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Science Grade 8 Daily PASS Review Questions Day QUESTION 1 2 3 8-2.1: What is a species? 8-2.1: What is an adaptation? 4 8-2.2: them? What is a fossil and how do scientists use 5 8-2.2: What is the fossil record? 6 8-2.2: What is a mold fossil? 7 8-2.2: What is a cast fossil? 8 8-2.2: What is a petrified fossil? 9 8-2.2: What is a preserved fossil? 8-2.1: How can biological adaptations enhance the survival of a population in a particular environment? ANSWER A group of organisms that can breed and produce fertile offspring A trait that helps an organism survive and reproduce. Species (in a particular environment) that are better adapted to living conditions in their environment are able to meet their survival needs and are more likely to survive and reproduce offspring with similar traits. A fossil is the preserved remains or traces of an organism that lived in the past, usually more that 10,000 years ago. Fossils give clues to the diversity of living things over the history of Earth, give clues to past climate and surface changes on Earth, and give clues to changes that have occurred within species of organisms over time. The millions of fossils collected and studied, the fossil record, gives important information about past life and environments on Earth. Certain fossilized organisms could only live in specific environments or under particular climate conditions. Extinction of lifeforms, as well as how and when new life-forms appeared, are part of the fossil record. A fossil formed when sediments bury an organism and the sediments change into rock; the organism decays leaving a cavity in the shape of the organism Formed when a mold is filled with sand or mud that hardens into the shape of the organism. Formed when minerals soak into buried remains, replace the remains, and change them into rock Formed when entire organisms or parts of organisms are trapped in ice, tar, or amber and are prevented from decaying Department of Curriculum and Instruction 1/29/2009 10 8-2.2: What is a carbonized fossil? 11 8-2.2: What is a trace fossil? 12 8-2.3: What affected the types of life that first appeared on earth? 13 8-2.3: 14 8-2.3: What thrived during the Mesozoic Era and what caused it to end? 15 8-2.4: What is the difference between an era, a period, and an epoch? 16 8-2.4: What era, period, and epoch is modern day earth in? Present day Earth is in the Cenozoic era, the Quaternary period, and the Holocene epoch. 17 18 8-2.4: 4.6 billion years old 19 What characterized the Paleozoic era? How old is the earth? 8-2.5: What is the geologic time scale; what ends a geologic era? 8-2.5: How do scientists use the geologic time scale? Formed when organisms or parts of organisms are pressed between layers of soft mud or clay that hardens, squeezing almost all the decaying organism away, leaving the carbon imprint in the rocks. Formed when the mud or sand hardens to stone where a footprint, trail, or burrow of an organism was left behind Earliest life forms were influenced by the forming atmosphere and oceans of earth, as well as volcanic activity and mountain building. Life (on land) developed and flourished in the tropical climates. Many life-forms became extinct at the end of the Paleozoic Era, yet fish and reptiles still survived As reptiles, early birds and mammals thrived during the Mesozoic Era, it too came to an end with mass extinctions, including the dinosaur species; possibly due to a world-wide impact catastrophe and climate change eras are divided into periods; periods can be further divided into epochs. The geologic time scale is a record of the major events and diversity of life forms present in Earth’s history. It began when Earth was formed and goes on until the present. At the end of each era a mass extinction occurred and many kinds of organisms died out. Using the fossil record, paleontologists have created a picture of the different types of common organisms in each geologic period. Department of Curriculum and Instruction 1/29/2009 20 8-2.5: Describe what kind of plants and animals existed during the Paleozoic era. How did the era end? 21 8-2.5: Describe what kind of plant and animals existed during the Mesozoic era. How did the era end? 22 8-2.5: Describe what kind of plant and animals existed during the Cenozoic era. How did the era end? 23 8-2.6: What is the law of superposition and what does it have to do with relative dating? 24 8-2.6: What is an index fossil and what makes a fossil a good index fossil? Began with the early invertebrates, such as trilobites and brachiopods; continued to develop early vertebrate fish, then arachnids and insects; later came the first amphibians, and near the era’s end the reptiles became dominant, early land plants included simple mosses, ferns, then cone-bearing plants. By the end of the era, seed plants were common. The mass extinction that ended the era caused most marine invertebrates as well as amphibians to disappear. Reptiles were the dominant animals of this era, including the various dinosaurs. Small mammals and birds also appeared. Toward the end of the era, flowering plants appeared and the kinds of mammals increased. The mass extinction that ended the era caused the dinosaurs to become extinct. New mammals appeared while others became extinct. The diversity of life forms increased. Flowering plants became most common. Humans are also part of the most recent period of this era. The law of superposition states that each rock layer is older than the one above it. So using this layering, the relative age of the rock or fossil in the rock is older if it is farther down in the rock layers. Relative dating can be used only when the rock layers have been preserved in their original sequence. Fossils used to help find the relative age of rock layers. To be an index fossil – • an organism must have lived only during a short part of Earth’s history; • many fossils of the organism must be found in rock layers; • the fossil must be found over a wide area of Earth; • the organism must be unique. The shorter time period a species lived, the better an index it is. A key example of an index fossil is Department of Curriculum and Instruction 1/29/2009 25 8-2.7: Explain natural factors that can lead to extinctions? Are they good or bad? 26 8-2.7: Explain man made factors that can lead to extinctions? Are they good or bad? 27 8-3.1: Describe the crust, the mantle and the core of the earth. 28 8-3.2: What are primary (p) waves? 29 8-3.2: What are the secondary (S) waves? the trilobite, a hard-shelled animal whose body had three sections, lived in shallow seas, and became extinct about 245 million years ago. Organisms that could not survive changes due to volcanic eruptions and global warming, global cooling during ice ages, changes in oxygen levels in seawater, or a massive impact from an asteroid or comet became extinct. Natural extinctions have occurred throughout geologic history. Not all are considered negative in that extinctions often clear the way for new kinds of life. Man-made factors such as the cutting of the rainforest regions, removing natural habitats, overharvesting, and pollution have caused extinctions. Many plants and animals are likely to become extinct in the near future if humans do not make changes in the way they are damaging earth, and removing the survival needs of many organisms. Humans’ damage to the environment is possibly threatening some biological resources that humans may need. Crust: Outermost layer; thinnest under the ocean, thickest under continents; crust & top of mantle called the lithosphere The mantle: middle layer, thickest layer; top portion called the asthenosphere The Core: inner layer; two parts the outer core and inner core The outer core is mainly slow flowing liquid. The inner core is solid. P waves move out from the earthquake focus, the point where the energy is released; they travel the fastest of the three waves; they move through solid and liquid layers of Earth; they push and pull rock creating a back-and-forth motion in the direction the wave is moving. S waves move out from the earthquake focus; they move slower than primary waves; they can only move through solid rock; they move at right angles to primary waves causing rocks to move up and down and side to side Department of Curriculum and Instruction 1/29/2009 30 8-3.2: What are surface waves? 31 8-3.3: How can you infer an earthquake’s epicenter from seismographic data? 32 8-3.4: What is the rock cycle? 33 8-3.4: Describe igneous, metamorphic, and sedentary rocks. 34 8-3.6: Explain the motion of lithospheric plates. 35 8-3.6: Describe the three types of boundaries. Form when P and S waves reach the surface; they can cause the ground to shake, making rock sway from side to side and roll like an ocean wave. Use the records from three seismograph stations to plot circles on a map. This triangulation will identify the epicenter where the three circles intersect. A series of processes on the surface and inside the earth that slowly change rocks from one type to another Igneous is formed by the cooling of metamorphic rock. Sedimentary is formed when particles of other rocks or the remains of plants and animals are cemented together. Metamorphic rock is formed when an existing rock is changed by heat, pressure, or chemical reactions. Plates float on the lower part of the mantle. Convection currents deep inside Earth can cause the asthenosphere to flow slowly carrying with it the plates of the lithosphere. This movement of plates changes the sizes, shapes, and positions of Earth’s continents and oceans. Divergent boundary-where two plates are moving apart; most located along mid-ocean ridge (sea-floor spreading); new crust forms because magma pushes up and hardens between separating plates. Convergent- where two plates come together and collide; activity depends upon the types of crust that meet; more dense oceanic plate slides under less dense continental plate or another oceanic plate – subduction zone, some crust is destroyed; two continental plates converge, both plates buckle and push up into mountain ranges; Transform boundary-where two plates slide past each other; crust is neither created nor destroyed; Earthquakes occur frequently along this type of boundary. Department of Curriculum and Instruction 1/29/2009 36 8-4.1: Summarize the characteristics and movements of objects in our solar system (including planets, moons, asteroids, comets, and meteors). Planets: Planets may have a terrestrial or rocky surface or a gaseous surface. Gaseous planets are considerably larger than terrestrial planets. Planets may have rings. Some planets have a unique surface characteristic, for example color or an atmospheric storm. Movement of planets are based on revolution around the Sun and rotation on the planet’s axis. Moons: Moons are studied in relation to the planet they orbit. Most are rocky bodies covered with craters, but some have unique characteristics. Not all planets have moons. Movement of moons is be based on revolution around their planets. Specific study of the rotation of Earth’s moon is essential. Asteroids: Asteroids are rocky bodies that orbit in a region of the solar system known as the asteroid belt. They vary in size and shape. Movement should be based on their revolution around the Sun. Comets: Comets have composition in the main body or head, a tail that emerges, as the comet gets closer to the Sun during its orbit; unique long, narrow elliptical revolutions. Meteoroids: Meteoroids are chunks of rock and move about within the solar system. The location and movement distinguish among a meteor, a meteoroid, or a meteorite. Department of Curriculum and Instruction 1/29/2009 37 8-4.2: Summarize the characteristics of the surface features of the Sun: photosphere, corona, sunspots, prominences, and solar flares. The Sun’s atmosphere includes the photosphere and the corona: • The photosphere makes light and is the most prominent layer of the Sun’s atmosphere. • During a total eclipse when the photosphere is blocked, the corona, the outer layer of the Sun’s atmosphere that looks like a white halo, can be seen. Other features on or above the Sun’s surface are sunspots, prominences, and solar flares. • Sunspots are areas of gas on the sun that are cooler than the surrounding gases and therefore do not give off as much light. • Prominences are huge, looping eruptions of gas, usually near sunspots, that arch out into the outer layers of the Sun’s atmosphere. • Solar flares are explosions of hot gas that occur when prominences connect. They shoot from the Sun’s surface releasing tremendous amounts of energy into space. 38 8-4.5: Explain how the tilt of Earth’s axis affects the length of the day and the amount of heating on Earth’s surface, thus causing the seasons of the year. • The number of daylight hours changes throughout the year because Earth’s axis is tilted 23½ degrees. • Earth has seasons because its axis is tilted in the same direction as it moves around the sun, not because of any distance difference between the Sun and Earth. • The angle of the Sun’s rays due to the tilt of Earth’s axis and the number of daylight hours causes the differences in the seasons. • The combination of direct rays and more daylight hours causes Earth to heat up; slanted rays and less hours of daylight causes Earth to cool down. Students should be able to explain how the combination of these factors results in summer and Department of Curriculum and Instruction 1/29/2009 39 8-4.7: Explain the effects of gravity on tides and planetary orbits. winter and also the equinox positions of spring and autumn. The Moon, being closer to Earth than the Sun, has the greatest pulling effect on tides, the rise and fall of ocean water in this case. The Sun also pulls on Earth and can combine its force with the Moon causing even higher tides, spring tides, or it can be at right angles, pulling against the Moon’s pull, causing very little tidal change, neap tides. Planetary The Sun’s gravitational attraction, along with the planet’s inertia, keeps the planets moving in elliptical orbits (Earth’s orbit is slightly oval) and determines how fast they orbit. Planets nearer the Sun move/orbit faster than planets farther from the sun because the gravitational attraction is greater. When a planet is farther from the Sun, the gravitational attraction between them decreases and the planet moves/orbits slower. 40 8-4.8: What is the difference between mass and weight? 41 8-6.2: Describe a mechanical wave. Students should understand this indicator as a cause (gravity) and its effects on tides and planetary orbits. Mass is the amount of matter in an object; it does not depend on forces acting on it. Mass is the same no matter where the object is located as long as the object does not gain or lose any of its matter. An object that has mass can be pulled on by gravitational force. Weight is a measure of the pull of gravity on an object. Weight is related to mass but they are not the same. Weight on Earth is based on the pull of gravity toward the center of Earth. Weight can change on Earth. The pull of gravity is not the same everywhere. Mechanical waves are waves that travel through matter. The matter that waves travel through is called a mediu,m and it can be a solid, liquid or gas, or a combination of these. The particles of matter vibrate by pushing together and moving apart, or by moving up and Department of Curriculum and Instruction 1/29/2009 42 8-6.2: Describe an electromagnetic wave. 43 8-6.3 Summarize factors that influence the basic properties of waves (including frequency, amplitude, wavelength, and speed). down, as the waves travel through them to transfer the energy through the medium. Sound waves, for example, are mechanical waves that require particles to vibrate in order for energy to be transferred. Sound waves cannot be transferred or transmitted through space. Water waves and the waves that travel down a rope or spring are also mechanical waves. Electromagnetic waves are waves that can travel through empty space where matter is not present. Instead of transferring energy from particle to particle as is done by mechanical waves, electromagnetic waves transfer energy through space. Radio waves, microwaves, infrared rays, visible light, ultraviolet rays and x-rays are all forms of energy that travel in electromagnetic waves. Wavelength is the distance between one point on a wave and the nearest point just like it. The wavelength is the measure of the distance between any two successive identical parts of wave. The greater the energy carried by waves, the smaller the wavelength. Frequency is the number of full wavelengths that pass a point each second. The frequency of a wave also measures how rapidly vibrations occur in the medium, at the source of the wave, or both. The greater the energy carried by waves, the greater the frequency. Amplitude is the greatest distance that vibrations in a wave move from their normal position when a wave passes by. The greater the wave’s amplitude, the more energy the wave carries. 44 8-6.4: Summarize the behaviors of waves using refraction, reflection, transmission and absorption. Refraction is the bending of waves caused by a change in their speed as they pass from one medium to another. As waves pass at an angle from one medium to another, they may speed up or slow down. The greater the changes in speed, the more the waves bend. Reflection is the bouncing back of a wave when it meets a surface or boundary that does not absorb the Department of Curriculum and Instruction 1/29/2009 45 8-6.5: Explain hearing in terms of the relationship between sound waves and the outer, middle, an inner ear. entire wave’s energy. All types of waves can be reflected. Reflections of sound waves, for example, are called echoes and help bats and dolphins learn about their environments. Transmission of waves occurs when they pass through a given point or medium. Absorption of waves occurs when the energy is not transferred through the given medium or space. Absorption of waves causes the following behaviors depending on what type of wave is absorbed: Color The color of the object depends on the light wavelengths that are absorbed and reflected. Substances that absorb certain wavelengths of light reflect other wavelengths and have specific colors that are characteristics of that substance. Temperature Change Objects or substances that absorb infrared radiation become warmer as the infrared radiation is transformed to thermal (heat) energy by causing particles in the substance to move at a faster rate. Outer ear: Sound waves are gathered by the outer ear made up of the ear, the ear canal, and the eardrum. The outer ear is shaped to help capture the sound waves (energy transferred in particles of air) and send them to the ear canal which transfers them to the eardrum. The vibrations of air particles cause the eardrum to vibrate. Middle ear: The middle ear amplifies sound waves. Inner ear: The inner ear transmits vibrations from the bones of the middle ear to the liquid in the inner ear. The tiny hairs in the inner ear vibrate as the liquid vibrates. The vibrating tiny hairs transmit the energy to nerves attached to the hairs. The nerve impulses are transmitted to the brain for connections in the brain for understanding of the sound as “hearing.” Department of Curriculum and Instruction 1/29/2009 46 8-6.6 Explain sight in terms of the relationship between the eye and the light waves emitted or reflected by an object. It is essential for students to know the interaction between the major parts of the eye and light emitted or reflected by an object to allow sight to occur as follows: The cornea is a transparent tissue that transmits and refracts light to the pupil, the opening in the iris of the eye in front of the lens. The lens refracts the light further and focuses the light waves on the retina. 47 48 8-6.8: Compare visible light and ultraviolet light as far as wavelengths and the energy of the waves they possess. 8-5.1: How can you use a graph to show position, direction, and speed? The retina is located on the back of the inside of the eye and is composed of tiny nerves that transfer the energy of the light waves to nerve impulses transmitted to the brain for interpretation as sight. Visible light is the range of electromagnetic waves that can be detected by the human eye. The wavelengths are in the middle range of wavelengths of electromagnetic waves. Visible light is also in the middle of the energy range of electromagnetic waves. The longer the wavelength, the lower the energy of the wave. The eye reacts to different energies and wavelengths of light so that different colors are seen. Shorter wavelengths are perceived as violet colors and longer wavelengths are perceived as red colors. Shorter, violet wavelengths are higher energy levels than longer, red wavelengths of visible light. Ultraviolet radiation Ultraviolet radiation has smaller wavelengths than violet wavelengths of visible light. Ultraviolet radiation is higher in energy than visible light. Position: You can tell position relative to a reference point on the X-axis The direction of the object is described as whether it is “moving away” from or “moving toward” the reference point. If the object is “moving away” from the reference point, the line will go up Department of Curriculum and Instruction 1/29/2009 (distance increasing). If the object is “moving toward” the reference point the line will go down (distance decreasing). 50 8-5.2 Use the formula for average speed, v=d/t, to solve real world problems: An airplane is flying at a constant speed of 150 meters per second. After one hour, how far has the plane traveled? 8-5.3: How does gravity affect the speed and direction of an object? 51 8-5.3: How does friction affect the speed and direction of an object? 52 8-5.4: Predict how varying amounts of force or mass will affect the motion of an object. 53 8-5.5: Analyze the effect of a balanced force on an object’s motion and in terms of magnitude and direction 54 8-5.5: Analyze the effect of an unbalanced force on an object’s motion and in terms of magnitude and direction 49 Speed The slope of the line can tell the relative speed of the object. When the slope of the line is steep, the speed is faster than if the slope were flatter. When the slope of the line is flatter, the speed is slower. d=vt = (150 m/sec) x (3,600 sec) = 540,000 meters or = 540 kilometers Gravity, which is a property of all matter, is a force that pulls objects toward each other without direct contact or impact. Objects on Earth are pulled toward the center of Earth and when raised above the surface of Earth, they fall “down” toward Earth. As objects fall toward Earth, their speed increases at a definite rate. Friction is a force that opposes motion. It can slow down or stop the motion of an object. The slowing force of friction always acts in the direction opposite to the force causing the motion. For example, friction slows or stops the motion of moving parts of machines. Most tires are designed to increase friction for better traction on the road. Force The greater the force exerted on an object, the faster an object will move. Mass The greater the mass of an object with the same force exerted on it, the slower the object will move. Balanced forces do not cause a change in the magnitude or direction of a moving object. Objects that are not moving will not start moving if acted on by balanced forces Unbalanced forces are not equal, and they always cause a change in the magnitude and direction of a moving object. When two unbalanced forces are exerted in opposite directions, their combined force is equal to the difference between the two forces and is Department of Curriculum and Instruction 1/29/2009 55 8-5.6: Summarize and give an example of the concept of inertia. exerted in the direction of the larger force. If unbalanced forces are exerted in the same direction, the resulting force will be the sum of the forces in the direction the forces are applied. It is essential for students to know that inertia is the tendency of objects to resist any change in motion. It is the tendency for objects to stay in motion if they are moving or to stay at rest if they are not moving unless acted on by an outside force. Examples of the effects of inertia are: • Inertia causes a passenger in a car to continue to move forward even though the car stops. • Inertia is why seat belts are so important for the safety of passengers in vehicles. Inertia is why it is impossible for vehicles to stop instantaneously Department of Curriculum and Instruction 1/29/2009