Download SNC2D EXAM REVIEW Lab Safety Unit 1 - Chemistry

SNC2D EXAM NOTES
SNC2DEXAMREVIEW
LabSafety
WHIMIS:WorkplaceHazardousMaterialInformationSystem
HHPS:HouseholdHazardousProductSymbols
SafetyFeaturesoftheClassroom:Exits,goggles,fireextinguisher,firstaidkit,fireblanket,brokenglasscontainer,eye
washstation.
Unit1-Chemistry
PeriodicTable:
Period:rowofelements
Group:columnofelements
TheHalogens:oneofthemost
reactivegroups
Alkalineearthmetals: -reactive
-group2
Alkalimetals: -highlyreactive
-group1
Noblegases:
-unreactive/stable
-group18
SNC2D EXAM NOTES
AtomicStructure:
ElectricCharge
Symbol
Location
Proton
Positive
P+
Nucleus
Electron
Negative
N-
Nucleus
Neutron
Neutral
E0
OrbitofNucleus
Bohr-RutherfordDiagrams:
Ex:FindthediagramofLithium(NobleGasesalwayshaveafullorbit)
Protons=3
Electrons=3
Mass=7
Neutrons=7–3=4
Compound:apuresubstancecomposedof2ormoreelementsinafixedratio Ion:achargedparticlethatresultswhenanatomgainsorlosesoneormoreelections Anion:anegativelychargedion(non-metal) Cation:apositivelychargedion(metal)
IonicCompound:acompoundmadeofoneormorecations(metals)andoneormoreanions(non-metals)
IonicBond:thestrongattractionofpositiveandnegativeionsinanioniccompound(relationshipbetweenmetalsandnonmetals)
CreatesLithiumChloride
Ex:formtheioniccompoundbetweensodiumandchlorine
Sodium:Chlorine:
Protons=11 Protons=17
Electrons=11 Electrons=17 Mass=23Mass=35.45
Neutrons=12 Neutrons=18
PropertiesofIonicCompounds:
•
•
•
hard
brittle
highmeltingpoint
•
•
conductselectricity
dissolvesinwatertoformsolutions
PhysicalProperty:adescriptionofasubstancethatdoesnotinvolveforminganewsubstance(color,density,smell)
Chemicalproperty:adescriptionofwhatasubstancedoesasitchangesintooneormorenewsubstances(ex:burning)
PhysicalChange:achangeinasubstancesstatewithoutcreatinganewsubstance(ex:cutting,melting)
Chemicalchange:achangeinasubstancesstatethatresultsinthecreationofanewsubstance(ex:addingvinegarto
bakingsoda)
WritingChemicalFormulas:
1.
Writesymbols(metalfirst,non-metalsecond)
2.
Writeionicchargeaboveeachsymbol
3.
Crisscrossthenumbers
4.
WriteFormulaandreduceifpossible
Ex:FindthechemicalformulaofMagnesiumChloride
SNC2D EXAM NOTES
WritingwordFormulas:
1.
Writenumberswithcharges
2.
Backwardscrisscross
3.
Writeionicchargeaboveeachsymbol
4.
Writewordformula
Ex:FindthenameofCa3N2
ElementswithMultipleIonicCharges:(TrickyMetals)
PolyatomicIons:Elementsthatcombinetogethertoformsinglechargedunit
Ex:WhatisthechemicalforTin
(IV)Nitrate?
MolecularCompound:apuresubstanceformedfrom2orofthesameofdifferentnon-metals Molecule:aparticleinwhichatomsarejoinedbycovalentbonds
Covalentbond:abondthatresultsfromthesharingofouterelectronsbetweennon-metalatoms
Diatomicmolecule:amoleculeconsistingofonly2atomsofeitherthesameordifferentelements(HOFBrINCl)
HOFBrINCl:Hydrogen,Oxygen,Fluorine,Bromine,Iodine,Nitrogen,Chlorine
SNC2D EXAM NOTES
CommonMolecularcompounds: Howtoidentifyname/number:
Name
Number
Name
ChemicalFormula
Mono
1
Water
H2O
Ammonia
NH3
Di
2
NitricOxide
NO
Tri
3
HydrogenSulfide
H2s
Tetra
4
Penta
5
Ex:WhatisthechemicalFormulaforSulfurDichloride?SCl2
Ex:WhatisthenameofNBr3?NitrogenTriChloride
LewisDotDiagramsformolecularCompounds:
Ex:SulfurTrioxide
S+O+O+O=SO3
Sharing
6+6+6+6=24
ChemicalEquation:AwayofDescribingachemicalreactionusingthechemicalformulasofthereactionsandproducts(ex:
Fe+S=FeS+Energy)
ChemicalReaction:Aprocessinwhichsubstancesinteract,causingtheformationofanewsubstancewithnewproperties.
WordEquation:awayofdescribingachemicalreactionusingthenamesofthereactantsandproduct(ex:Iron+Sulfur=
Iron(II)Sulfide+Energy)
Reactant:aChemical,Presentatthestartofthechemicalreactionthatisusedupduringareaction.
Product:achemicalthatisproducedduringachemicalreaction
DeterminingStateofanElement:
Symbol
Name
S
Solid
L
Liquid
G
Gaseous
Aq
Aqueous
TypesofReactions:
Name
Synthesis
Decomposition
SingleReplacement
DoubleDisplacement
LawofConservationofmass:thestatementthatinanygivenchemicalreaction,
thetotalmassofthereactantsequalsthetotalmassoftheproducts
Ex:reactantA+reactantB+=product1+product2
20g+45g=55g+______g
65=65
Equation
A+BAB
ABA+B
A+BCAC+B
AB+CDAD+CB
Example
P+O2P2O5
AlO2Al+O2
HgO+Cl2HgCl+O2
BaCl2+Na2So4NaCl+BaSO4
BalancingEquations:
Mustmakesidesequal:
LS
RS
__Li3+__NH4(N)O3__Li(NO)3+__(NH4)3
LS
RS
Li=3
Li=1
NH4=1
NH4=3
Li=3
Li=3
__Li3+_3NH4(NO)3_3Li(NO)3+__(NH4)3
NO=3
NO=3
NH4=3
NH4=3
Combustion:therapidreactionofasubstancewith
oxygentoproduceoxidesand
NO=9
NO=9
energy;burning
CompleteCombustion:aCombustionreactingofhydrocarbonsthatusesalltheavailablefuelandproducesonlycarbon
dioxide,water,andenergy.
IncompleteCombustion:acombustionreactionofhydrocarbonsthatmayproducecarbonmonoxide,carbon,carbon
dioxide,soot,waterandenergy;occurswhentheoxygensupplyislimited.
SNC2D EXAM NOTES
CompleteCombustionFormula:
Hydrocarbon+OxygenCarbonDioxide+WaterEnergy
CO2+H2O+Energy
IncompleteCombustionFormula:
Hydrocarbon+OxygenCarbonDioxide+Water+CarbonMonoxide+Carbon(soot)+Energy
CO2+H2O+CO+C+Energy
GeneralCombustionEquation:Element+OxygenOxide+Energy
A+O2AO+Energy
Ex1:Amagnesiumsolidribbonisignitedandburnsinoxygencreatingagreyish–whitepowder,magnesiumoxideanda
bright,whitelight.
Magnesium+OxygenMagnesiumOxide+Energy Mg(s)+O2(g)MgO(s)+Energy
2Mg+__O22MgO
Ex2:Methane(CH4)GasBurnsinOxygengastocreateCarbonDioxidegasandwatervapor.
Methane+OxygenCarbonDioxide+Water+Energy
CH4(g)+O2(g)CO2(g)+H2O(g)+Energy
__CH4+2_O2__CO2+2_H2O
Corrosion:thebreakdownofametalasaresultofchemicalreactionswithitsenvironment,exsilvertarnisheswhenin
contactwithsulfurcompoundsinair.
Galvanizing:Happenswhensteelhasbeencoatedwithathinlayerofzinc,zincthencorrodesandformsaprotectivelayer
aroundthesteel(thisiswhygalvanizingsteelprovidesgoodrustprotection)
Rusting:Corrosionofironandsteelthatoccursinthepresenceofoxygenandwater(Causesseveredamage)
AcidsandBases:
Acid:anaqueoussolutionthatconductselectricity,tastessour,turnsbluelitmusred,andneutralizesbases.(molecular
compounds)
CommonBinaryAcids:
AcidName
ChemicalFormula
Hydrofluoricacid
HF
Hydrochloricacid
HCl
Hydrobromicacid
HBr
Hydro-sulfuricacid
H2S
Prefix:“Hydro”
Ending:“ic”
CommonOxyAcids:
AcidName
Aceticacid
ChemicalFormula
HC2HO3O2
PolyatomicIonName
Acetate
Nitricacid
HNO
Nitrate
Carbonicacid
H2CO3
Carbonate
Sulfuricacid
H2SO4
Sulfate
Phosphoricacid
H3PO4
Phosphate
Base:anaqueoussolutionthatconductselectricity,andturnsredlitmusblue(ioniccompound)
CommonBases:
BaseName
ChemicalFormula
Ex:Writethenameorchemicalformulafor
SodiumHydroxide
NaOH
eachcompound:
CalciumHydroxide
Ca(OH)2
1.KHCO3(aq) 2.HN03(aq)
Ammoniumhydroxide
NH4OH
PotassiumhydroxideNitricacid
MagnesiumHydroxide
Mg(OH)2
thisisabasethisisanacid
SNC2D EXAM NOTES
Aluminumhydroxide
SodiumHydrogenBicarbonate(bakingsoda)
Al(OH)3
NaHCO
*Ifitstartswithan“H”it
isanacid*
pH:ameasureofnowacidicorbasicasolutionis
Acid-BaseIndicator:showswhetherasolutionisanacidorabase(bychangingcolour)
pHscale:anumericalscalerangingfrom0–14thatisusedtocomparetheacidityofsolutions
Neutral:neitheracidicnorbasic(apHof7)
ThepHScale:
Acidic(red)=below7
Basic(blue)=above7
Neutralizingreaction:achemicalreactioninwhichanacidandabasereacttoformanioniccompound(salt)andwater.
(TheresultingpHiscloserto7)
Generalequationforneutralizingreaction:acid+basewater+ioniccompound
Ex:H3PO+3KOH3H2O+K3PO4
Acidprecipitation:anyprecipitation(rain,dew,hail)withapHlessthanthenormalpHofrain,whichisapproximately5.6.
Itiscausedbypollutantssuchasfossilfuels.
Drydeposition:theprocessinwhichacidformingpollutantsfalldirectlytoearththedrystate
BufferingCapacity:theabilityofasubstancetoresistchangesinpH
Unit2-Physics
Characteristicsoflight:
• Canbemanipulatedwithmirrorsandlenses
• Travelsatextremespeedinastraightline
Medium:anyphysicalsubstancethroughwhichenergycanbetransferred
Radiation:amethodofenergytransferthatdoesnotrequireamedium;theenergytravelsatthespeedoflight
Electromagneticwave:awavethathasbothelectricandmagneticparts,doesnotrequireamedium,andtravelsatthe
speedoflight.
Visiblelight:electromagneticwavesthatthehumaneyecandetect
Electromagneticspectrum:theclassificationofelectromagneticwavesbyenergy
SNC2D EXAM NOTES
Visiblespectrum:thecontinuoussequenceofcolorsthatmakeupwhite
Whitelight:coloursthatthehumaneyecansee(ROYGBIV)
Frequency:therateatwhichvibrationoccurs Luminous:producesitsownlight(ex:sun)
Non-luminous:doesnotproduceitsownlight(ex:moon)
Lightinprisms:
•
•
•
•
Redlight(leastenergetic)isfaster
violetlight(mostenergetic)isSlower
redlightbendstheleastfromtheprism
violetlightbensthemostfromtheprism
MethodsofProducingLight:
Light-emittingdiode(LED):aspecialelectronicdevicethatproduceslightwhenanelectriccurrentflowsthroughit.
(energyefficient)
Semiconductor:amaterialthatallowsanelectriccurrenttoflowinonlyonedirection Laser:LightAmplificationbyStimulatedEmissionofRadiation
Propertiesofalaser:
•
•
•
raysareconcentratedinonedirection
raysareallofthesameenergylevel(electromagneticwaves)
pureincolor
SNC2D EXAM NOTES
Incidentlight:theuseoflightraystodeterminehowlightbehaveswhenitstrikesanobject
Transparent:whenamaterialtransmitsall/almostallincidentlight:objectscanbeclearlyseenthroughthematerial Translucent:whenamaterialtransmitssomeincidentlightandeitherreflectsorabsorbstherest;objectsarenotclearly
seenthroughthismaterial
Opaque:whenamaterialdoesnottransmitanyincidentlight;lightiseitherabsorbedorreflected;objectsbehindthe
materialcannotbeseenatall Plane(flat)mirror
Image:reproductionofanobjectthroughtheuseoflight
Reflection:thebouncingbackoflightfromthesurface TheLawsofReflection:
1. TheangleofIncidencewillalwaysequaltheangleofreflection
2. Theincidentray,reflectedrayandthenormalalllieinthesameplane
SpecularReflection:thereflectionoflightofaflat
surface DiffuseReflection:thereflectionoflightoffa
dullorirregularsurface
VirtualImage:animageformedbylightcomingfromanapparentlightsource;lightisnotarrivingatorcomingfromthe
actualimagelocation
SNC2D EXAM NOTES
Imagesinplanemirrors:
Theimageinaplanemirrorwillalwaysbe:
S:sameA:uprightL:behindmirrorT:virtual
CurvedMirrors:
1.Concave(converging)mirror:mirrorshapedlikepartofasphereinwhichtheinnersurfaceisreflective
2.Convex(divergingmirror):mirrorshapedlikepartofthesurfaceofasphereinwhichtheoutersurfaceisreflective
Infrontofmirror=realimage
Behindmirror=virtualimage
RulesofConvergingmirrors:
1.
2.
3.
4.
alightrayparalleltotheprincipleaxisisreflectedthroughthefocus
alightraythroughFwillreflectparalleltothePA
alightraythroughtheCentreofcurvatureisreflectedbackontoitself
arayaimedatthevertexwillfollowthelawofreflection
ObjectPlacement
Size
Attitude
Location
Type
Beyond
AtC
BetweenCandF
AtF
BetweenFandV
Smaller
Same
Larger
Noimage
Larger
Inverted
Inverted
Inverted
Noimage
Upright
Infrontofmirror
Infrontmirror
Infrontofmirror
Noimage
BehindMirror
Real
Real
Real
Noimage
Virtual
SNC2D EXAM NOTES
RulesofDivergingMirrors:
1. Lightrayparalleltotheprincipleaxisisreflectedthroughthefocus
2. LightraythroughFwillreflectparalleltothePA
3. LightraythroughtheCentreofcurvatureisreflectedbackontoitself
4. Rayaimedatthevertexwillfollowthelawofreflection
Characteristicswillalwaysstaythesameinadivergingmirror:
S:smallerA:uprightL:behindmirrorT:virtual
Refraction:thebendingorchangeindirectionoflightwhenittravelsfromonemediumanother
RulesofRefraction:
•
•
lightbendstowardsthenormalwhenthespeedoflightinthesecondmediumisslowerthanthefirst
lightbendsawayfromthenormalwhenthespeedoflightinthesecondmediumisfasterthanthefirst
TheIndexofRefraction:theratioofthespeedoflightinavacuumtothespeedoflightinamedium
CalculatingtheIndexofRefraction:Basicformula
SNC2D EXAM NOTES
Ex:Thespeedoflightinsodiumchlorideis1.96x108m/s.Calculatetheindexofrefractionforsodiumchloride.
G:C=3.00X108m/s(speedoflightinair/vacuum)V=1.96X108m/s
R:FindN
A:N=C/V
S:N=3.00X108m/s
1.96X108m/s
S:Thereforetheindexofrefractioninsodiumchlorideisabout1.53
Calculatingthespeedoflight:basicformula
Ex:Calculatethespeedoflightinoliveoil
G:C=3.00X108m/sN=1.48
R:FindV
A:V=C/N
S:V=3.00X108m/s
1.48
S:Thereforethespeedoflightinoliveoilisabout2.03X108m/s
Totalinternalreflection:thesituationwhentheangleofincidenceisgreaterthanthecriticalangle.Itoccurswhen:
•
•
lightistravellingmoreslowlyinthefirstmediumthaninthesecond
theangleofincidenceislargeenoughthatnorefractionoccursinthesecondmedium.Instead,therayisreflected
backintothefirstmedium.
Criticalangle:theangleofincidencethatresultsinanangleofrefractionof90o
Fiberoptics:atechnologythatuseslighttotransmitinformationalongaglasscable(totalinternalreflectionoccursin
Fiberopticcables)
Retro-Reflector:anopticaldeviceinwhichtheemergentrayisparalleltotheincidentray(ex:roadsigns)
Apparentdepth:thedepththatanobjectappearstobeatduetotherefractionoflightinatransparentmedium(shallower
thanitappears)
Mirage:avirtualimageformsasaresultofrefractionandtotalinternalreflectioninearth’satmosphere
TheRainbow:causedbyacombinationofdispersionandpartialinternalreflectioninwaterdropletsintheatmosphere
Dispersion:theseparationofwhitelightintoitsconstituentcolours
Lenses:
1.Converging:Thickestinthemiddleandcauseslightraystoconvergethroughasinglepointafterrefraction
Infrontoflens=virtualimage
Behindlens=realimage
SNC2D EXAM NOTES
2.Diverging:thinnestinthemiddleandcauseslightraystospreadapartafterrefraction
Infrontoflens=virtualimage
Behindlens=realimage
RulesofConvergingLenses:
1. ArayparalleltotheprincipleaxisisreflectedthroughF
2. ArayThroughthesecondaryprinciplefocus(F)isrefractedparalleltotheprincipleaxis
3. AraythroughtheopticalCentre(O)continuousstraightthroughwithoutbeingrefracted
ObjectPlacement
Size
Attitude
Location
Type
Beyond2F
At2F
Between2FandF
AtF
BetweenFandO
Smaller
Same
Larger
Noimage
Larger
Inverted
Inverted
Inverted
Noimage
Upright
Behindlens
Behindlens
Behindlens
Noimage
Infrontoflens
Real
Real
Real
Noimage
Virtual
SNC2D EXAM NOTES
RulesforDiverginglenses:
1. ArayparalleltotheprincipleaxisisreflectedthroughF
2. ArayThroughthesecondaryprinciplefocus(F)isrefractedparalleltotheprincipleaxis
3. AraythroughtheopticalCentre(O)continuousstraightthroughwithoutbeingrefracted
Characteristicswillalwaysstaythesameinadivergingmirror
S:SmallerA:UprightL:InfrontoflensT:Virtual
Lensterminology:
Do=DistancefromobjecttoopticalCentre
DI=DistancefromimagetoopticalCentre
Ho=heightofobject
HI=heightofimage
F=Focallength;distancefromopticalCentretoprinciplefocus
Thinlensequation:1+1=1
dodif
Thinlensequationinaconverginglens:
Ex:Aconverginglenshasafocallengthof17cm.acandleislocated48cmfromthelens,wherewilltheimagebelocated?
Nonegative
properties
G:f=17cm do=48cm
R:FindDi A:1/di=1/f–1/do
S:1/di=1/17–1/481/di=1/0.038di=26cm S:Thereforetheimagewillbelocatedabout26cmfromthelens
ThinlensEquationinadiverginglens:
Ex:Adiverginglenshasafocallengthof29cm.avirtualimageofamarbleislocated13cminfrontofthelens.Whereisthe
marblelocated?
G:f=-29di=-13
R:finddo
A:1/do=1/F–1/di
S:1/do=1/-2a–1/-131/do=1/0.043do=23cm
S:Thereforemarbleislocated23cmfromthelens
Negativeproperties
Themagnificationequation:M=hi/hoorM=-di/do
FindingthemagnificationofaConverginglens:
Ex:Atoyofheight8.4cmisbalancedinfrontofaconverginglens.Aninverted,realimageofheight23cmisnoticedonthe
othersideofthelens.Whatisthemagnificationofthelens?
G:ho=8.4cmhi=-23
R:Findm
A:m=hi/ho
S:m=-23/8.4m=-27
S:Thereforelenshasamagnificationof-27
Negativeproperties
SNC2D EXAM NOTES
FindingthemagnificationofaDiverginglens:
Ex:ACoinofheight2.4cmisplacedinfrontofadiverginglens.Anupright,virtualimageofheight1.7cmisnoticedonthe
samesideofthelensasthecoin.Whatisthemagnificationofthelens?
G:ho=24cmhi=1.7cm
R:Findm
A:m=hi/ho
S:m=1.7/24m=0.71
S:Thereforethelenshasamagnificationof0.71
Nonegativeproperties
Locationtheimage:
Ex:asmalltoybuildingblockisplaced7.2cminfrontofalens.Anupright,virtualimageofmagnification3.2isnoticed
whereistheimagelocated?
G:do=7.2cmm=3.2
R:finddi
A:di=-mdo
S:di=-(3.2)(7.2)di=-23 S:Thereforetoyblockislocated23cmfromthelens
Lensesareveryusefulintechnologyandoureverydaylives,theycanbefoundin:
•
•
•
Cameras
Movieprojectors
Telescopes
Retina:convertslightsignalintoanelectricalsignalthatis
transmittedtothebrainthroughtheopticnerve Opticnerve:electricalimpulsesfromretinaaretransmitted
throughthis(backoftheeye) Cornea:transparentbulgeonthetopofthepupilthat
focuseslight.Lightisrefractedmorethroughthecorneathan
throughthelens
Lens:causeslighttoconverge Iris:colouredpartoftheeye.Itopensandclosesarounda
holewhichletsinmore/lesslight.
Hyperopia:theinabilityoftheeyetofocuslightfromnearobjects;far-sightedness
Myopia:theinabilityoftheeyetofocuslightfromdistantobjects;near-sightedness.
Presbyopia:aformoffar-sightednesscausedbyalossofaccommodationasapersonages
Accommodation:thechangesofshapeoftheeyelensbyeyemuscletoallowasharplyfocusedimagetoformontheretina
Positivemeniscus:amodifiedformoftheconverginglensshape
Negativemeniscus:amodifiedformofthediverginglensshape
Unit3-Biology
CellTheory:
alllivingthingsaremadeupofoneormorecells
cellsarethebasicunitoflife
allcellscomefrompre-existingcells
Prokaryote:acellthatdoesnotcontainanucleusorothermembrane-boundorganelles.Thesimplestsingle-celled
organisms.
•
•
•
SNC2D EXAM NOTES
Eukaryote:acellthatcontainsanucleusandotherorganelles,eachsurroundedbyathingmembrane.Thebasisof
multicellularorganisms.
Organelle:acellstructurethatpreformsaspecificfunctionforthecell
AnimalCell:havesmallvacuoles,aflexibleshape,acellmembrane,cytoplasm,nucleus,mitochondria,endoplasmic
reticulumandGolgibodies.
PlantCells:containallorganellesthattheanimalcellscontain,withtheadditionofacellwall,onelargevacuole,
chloroplastandastrongrigidstructure.
Location
ComponentsofanAnimalCell
CellMembrane
•
Flexibledoublelayered
•
Supportsthecell,allowsonlycertain
substancetopassthroughwhile
keepingothersout(semi-permeable)
Location
Cytoplasm
•
Suspendsalltheorganelles
•
Mostlywaterbutalsostoresotherstuff
untilitisneeded
•
Canchangefromjelly-liketoliquid,
allowingoriginalstomovearound
Nucleus
•
Thebrainofthecell
•
Itholdsgeneticinformation[intheform
ofdeoxyribonucleicacid(DNA),packed
aschromosomes],thatcontrolsallcell
activities
Mitochondria
•
Carriesoutcellularrespiration(glucose
+oxygen=carbondioxide+water+
energy)thatconvertsstoredenergyto
usableenergy
•
Themoreactivethecellthemore
mitochondria(i.e.musclecells).
EndoplasmicReticulum
•
Athree-dimensionalnetworkof
branchingtubesandpocketsthat
transportsmaterialsthroughoutthe
cell.
GolgiBodies
•
Collectsandprocessmaterialstobe
removedfromthecell.
•
Makesandsecretesmucus
Vacuoles
•
Singlelaterofmembraneenclosingfluid
inasac
•
Theystorethingsinthecelluntilthey
areneededorremoved.
AdditionalComponentsofaPlantCell
CellWall
•
Toughcoatingfoundoutsidethecell
membranein–plantcells.
•
Protectsthecellandprovidessupport
forit
Vacuole
•
Onevacuolethatmainlyholdswater
andisusedtokeepthecellfrimand
rigidusingturgorpressuretopush
againstthecellwall
Chloroplasts
•
Takeslightenergyfromthesunto
preformphotosynthesiswhichmakes
sugarforthemitochondria
Celldivision:occursinorderfororganismstoreproduce,
grow,andrepairdamage
Reproduction:occursthroughcelldivision
AsexualReproduction:theprocessofproducingoffspring
fromonlyoneparent;theproductionofoffspringthatare
geneticallyidenticaltotheparent
SexualReproduction:theprocessofproducingoffspringby
thefusionoftwogametes(halfcells);theproductionof
offspringthathavegeneticinformationfromeachparent.
Growth:Asorganismgrowthatnumberofcellsincrease.
Thishappensinsteadofthecellsgrowingbecausewhena
cellgetstoolargeincannotperformdiffusionandosmosis
(themovementofmaterials)asfast. Diffusion:atransportmechanismformovingchemicalsinto
andoutthecell,fromanareaofhigherconcentrationtoan
areaoflowerconcentration
Osmosis:themovementofafluid,usuallywater,acrossa
selectivelypermeablemembranetowardanareaofhigh
soluteconcentration.
TheCellCycle:threestages(interphase,mitosisandcytokinesis)throughwhichacellpassesasitgrowsanddivides
1. Interphase:thefirstphaseofthecellcyclewherethecellpreformsitsnormalfunctionsandgeneticmaterialis
copiedinpreparationforcelldivision
2. Mitosis:thesecondphaseofthecellcyclewhereDNAinthenucleusisdividedandconsistsoffourphase
SNC2D EXAM NOTES
Name
Prophase
Definition
-firststageofmitosiswherethechromosomesbecomevisible
-eachchromosomeconsistoftwoidenticalstrandscalledsisterchromatids.
-eachchromatidisheldtogetherbyacentromere
-thenuclearmembranealsodissolves
Whatitlookslike
Metaphase
-thesecondstageofmitosiswherethechromosomeslineupinthemiddleofthecell
Anaphase
-thethirdstageofmitosiswherethecentromeresplitsandsisterchromatidssplitinto
daughterchromosomes
-eachdaughterchromosomemovestowardsoppositeendsofthecell(pulledapartby
spindlefibers)
Telophase
-thefinalstageofmitosiswherethechromosomesattheendsofthecellformtheirown
nuclei
3.Cytokinesis:thelaststageinthecellcyclewherethecytoplasmdividestofromtwoidenticalcells.Calleda
daughtercell(oneofthetwogeneticallyidenticalnewcellsthatresultfromthedivisionofoneparentcell).
• inplantcellsthisdivisionoccurswhenaplatedevelopsintoanewcellwall,sealingeitherside
• inanimalcellsthisdivisionoccurswhenthecellmembraneispinchedoffatthecenter
• oncethisiscomplete,theinterphasecyclebeginsagain
Cancer:
•
•
•
•
abroadgroupofdiseasesthatresultinuncontrolledcelldivision
caneitherbepartiallyhereditary,triggeredbysomethingoramutation
lungcanceristhemostprominenttypesofcanceranditisoftenassociatedwithsmoking
certainlifestylechoicessuchas,quittingsmokingcanhelppreventcancer
Mutation:achangeintheDNAthatcanleadtocancerifthecelldoesnotdieandthecheckpointinthecellcyclefails
Carcinogen:anyenvironmentalfactorthatcausecancer
BeginTumor:atumorthatdoesnotaffectsurroundingtissuesootherthanbyphysicallycrowdingthem
MalignantTumor:atumorthatinterfereswithfunctioningofsurroundingcells;acanceroustumor
Metastasis:theprocessofcancercellsbreakingawayfromtheoriginal(primary)tumorandestablishinganother
(secondary)tumorelsewhereinthebody
TreatmentsforCancer:
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Surgery-physicallyremovingthecanceroustissue(mustbeeasilyaccessible,welldefined).
Chemotherapy-aimstoshrinkthetumorusingdrugs.
Radiationtherapy-usesradiationtodamagedaughtercells
Specializedcells:aspecificcellthatcarriesoutacertainfunction.(groupsofspecializedcellsarecalledtissues)
SNC2D EXAM NOTES
TheHierarchyStructureinAnimals:anorganized
structuralhierarchwherethemorecomplexthingsare
listedatthetopandthesimplerthingsarebelowit.
Theleveloforganizationstartswithcellularlevelthem
movesuptotissuelevel,thenorganlevel,thenorgan
systemlevel,thentheorganismlevel.
Organsystem:asystemofoneormoreorgansand
structuresthatworktogethertoperformamajorvital
bodyfunction(ex:digestionorreproduction)
Organs:arehighlyspecializedandworkincoordinancewithoneanothertoformanorgansystem.
Someorgansareinvolvedinmorethanoneorgan
system.
Tissue:acollectionofsimilarcellsthatpreforma
particular,butlimited,function.Animalshavefour
majortypesoftissueeachcontainingmanytypesof
specializedcells.
CellularDifferentiation:theprocessbywhichacellbecomesspecializedtoperformaspecificfunction
StemCell:anundifferentiatedcellthatcandividetoformspecializedcells.ThistypeofcellisbasedonwhattheDNAinthe
daughterexpresses.Stemcellscanbeusedforvariousmedicalreasonsandcanhelprepairorreplacetissuesorbodyparts.
Therearetwotypesofstemcells:
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Embryonic-candifferentiateintoanykindofcell
Adultstemcells(tissuestemcells)-whichareonlyabletodifferentiateintocertaintypesofcells.
TheDigestiveSystem:thepurposeofthedigestivesystemistotakein,breakup,digestfoodandthenexcretethewaste.
Thewholedigestivetrackislinedinepithelialtissue. Mouth:beginningoftheprocess,breakingdownthefoodmechanically,withtheteeth,tongueandsaliva.Foodmixes,
chemicallywithenzymes(foundinsaliva)thatbreakapartthemoleculesofthefood. TheEsophagus:smoothmuscletissuecontractsandrelaxespushingthefood(bolus)alongintothestomach. TheStomach:thefood(bolus)entersthroughthesphincter.Thestomachholdsthefoodandchurnsitwithacid(whichis
produces)continuingtobreakdownthefood.Smoothmuscletissuecontractstomixthecontents(chyme)inthestomach.
Nerveslinedinthestomachwillsignalwhenwehavehadenoughtoeat.
TheSmallIntestine(6mLong):iscoveredwithvilliwhichabsorbnutrients,musclescontractandfoodispushedforward.
TheLargeIntestine(1.5mLong):removeswaterandsomesalts,minerals,andvitaminsfromtheindigestiblefoodasitis
pushedforwardbysoftmuscletotheanus.
Anus:excreteswasteasfeces. AccessoryOrgans:
Pancreas:releasespancreaticjuiceintosmallintestinethataidsinchemicaldigestionbyneutralizingchyme.Also,
producesinsulinthatregulatesbloodsugar. Liver:producesandsecretesbileintothegullbladderwhichhelpsbreakdownfats(detoxifies).
GallBladder:storesbile
SNC2D EXAM NOTES
TheCirculatorySystem:consistsoftheheart,thebloodandthebloodvessels.Theseorgansworktogethertodeliver
oxygenandnutrientstotherestofthebody,carrywasteaway,regulatebodytemperatureandtransportwhitebloodcells
toinfectedareas.
Heart:madeupofcardiacmuscletissue,nervetissueand
connectivetissue.Thecardiacmuscletissueintheheart
contractsatthesametimecausingthehearttopumpblood
aroundthebody.Also,coveredbyepithelialtissueallowing
bloodtomovesmoothlyandreducingfrictionwhenthelungs
expandandcontract.Thehearthas4chambers(atria)which
receivebloodandpumpitintotheother,larger,chambers
calledtheventricles.Therightventriclethenpumpsbloodto
thelungsandtheleftpumpsintotherestofthebody.
Blood:atypeofconnectivetissuethatcirculatesthroughoutthebody.Consistof4components:
1. Redbloodcells:makeupalmosthalfoftheblood’svolume.Containshemoglobinallowingthemto
transportoxygenthroughoutthebody.Alsomakesthemred.
2. WhiteBloodCells:lessthan1%ofthevolume.Hasanucleus.Infection-fightingcellsthatrecognizeand
destroybacteria/viruses.
3. Platelets:tinycellsthathelpwithbloodclottingcompriseoflessten1%pftheblood.
4. Plasma:proteinrichliquidthatcarriesthebloodcellsalongmakesupoverhalfofthebloodvolume.
BloodVessels:anetworkoftubesthroughoutthebodytotransportbloodconsistingofthreetypes.
1. Arteries:carrybloodawayfromtheheart.Havethickwallsbecauseitisundermorepressure.
2. Capillaries:thethinnestofbloodvesselsthatenabletheexchangeofgases,nutrientsandwastesbetweentheblood
andthebodytissues.
3. Veins:athinwalledbloodvesselthatisn’tunderasmuchpressureasthearteries.Carriesbloodtotheheart.
TheRespiratorySystem:madeupofthenose,mouth,trachea,bronchi,andlungs;Providesoxygenforthebodyand
allowscarbondioxidetoleave.
Respiration:
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•
•
•
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Airfirstentersthenose/mouththentravelstothepharynx(throat).Fromtheretheairmovesdownthetrachea
(windpipe)andintothebronchi(twoseparatebronchus).
Thetracheaandbronchiarelinedwithsomeepithelialcells.Theyhavehairlikeprojectionscalledciliathathelp
movemucusandmoveoutanyforeignmaterialthatmightenterthesystem.
Thebronchithenguidetheairthroughasystemofbronchiolesuntilitreachesthealveoli.Thealveoliaretinyare
sacksthataresurroundedbycapillaries.
Thisiswherethegasexchangetakesplace.Oxygenwilldiffuseoutofthealveoliintothebloodstreamtobe
deliveredtotherestofthebody.
Carbondioxideisdiffusedintothealveoliandisexpelledoutsidebythelungs.
Breathing:involvesdrawingairintothelungs(inhalation)andpushingairout(exhalation).Theribmusclescontractand
allowthelungstoexpandandletinoxygen.
OrganTransplantation:thescienceofreplacingsomeone’sdeadorganwithanotherperson’sworkingorgan.Thebiggest
benefitishelpingsomeoneliveahealthylife.Thebiggestriskisthattherecipient’simmunesystemwillmostlikely
recognizetheneworganasforeignmaterialandtrytodestroyit(whichforcespatienttogoonlargeamountsof
medication).Livingdonorsthatarerelativescanhelpreducetheriskofrejectionbecausetheywillhaveasimilargenetic
match,butatthesametimetheyareputtingthemselvesindangerastheynolongerhaveabackupsystemforthemselvesif
SNC2D EXAM NOTES
theirlastorganfails. Xenotransplantation:theprocessiftransplantinganorganortissuefromonespeciestoanother.
InteractionsofSystems:allorgansystemsaredependentononeanotherinsomesortofway.Theyallworktogetherto
accomplishonegoal(keepingthebodyaliveandrunning).Forexample:inordertomoveoxygenaroundthebodyit
requiresboththecirculatorysystemandtherespiratorysystem.
Unit4-ClimateChange
Weather:atmosphereconditionsincludingtemperature,precipitation,wind,andhumidity,inaparticularlocationovera
shortperiodoftime,suchasadayorweek
Meteorologists:scientistswhostudyweather Climate:theaverageoftheweatherinaregionoveralongperiodoftime,usually30years.Theclimateofaregion
determinesthetypesofplantsandanimalsthatlivethere
Climatezones:regionsdefinedbytheirtemperature,precipitationandplantcommunities.(Ex:tropical,moderate,polar,
dry,continental)
Ecoregions:newclimatezonesthatfocusontheecology(landforms,soil,plants)oftheregion Bioclimateprofile:agraphicalrepresentationofcurrentandfutureclimatedatafromaspecificlocation.
Factorsaffectingclimate:
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Equatorlatitude
Oceanandaircurrents
Landformations
Theheightabovesealevel(altitude)
Largebodiesofwater
Ultravioletradiation:aformofinvisiblehigher–energyradiation
Infraredradiation:aformofinvisiblelower-energyradiation
ClimateSystem:acomplexandinteractivesystemdefined
by4parts
4componentsoftheearth’sclimatesystem
1. Atmosphere:includesallgasessurroundingearth
2. Hydrosphere:includesallwaterfoundonearth
3. Lithosphere:includesallrocksandlandsurfaces
onearth
4. Biosphere:alllivingthingsfoundonearth
Greenhouseeffect:anaturalprocesswheregasesand
cloudsabsorbinfraredradiationemittedfromtheearth’s
atmosphereandearth’ssurface.(sothatwecanliveon
earth) Greenhousegas:anygasintheatmosphere(suchaswater
vapor,carbondioxideandmethane)thatabsorbslower
energyinfraredradiation
Iceage:atimeinearth’shistorywhenearthiscolderandcoveredwithice
Platetectonics:thetheoryexplainingtheslowmovementofthelargeplatesofearth’scrust
Continentaldrift:thetheorythatearth’scontinentsusedtobeonesupercontinentnamedPangea
ElNino:areoccurringchangeinthepacificwinds/oceancurrentthatbringswarm/moistairtowestcoastofSouthAmerica
CarbonSinks:removecarbondioxidefromtheatmosphereandstorethecarbon,atomsinadifferentform
SNC2D EXAM NOTES
GoodluckStudying!
Herearesomepracticequestions:
ChemistryReview
Pg.302#1–27,33–37,40–45,47–51,53–57
Optics/PhysicsReview
Pg.590#1–34,36,39–42,45–47,49,51–53,55–63,68
BiologyReview
Pg.158#1,2,4,5,7,10–14,17–21,25,27,28,30–37,42–45,47,50,51,55,58,,62,65–67
ClimateChangeReview
Pg.446#1–3,5,6,8,9,11,15,18,-23,37,41,44,47,48,60,61
Createdby:KatrinaBeamish&JosephCapone