affected the community, including family relations, business conduct,
and crime. The laws tell us a great deal about the Mesopotamians’
beliefs and what they valued. Since many were merchants and
traders, for example, many of the laws related to property issues.
Although the code applied to everyone, it set different punishments for rich and poor and for men and women. It frequently
applied the principle of retaliation (an eye for an eye and a tooth for
a tooth) to punish crimes. Following are two of the laws:
A V O I C E F R O M T H E PA S T
• If a man has stolen an ox, a sheep, a pig, or a boat that belonged to
a temple or palace, he shall repay thirty times its cost. If it belonged
to a private citizen, he shall repay ten times. If the thief cannot pay,
he shall be put to death.
• If a woman hates her husband and says to him “You cannot be with
me,” the authorities in her district will investigate the case. If she has
been chaste and without fault, even though her husband has
neglected or belittled her, she will be held innocent and may return
to her father’s house. . . . If the woman is at fault, she shall be
thrown into the river.
Code of Hammurabi, adapted from a translation by L. W. King
Despite its severity, Hammurabi’s Code carried forward an important idea in Mesopotamian civilization. It reinforced the principle
that government had a responsibility for what occurred in society.
For example, if a man was robbed and the thief was not caught, the
government was required to compensate the victim for his loss.
Two centuries after Hammurabi’s reign, the Babylonian Empire
fell to nomadic warriors. Over the years, new groups dominated the
Fertile Crescent. Yet many ideas of the early Sumerians would be
adopted by the later peoples, including the Assyrians, Phoenicians, and Hebrews.
Meanwhile, a similar pattern of development, rise, and fall, was taking place to the
west, along the Nile River in Egypt. Egyptian civilization is described in Section 2.
THINK THROUGH HISTORY
E. Recognizing
Effects How did
Hammurabi’s law
code advance
civilization?
E. Possible
Answers It established a uniform law
code for all the groups
in his empire; it reinforced the principle
that government had
a responsibility to its
citizens.
Section 1 Assessment
1. TERMS & NAMES
Identify
• Fertile Crescent
• silt
• irrigation
• city-state
• dynasty
• cultural diffusion
• polytheism
• empire
• Hammurabi
32 Chapter 2
2. TAKING NOTES
Recreate the chart below on your
paper. List three environmental
challenges the Sumerians faced
and their solutions to these
challenges.
Challenges
Solutions
3. MAKING INFERENCES
What advantages did living in
cities offer the people of ancient
Mesopotamia? Do modern cities
offer any of the same advantages?
Support your answer with
references to the text.
THINK ABOUT
• characteristics of Sumer’s
city-states
• characteristics of Sumer’s
economy and society
• development of organized
government
4. ANALYZING THEMES
Interaction with Environment
Do you think that living in a river
valley with little rainfall helped or
hurt the development of
civilization in Mesopotamia?
Explain your response.