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THE JOURNAL OF HISTORICAL RESEARCH
VOLUME-II NUMBER-II
FOUNDATION OF SOCIAL SCIENCE RESEARCHER
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EDITORIAL
The Journal of Historical Research aspires to achieve to the world of researcher for explore
their talents and leasing them expose their acumen to exhibit their research pursuit. It would
stress on creativity and innovation as the specialty, to forge ahead with the new ideas in the
emerging new world.
Today we traversed across countries, across cultures and made the world borderless,
collapsing the barriers between countries. In the click of a mouse we have the potential to
access the platforms, from one pole to the other. This gospel idea encourages us to publish a
journal. The traditional idea of hard copy publication of journals, in the years to come shall
be replaced by online publication which shall allow the researchers to easily relate to each
other ideas. I especially welcome to all viewers to be a part of our journey and make the
journal enrich forever.
DR. MIZANUR RAHMAN 64
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CONTENT
SL.NO.
PAPER & AUTHOR
1.
NATIONAL INTEGRATION THROUGH LITERATURE AND THE DETERMINATION
TO JUSTICE
MR.GOBINDA DAS
2.
CONTRIBUTION OF MUHAMMAD GHAZNI AND MUHAMMAD GHOR IN
MODERN INDIA
MRS.RAMA BISWAS
3.
4.
5.
6
PAGE
NO.
01-08
09-17
IMPACT OF ARAB INVASION ON CULTURAL EXPANSION OF INDIA
DR.KULDEB SINGH
18-25
CULTURAL DEVELOPMENT IN THE PERIOD OF JAINISM
26-33
MR.GAUTAM KHASTOGIR
THE GREEK INFLUENCE ON INDIAN ART, COINAGE, PHILOSOPHY, LANGUAGE
AND SCRIPT, DRAMA, ASTRONOMY, MATHEMATICS AND MEDICINE-SPECIAL
FOCUSED ON ALEXANDER
DR.MUZZAFFAR HOSSAIN
34-41
THE METHODS OF COMMUNICATING THE NARRATIVE THROUGH A PROCESS
OF UDERSTANDING
42-52
DR.RAJIB HALDIRAM
7
THE DESIRED RESULT OF ATTITUDE TOWARD THE SUBJECT IN THE TARGET
AUDIENCE OF PROPAGANDA
53-62
MD.NASIM AKTAR DENISH
8
THE GROWTH OF DEMOCRACY, THE GROWTH OF CORPORATE POWER, AND
THE GROWTH OF CORPORATE POWER AGAINST DEMOCRACY
DR.JAGPAT SINGH ARORA
9
SOCIAL
HISTORY
WAS
CONTRASTED
WITH POLITICAL
HISTORY, INTELLECTUAL HISTORY AND THE HISTORY OF GREAT MEN
MR.LILA BASANT
HISTORY IS A TOOL THAT CONTRIBUTES TO THE SHAPING OF NATIONAL
IDENTITY, CULTURES, AND MEMORIES
10
MRS.SUJATA GHOSH
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72-83
84-95
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THE GROWTH OF DEMOCRACY, THE GROWTH OF CORPORATE POWER, AND THE GROWTH OF
CORPORATE POWER AGAINST DEMOCRACY
DR.JAGPAT SINGH ARORA
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR
UNIVERSITY OF DELHI
ABSTRACT
The field of social Psychology includes the study of persuasion. Social psychologists can be sociologists or psychologists. The field includes many theories and approaches to understanding persuasion. For example, communication theory points out that people can be persuaded by the communicator's credibility, expertise, trustworthiness, and attractiveness. The elaboration likelihood model as well as heuristic models of persuasion suggests that a number of factors (e.g., the degree of interest of the recipient of the communication), influence the degree to which people allow superficial factors to persuade them. Nobel Prize winning psychologist Herbert A. Simon won the Nobel Prize for his theory that people are cognitive misers. That is, in a society of mass information people are forced to make decisions quickly and often superficially, as opposed to logically. 66
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INTRODUCTION
Social cognitive theories suggest that people have inherent biases in the way they perceive
the world and these biases can be used to manipulate them. For example, people tend to
believe that people's misfortune (e.g., poverty) is a result of the person and downplay external
factors (e.g., being born into poverty). This bias is referred to as the Fundamental Attribution
Error. Self Fulfilling prophecies occur when people believe what they have been told they
are. Propaganda frequently plays upon people's existing biases to achieve its end. For
example, the illusion of control, refers to people's seemingly innate desire to believe they can
and should control their lives. Propagandists frequently argue their point by claiming that the
other side is attempting to take away your control. For example, Republicans frequently
claim that Democrats are attempting to control you by imposing big government on your
private life and take away your spending power by imposing higher taxes while Democrats
frequently argue that they are reigning in big corporations that are attempting to influence
elections with money, power and take away your job, health... According to bipartisan
analysis, these claims are frequently untrue.
Role theory is frequently used to identify an idea as appropriate because it is associated with
a role. For example, the public relations firm Leo Burnett Worldwide used the Marlboro
Man to persuade males that Marlboro cigarettes were a part of being a cool, risk-taking,
cowboy rebel who was fearless in the face of threats of cancer. The campaign quadrupled
sales of their cigarettes. Of course, smoking has nothing to do with being a cowboy or a rebel.
This is a fantasy but the campaign's success is consistent with the tenets of role theory. In
fact, the three actors who played the Marlboro man died of lung cancer.
he propaganda model is a theory advanced by Edward S. Herman and Noam Chomsky that
argues systemic biases in the mass media and seeks to explain them in terms of
structural economic causes. The 20th century has been characterized by three developments
of great political importance: the growth of democracy, the growth of corporate power, and
the growth of corporate propaganda as a means of protecting corporate power against
democracy.
First presented in their 1988 book Manufacturing Consent: the Political Economy of the Mass
Media, the propaganda model views the private media as businesses selling a product —
readers and audiences (rather than news) — to other businesses (advertisers) and relying
primarily on government and corporate information and propaganda. The theory postulates
five general classes of "filters" that determine the type of news that is presented in news
media: Ownership of the medium, the medium's Funding, Sourcing of the news, Flak,
and Anti-communist ideology.
The first three (ownership, funding, and sourcing) are generally regarded by the authors as
being the most important. Although the model was based mainly on the characterization
of United States media, Chomsky and Herman believe the theory is equally applicable to any
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country that shares the basic economic structure and organizing principles
the model postulates as the cause of media biases. After the Soviet Union disintegrated,
Chomsky said terrorism and Islam would be the new filter replacing communism.
To appropriately discuss propaganda, Ross argues that one must consider a threefold
communication model: that of Sender-Message-Receiver. "That is... propaganda involve[s]...
the one who is persuading (Sender) [who is] doing so intentionally, [the] target for such
persuasion (Receiver) and [the] means of reaching that target (Message)." There are four
conditions for a message to be considered propaganda. Propaganda involves the intention to
persuade. As well, propaganda is sent on behalf of a sociopolitical institution, organization,
or cause. Next, the recipient of propaganda is a socially significant group of people. Finally,
propaganda is an epistemic struggle to challenge others' thoughts.
Ross claims that it is misleading to say that propaganda is simply false, or that it is
conditional to a lie, since often the propagandist believes in what he/she is propagandizing. In
other words, it is not necessarily a lie if the person who creates the propaganda is trying to
persuade you of a view that they actually hold. "The aim of the propagandist is to create the
semblance of credibility." This means that they appeal to an epistemology that is weak or
defective.
False statements, bad arguments, immoral commands as well as inapt metaphors (and other
literary tropes) are the sorts of things that are epistemic ally defective... Not only does
epistemic defectiveness more accurately describe how propaganda endeavors to function...
since many messages are in forms such as commands that do not admit to truth-values, [but
it] also accounts for the role context plays in the workings of propaganda.
Throughout history those who have wished to persuade have used art to get their message
out. This can be accomplished by hiring artists for the express aim of propagandizing or by
investing new meanings to a previously non-political work. Therefore, Ross states, it is
important to consider "the conditions of its making [and] the conditions of its use."
FIRST WORLD WAR
The first explosion of government propaganda was occasioned by the outbreak of war
in 1914. In particular, the British and German governments dramatically increased their
output of propaganda aimed at persuading their citizens of the justness of their cause and the
inevitability of their victory.
The Germans had semi-official propaganda machinery at the beginning of the war. The
journalist Matthias Hershberger established the Zentralstelle fur Auslandsdienst (Central
Office for Foreign Services), which distributed propaganda to neutral nations (especially after
the invasion of Belgium). Although Germany's undersea cables were immediately cut by
Britain on the onset of war, they relied upon their wireless Nauen Transmitter Station to
broadcast pro-German news reports to the world. Among other techniques, mobile cinemas
were sent to the front line to entertain the troops. The newsreels would portray events with a
pro-German slant. German posters played heavily on martial themes related to
Germanic mythology.
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British propaganda during World War I - called “an impressive exercise in improvisation” was hastily expanded at the beginning of the war. Under the guidance of Charles Master
man it was set up in Wellington House. Soon, the British effort, eventually vested in an office
called M17, far surpassed the German in quality and ability to sway the public mood.
British propaganda excelled at using the right words to covey precise and authoritative
meaning. An example of this is the simple poster which depicts two children asking their
squirming father, “Daddy, what did you do in the Great War?”
The impressive effect of this propaganda deluge can be gauged by the tremendous positive
reaction to Lord Horatio Kitchener's appeal for recruitment. Army centers were overrun with
volunteers and a tremendous patriotic upsurge was felt throughout the country. This
momentum was sustained, despite the rapidly mounting casualties, by a constant flow of
propaganda.
British propaganda focused on two main points. It appealed to the sense of national honor and
prestige, but increasingly it began to focus on whipping up popular hatred for the 'diabolical
Hun'. The enemy was constantly and effectively demonized, both at home and abroad in the
neutral United States, with lurid stories of the rape of Belgian nuns and the bayoneting of
children as documented in the Bryce report. Much was also made of the execution of Edith
Cavell a British nurse who had helped prisoners of war to escape. The claim was even
circulated that the Germans had built factories that converted corpses into fat products for the
industrial production of items such as nitroglycerin.
Before the United States declared war in 1917, it established a propaganda department along
similar lines. President Woodrow Wilson hired Walter Lippmann and Edward Bernays to
participate in the Creel Commission, which was to sway popular opinion in favor of entering
the war on the side of the United Kingdom. The Creel Committee provided themes for
speeches by "four-minute men" at public functions, and also encouraged censorship of the
American press. Starting after World War I, propaganda had a growing negative connotation.
This was due in part to the 1920 book "How We Advertised America: the First Telling of the
Amazing Story of the Committee on Public Information that Carried the Gospel of
Americanism to Every Corner of the Globe" in which the impact of the Creel Committee, and
the power of propaganda, was overemphasized. The Committee was so unpopular that after
the war, Congress closed it down without providing funding to organize and archive its
papers.
Northern propaganda in the American Civil War, former slave showing keloidscars from
whipping. This famous photo was distributed by abolitionists.
The war propaganda campaign of the Creel Committee "produced within six months such an
intense anti-German hysteria as to permanently impress American business (and Adolf Hitler,
among others) with the potential of large-scale propaganda to control public opinion."
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Bernays, a nephew of Freud, who wrote the book Propaganda early in the 20th century, later
coined the terms "group mind" and "engineering consent", important concepts in practical
propaganda work. He wrote:
The conscious and intelligent manipulation of the organized habits and opinions of the
masses is an important element in democratic society. Those who manipulate this unseen
mechanism of society constitute an invisible government which is the true ruling power of
our
country.
We are governed, our minds are molded, our tastes formed, our ideas suggested, largely by
men we have never heard of. This is a logical result of the way in which our democratic
society is organized. Vast numbers of human beings must cooperate in this manner if they are
to live together as a smoothly functioning society.
The file Century of the Self by Adam Curtis documents the immense influence of these ideas
on public relations and politics throughout the last century.
Lippmann, in Public Opinion (1922) also worked on the subject, as well as the American
advertising pioneer and founder of the field of public relations Edward Bernays, a nephew of
Freud, who wrote the book Propaganda early in the 20th century.
According to Alex Carey, one distinctive feature of the twentieth century was "the
professionalizing and institutionalizing of propaganda", as it became an increasingly
prominent, sophisticated, and self-conscious tactic of both government and business.
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