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The Global Journal of Literary Studies | Volume 1, Issue 1 I May 2015
ISSN : 2395 - 4817
The Global Journal of Literary Studies
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May 2015
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Vol. 1, Issue 1
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ISSN : 2395 4817
EXECUTIVE BOARD OF EDITORS
Dr. Mitul Trivedi
President
The Global Association of English Studies
Prof. Piyush Joshi
H M Patel Institute of English Training and Research, Gujarat,
INDIA.
Dr. Paula Greathouse
Tennessee Technological
Univesity, Tennessee, UNITED
STATES OF AMERICA
Prof. Shefali Bakshi
Amity University, Lucknow
Campus,
Uttar Pradesh, INDIA
Prof. Karen Andresa
Santorum
University de Santa Cruz do Sul
Rio Grande do Sul, BRAZIL
Dr M Saravanapava Iyer
University of Jaffna
Jaffna, SRI LANKA
Prof. Sulabha Natraj
Professor and Head, Waymade
College of Education,
Gujarat, INDIA
Dr. Julie Ciancio
California State University,
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
Dr. Rajendrasinh Jadeja
Former Director,
H M Patel Institute of English
Training and Research
Gujarat, INDIA
Prof. Ivana Grabar
University North,
Varaždin, CROATIA
Dr. Momtazur Rahman
International University of
Business Agriculture and
Technology, Dhaka,
BANGLADESH
Dr. Ipshita Hajra Sasmal
University of Hyderabad
Hyderabad, INDIA.
Dr. Bahram Moghaddas
Khazar Institute of Higher
Education,
Mazandaran, IRAN.
Prof. Amrendra K. Sharma
Dhofar University
Salalah,
SULTANATE OF OMAN
Prof. Ashok Sachdeva
Devi Ahilya University
Indore, INDIA
Prof. Buroshiva Dasgupta
West Bengal University of Technology, West
Bengal, INDIA
Prof. Syed Md Golam Faruk
King Khalid University
Assir, SAUDI ARABIA
The Global Journal of Literary Studies | Volume 1, Issue 1 I May 2015
ISSN : 2395 - 4817
The Global Journal of Literary Studies
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May 2015
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Vol. 1, Issue 1
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ISSN : 2395 4817
Contents...
Negotiating with Diaspora: Some Female Characters in Jhumpa Lahiri’s Unaccustomed Earth
01
Mafruha Ferdous, Assistant Professor, Department of English, Northern University, BANGLADESH.
Musarrat Shameem, Assistant Professor, Department of English, Jagannath University, Dhaka, BANGLADESH.
02
03
Conflation of History and Fiction: Re-visiting Salman Rushdie’s Midnight’s Children
Dr. Anita Sharma, Associate Professor, H.O.D, Govt. college Theog, Shimla (H.P),INDIA.
Travel Literature in Indian Writings: A Comparative Survey
Prof. Ashok Sachdeva, Professor, Devi Ahilya University, Indore, Madhya Pradesh, INDIA.
Spirituality in the Poetry of Rabindranath Tagore and Makarand Dave : A Comparative Study
04
Dr. Dushyant Nimavat, Sardar Patel University, Vallabh Vidyanagar, Anand, Gujarat, INDIA.
Radhika D. Pandya, Research Scholar, C. U. Shah University, Surendranagar, Gujarat, INDIA.
05
Angst in Mahesh Dattani’s Play Where Did I Leave My Purdah?
Dr. Manish Sharma (Pandey), Professor of English, MJB Government Girls PG College, Indore, Madhya Pradesh, INDIA.
Nature as the Greatest Gash-Healer : A Close Study of the Short Stories of Ruskin Bond
06
Yatharth N.Vaidya, Lecturer in English, Government Polytechnic,
Rajkot, Gujarat, INDIA.
Dr R. J. Raval, Lecturer in English, Government Polytechnic College, Rajkot, Gujarat,INDIA.
Towards Hope and Fulfillment : A Comparative Study of T S Eliot’s The Waste Land and Niranjan Bhagat’s The
07
Coral Island
Vaseem G Qureshi, Assistant Professor, Vishwakarma Government Engineering College, Chandkheda,
Ahmedabad. Gujarat, INDIA.
08
09
University Library, Tirupati
A Poem by Dr. K.V.Raghupath, Department of English Studies, Central University of Tamil Nadu, Thiruvarur, INDIA.
Struggle for Dalit Women Recognition: A Critical Study of Bama’s Karukku
Paramita Bhaduli, Research Scholar, Department of English, University of Calcutta, Kolkata, INDIA.
Shifting Personalities in the Fiction of Women of the Indian Diaspora
10
Prof. Sujal Pathak, Assistant professor, A.A. Patel Commerce College, Kadi sarva vishwavidyalaya, Gandhinagar,
Gujarat, INDIA.
Dr. Vikas Raval, Assistant Professor, Gujarat Power Engineering and Research Institute, Mehsana, Gujarat, INDIA.
Expatriate Sensibility in Queen of Dreams by Chitra Banerjee Divakaruni
11
Pushpa D. Dixit, Assistant Professor, Swami Sahajanand College of Commerce & Management, M.K.Bhavnagar
University, Bhavnagar, Gujarat, INDIA.
Fantasy Fiction in Indian English – A rewritten genre
12
Ms. Prerna Somani, English Language and Literature, Institute of Language Studies and Applied Social Sciences, Vallabh
Vidynagar. Anand, Gujarat, INDIA.
13
14
The Portrayal of Social Aspects in the Novel and Movie Parineeta : A Comparative Study
Ms Vinayba Jadeja, Assistant Professor, ILT B.Ed. College, Jamnagar. Gujarat,INDIA.
‘Disgrace’: A Study of Pluralistic, Fractured Identities
Dr Deepa Vanjani, Head, Department of Languages, PMB Gujarati Science College, Indore, Madhya Pradesh, INDIA.
R. K. Narayan's Approach to the Emancipation of Women in India : A Comprehensive Study of Narayan's Novels
15
Sayantina Dutta, Research Scholar, Department of English Language and Literature, The University of Calcutta, West
Bengal, INDIA.
16
Cross- Culture Synthesis in Manju Kapur's The Immigrant
Nilam Hasmukh Gajjar, Senior Research Fellow, Carolx Teachers' University, Ahmedabad. Gujarat, INDIA.
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Feminine Identity in the Short Stories of Alice Munro and Shashi Deshpande
Mr. Tushar Jadhav, Research Scholar, School of Language, Devi Ahilya University, Indore, Madhya Pradesh, INDIA.
The Dilemma of Living in Between: A Study of Jhumpa Lahiri’s The Namesake
18
Mr. Shabir A. Parmar, Assistant Professor, Department of English, V.P.& R.P.T.P. Science College, Vallabh
Vidyanagar, Gujarat, INDIA.
A Comic Hero in the Comedies of Shakespeare and Bhasa: A Comparative Study
19
Dr R.J.Raval, Lecturer in Englis, Government Polytechnic College, Rajkot, Gujarat,INDIA.
Ms Mansi M. Agravat, Research Scholar, Rai University, Gujarat, INDIA.
I was born in April
20
21
A Poem by Chirag Dhandhukiya, Assistant Professor in English, C N Arts & B D Commerce College, Kadi, Gujarat, INDIA.
The Pre-Colonial and Colonial Legacy of Modern Indian Theatre
Mr. Haresh Kakde, Research Scholar, Central University of Gujarat, Gandhinagar, Gujarat, INDIA
.
The Global Journal of Literary Studies | Volume 1, Issue 1 I May 2015
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Negotiating with Diaspora:
Some Female Characters in Jhumpa Lahiri’s Unaccustomed Earth
Mafruha Ferdous
Assistant Professor
Department of English
Northern University
BANGLADESH.
Musarrat Shameem
Assistant Professor
Department of English
Jagannath University
Dhaka, BANGLADESH.
Abstract
Now- a- days diaspora becomes a highlighted issue when people become parts of the global world. This article
seeks to analyze selected short stories of the latest short story collection Unaccustomed Earth by the Pulitzer
Prize-winning author Jhumpa Lahiri. In Unaccustomed Earth, Lahiri explores the theme of diaspora with her
typical poetic style and immense emotional involvement. Lahiri’s stories are mostly dominated by an omnipresent
sense of loss or insecurity. Portraying the lives and struggles of second-generation diasporian women characters,
Unaccustomed Earth challenges their ability to negotiate with new environment. They encounter a paradoxical
nature, the situation in which they have to adapt to the new environment but on the other side they still maintain
their old habits. By focusing on these women’s roles, this paper depicts how these female characters try to
negotiate with the new world while at the same time they maintain the Indian values .The present article discusses
the poignant dilemma faced by these women characters.
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Introduction
The present paper views diaspora as a complicated state of socio-psychological condition of some
Indian immigrant families in the United States whose cause of immigration is based on intellectual and
other sorts of development. This cause implies that the immigrant people under observation in the paper
do not simply associate the notion of diaspora with negative aspects like displacement, alienation, and
identity crisis; rather their voluntary act of migration is also related to prosperity and ambition. It is
interesting to note that whereas in most stories of Unaccustomed Earth the diasporic men are pursuing
their dream of prosperity and ambition the women who accompany them, mostly as wives, have no
personal motive in this act of migration. In fact, these women characters face the problem of adaptation
more intensely than their male counterparts do because their (the women’s) migration to the foreign land
is not self-motivated or voluntary, rather imposed. This is why we have chosen some female characters,
instead of focusing on both the sexes from the stories, as women are facing a harder challenge in
negotiating with diaspora. Again, there is a clear difference between the first and second-generation
women characters in their attitude towards the living condition in the host country. This issue deserves a
closer study in the sense that though we see the second-generation women are naturally more capable in
the process of adaptation; their conformity to traditions is also more than negligible. This ambivalence
in the second-generation woman immigrants is a part of the process of adaptation that makes them
Americanized in many ways, although retaining some basic Indian sensibilities within their
psychological sphere.
The term diaspora has been defined in numerous ways. For the exposition of the proposition of this
paper, it is crucial what Jana Evans Braziel and Anita Mannur observes in Theorizing Diaspora
“diaspora has attained new epistemological, political, and identitarian resonance as its points of
reference proliferate. The term “diaspora” has been increasingly used by anthropologists, literary
theorists, and cultural critics to describe the mass migrations and displacements of the second half of the
twentieth century, particularly in reference to independence movements in formerly colonized areas” (P.
4)
The multiple resonances of diaspora widen its scope to accommodate many areas of life. This article
views some diasporic South Asian fictional women from first and second generations to see how they
struggle more than the male characters to negotiate with diaspora. Therefore, it discusses gender as a
determinant of a person’s ability to retain native culture and his/her ability of adaptation to host culture.
The study here reveals that the women of the texts under discussion show a combination of tradition and
acculturation whereas the men show fewer adherences to native culture.
The growing interest of theorists and cultural critics in diasporic population points out the necessity of
exploring the psychological changes experienced by the people bearing transnational identity. For
women this experience is more challenging because they have to accommodate changes not only in the
world outside but also inside their homes. It is also commonly believed that women reckon to tradition
and culture more vehemently than men do. In Jhumpa Lahiri’s Unaccustomed Earth, we see that women
are trying to retain their cultural identity in the form of traditional dress and food whereas the diasporic
men are more aligned with the host culture. It is true in the case of Ruma’s parents in the title story.
In the selected stories of Unaccustomed Earth Jhumpa Lahiri describes intellectual immigration after the
year 1965.Lahiri herself is a second generation diasporian woman. She closely notices how this special
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community gives their effort to adjust with the new environment. In her short stories, the main
characters are Indians who come from wealthy families, and are driven by educational and economic
opportunities offered by America. They usually strive to obtain a doctoral degree, and seek jobs as
scientists, academics, lawyers, and doctors. Mostly they realize their goals, have successful careers,
economic stability, and achieve happiness. However, this happiness is questionable since most of them
psychologically feel torn apart between the native and the host culture. The conflict between the first
and second- generation migrants is another source of consistent pain that leaves both the parties
bewildered. This often results in making whimsical decisions by either the parents or the children that
leads to more trouble and suffering. This article attempts to show that all these odds are necessary
components of growing up as people having dual identities, whose experiences are vastly different from
their compatriots back at home and the surrounding people of the host country.
Lahiri draws a gender distinction depicting dreams and attitudes to life in America among first and
second-generation immigrants. The first generation women try to uphold their national identity more
closely. The second-generation female characters, on the other hand, drift away from many customs and
notions of their homeland and are more prone to accept the American culture. Yet they cannot be
completely American, whereas their male counterparts can more easily acknowledge the new culture.
This paper will show how much the female characters are successful in negotiating with diaspora. In his
introduction to The Location of Culture Homi K. Bhabha (1994) refers to the 'middle passage' of the
new internationalism as a process of displacement and disjunction that does not totalize experience
(p.8). From the sense of displacement a number of other feelings like insecurity, awkwardness,
confusion etc. might arise in the mind of the diasporan subject to make him/her act in queer ways. The
key point of this article is to study how the female characters' struggle to create meaningful existence in
diaspora is partially a movement forward and in another sense a kind of stepping back. Here by
“forward movement” we mean the changes the characters adopt in their process of westernization as
opposed to the practices of their parents. The other phrase “stepping back” means the characters’
adherence to some traits that resemble values that their parents, the first generation immigrants, upheld.
Points related to character traits and identity in diaspora is never without the risk of oversimplification.
With the changing discourse about identity formation in a postcolonial or diasporan realm, the relevance
of culture and ethnicity has become very important and at the same time problematic. These ideas are
particularly important for the present study as in the female characters of Lahiri’s stories we do not find
any strong and passionate attachment to their native culture. That bonding, in spite of the attempts of
their parents, seems very frail or almost nonexistent.
The characters’ nonchalance about their ethnic identity reminds us of Stuart Hall’s (2003) words about
cultural identity which, he maintains, “is a matter of “becoming” as well as of “being” (p.236). It
belongs to the future as much as to the past.” He further says It belongs to the future as much as to the
past. It is not something which already exists, transcending place, time, history, and culture. Cultural
identities come from somewhere, have histories. But, like everything which is historical, they undergo
constant transformation. Far from being eternally fixed in some essentialized past, they are subject to the
continuous “play” of history, culture, and power. (p.236)
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In today’s world, identity formation does not depend on any monolithic ideology. Rather it is a mass of
different beliefs and practices that undergo constant changes. Therefore, the total process is fluid and
changeable, always having the possibility of shaping the individual depending on his/her given situation.
In fact, the female characters we have selected for the present study are in the state of both “becoming”
and “being.” We cannot simply analyze them as persons having a remotely Indian past, as they are born
and raised in America, with some infrequent visits to their parents’ homeland. The dilemma we see in
them is a concoction of their ethnic identity, their natural adaptation to western culture, and the
treatment they receive in the diasporan space.
A critic, Dr.Sarani Ghosal (2011), in her essay ‘Jhumpa Lahiri’s “Women” in Unaccustomed Earth' in
the journal Rock Pebbles notes that “her women characters goes beyond the cultural and geographical
territories of country and class and creates a multi-cultural platform, where all the female characters
meet and share their emotion with one another”(p.224).
Unlike Ghosal, we have limited our study only to the Indian-American women characters in the stories
and instead of showing their sharing of common emotion; we suggest how they, in spite of their attempt
to negotiate with the diasporan situation remain, consciously or unconsciously, traditional in a number
of ways. We like to see this dilemma not as a failure of the characters, rather a natural part of the
process of acculturation.
The characters that we study here are from four stories of part one as well as Hema from part two of the
book Unaccustomed Earth. Ruma, protagonist of the title story "Unaccustomed Earth", is an exemplary
case of the contradiction we are to study in this article. While a part of her is clearly westernized, the
other part clings to the practices of her mother, who persistently maintained her Indian identity in the
form of traditional dresses she wore and the food she cooked.
Ruma left her job as a paralegal to start a family, accepting the traditional role of a homemaker. Apart
from taking this decision of becoming a housewife there are other things that exposes the Indianness in
her character. Her guilty conscience over not offering her father a place at her house is something
Adam, her American husband fails to understand. Again, her father, on his visit to their house, tells her
continually to be conscious about her hard-earned career. She, however, does not seem to be concerned
at all with this issue. Instead, she starts depending on the little helps offered by her father, and grieves
over the fact that the father will not stay with them, a possibility (that her father might want to live with
them) that intrigued her with much uneasiness at first. We also find that Ruma has always been the more
responsible sibling; as her brother has been completely westernized in his relationship with their parents,
maintaining only an occasional connection with them over the phone. Her father, during his stay at her
house, is reminded of his own wife, sensing the resemblance between the mother and the daughter ‘Like
his wife, Ruma was now alone in this new place, overwhelmed, without friends, caring for a young
child,---’ (40)i.
Though there are resemblances, Ruma is obviously different from her mother in many ways. Born and
brought up in America, she has been trying to be financially independent from the very beginning. We
learn from her father that even in school, she worked as a busgirl at a local restaurant in the summers.
Now in Seattle, married to an American, unlike her mother she doesn’t feel like cooking Indian foods
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with enthusiasm. She allows her son Akash to consume typical American food from boxes. She knows
that ‘Bengali had never been a language in which she felt like an adult’ (12).
She is also not much interested in decorating the house, as is shown by her lack of enthusiasm in the
gardening of her father. Neither does she crave for the company of either Indian or American friends.
She found a letter her father had mistakenly left behind when his visit ended. The letter was addressed to
Mrs. Bagchi, a widow with who he had become emotionally involved. Ruma senses this and towards the
end of the story, her posting of the letter to Mrs. Bagchi is another evidence of emotional maturity, a bit
apathetic compared to traditional Indian temperament that tends to react strongly against parents
showing involvements outside wedlock. This contradiction in her character, explained here, clearly
shows a shift from the mindset of her mother. Still she is not completely transformed, rather in a process
of it. When we study Ruma’s character we see that like her mother she has chosen to be confined to the
role of a house wife. As a traditional Indian daughter, she wants to have a joint family with her father
staying in their house. On the other hand, unlike her mother she maintains an Americanized household
with an American husband and brings up her son in the westernized manner. Therefore, we see both a
forward movement and stepping back in Ruma's character, which is a natural process of her journey
towards adaptation.
A stark contrast exists between the mother and daughter in "Hell-Heaven", the second story in the
collection. Whereas the mother is a lonely, depressed, nostalgic and completely introvert traditional
portrayal of an immigrant homemaker, Usha, the daughter, is almost a rebel in her fascination for
American dress, food and drinks. At one stage, she learns to shut out the mother from her typical
American lifestyle, as she understands that her mother will never learn to accept them. However, at the
end of the story she turns to her mother, instead of Deborah, the wishful American mother figure of her
adolescence, to share the misery of betrayal. The mother, in the same manner, shares the deepest secret
of her life, the suicidal attempt she took long ago after the withdrawal of Pronob’s existence from her
life, with Usha. Definitely, it shows that in spite of the superficial changes, Usha turns towards her
mother for solace at the time of dire necessity and realizes the feelings of her mother in a typical
diasporic scenario. In this story, the mother retains her traditional identity from the beginning to the end.
She tries hard to bring up Usha in the same manner. She is critical of Usha’s westernized dress, food
habit, and free mixing with boys. She, being lonely and nostalgic, turned to a fellow Indian student
Pronob for company. Their relationship was close to a love affair. Pronob at one point married an
American girl Deborah, who Usha almost worshipped. Nevertheless, as we see at the end of the story,
Usha, as a process of maturation, comes closer to her mother and starts viewing things from her
perspective. At the end of the story, we see the sharing of emotion between the mother and daughter
when another person breaks the daughter’s heart. Here Usha's lifestyle is a forward movement whereas
her integration with the mother's emotion is a proof of her ability of containing eastern sensibility.
"Only Goodness" is the story of Sudha, who, in Lahiri’s words, ‘had waited until college to disobey her
parents. Before then she had lived according to their expectations,---’ (129). These very words suggest
the duality in her character, at the same time obedience and disobedience shows her forward movement
as well as her adherence to the values of her parents. Throughout the whole story this crosscurrents are
present in her. She first introduced her brother Rahul to alcohol, buying and hiding the bottles herself.
But later on we see the brother getting totally addicted to alcohol, whereas Sudha always remains
careful about maintaining secrecy (from their parents)about her drinking, which is, by the way, very
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controlled. We see Sudha play the role of the guardian of the family, always trying to reason with Rahul,
and comforting her parents. She tries to give her parents as much time as possible during her vacation.
She also goes to London for higher study, a place where her parents lived for the first time outside India.
She also makes them happy by taking them with her to London.
Her role of the traditional responsible Indian daughter is, however, discontinues, as at one point she
protests vehemently ‘I can’t talk to him anymore. I can’t fix him. I can’t keep fixing what’s wrong with
this family’(156). She marries a British man Roger and goes away from her parents to live in England.
She told the parents to admit the fact of Rahul’s drinking in order to find a way out. During her own
pregnancy, for the sake of the coming baby, she apparently rejects her brother for his irresponsible
behavior. However, like a typical Indian elder sister, she consistently thinks about Rahul. We see that
she is able to set up her own family, maintaining a regular relationship with her parents, even with the
brother. At the end, after an act of Rahul's utter irresponsibility in her house, she drives him away only
to realize that all relationships are variable, all families vulnerable to cracks too wide to be repaired. In
Sudha we see the transition of a woman, who belongs to the second generation diaspora, incorporating
in her some aspects of the past, while moving forward to a kind of independence and free will unknown
to her parents.
The last story in part one, "Nobody’s Business", is about Sangeeta Biswas, or Sang as she wants herself
to be introduced. Like the shortened form of the name, she has changed almost everything that vaguely
connects her to her root, India. A number of Indian men, successful expatriates, make numerous phone
calls to her to ask for her hand. Some of them are old acquaintances of her childhood. But Sang refuses
them all by saying that it is not love for what they are proposing marriage to her, it is just like arranged
marriage. She also terms these calls as violation of her privacy. In her lifestyle, Sang is out and out
westernized. Sharing a house with two American students, one male, and the other female, she remains
busy with her job at a bookstore and with her Egyptian boyfriend Farouk, or Freddy. They see each
other frequently, sleeping together three/four days every week. So far, everything about Sang seems
congruous, but one trait in her character needs special attention, the complete faithfulness she maintains
towards her boyfriend. This devotion, that leads her to the downright rejection of other men, is jokingly
compared to the devotion of Penelope to Odysseus by her housemate Paul. Sang fails to recognize Paul's
attraction for her due to her loyalty to Farouk. Charles, her friend, reveals another feature of Sang’s
character when he comments about Farouk, ‘So he’s a little old-fashioned. That’s one of the things you
like about him, right (179). In fact, Sang sometimes behaves like a protective, almost motherly wife of
Freddy by doing his shopping, cooking and laundry. She also checks Freddy’s articles for typos, makes
his doctor’s appointments. She even selects suitable houses for him to buy, not without a dream of
getting married and settling down there one day. In spite of Farouk’s callousness in not driving her
home, or not letting her stay at his place for the whole night, she remains keen on keeping up the
relationship intact. At the end, when she is compelled to break it after getting solid examples of
Farouk’s involvement with other girls, she behaves in a hysteric way. She never gets out of her mental
illness, losing her mind completely; she goes to live with her sister in London. We know that his
girlfriend had also rejected Paul, the other major character, though he absorbed the shock in a quite
normal way. Paul’s being American might have made his absorption of abandonment easier. Whereas
Sang’s Indianness might have made things more difficult for her.The contradictory currents in Sang’s
character mark the duality of her being. The difference in the reactions of Sang and Deirdre, another
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girlfriend of Farouk, after the disclosure of his disloyalty, clearly marks the disparity between the two
women. It also shows that though westernized, Sang clings to some older values unlike the other people
around her.
According to Jana Evans Braziel and Anita Mannur, “Diaspora does not, however, transcend differences
of race, class, gender and sexuality”(5)In Unaccustomed Earth Jhumpa Lahiri presents her male and
female characters react differently in diasporan situation. “Once in a life time” deals with the life of two
generations passing some period of their life. Here the narrator is Hema, a second-generation diasporan
woman, who talks about her feelings about another Indian diasporan teenage boy, Kaushik. Both the
families were closely connected as the story began when Hema was six and Kaushik was nine years old.
At her birth, Kaushik’s parents were the only visitor at the hospital. As she started growing up, she had
to share the clothes, high chair and other belongings of Kaushik. However, many times she did not like
it but had to. Hema informs the readers of the intimacy of the mothers of the two families. They shared
many moments in their life when their husbands were busy at work. When Kaushik and his parents
came back at Cambridge after few years in India, Hema is quite grown up and so is Kaushik. Hema’s
minute description of their arrival and the days of their staying at their house for few months clearly
show that she develops some sort of fascination for Kaushik. However, Kaushik never feels so. He even
does not like staying at the house of Hema for long.
In the second part of the story, "Years’ End", the narrator is Kaushik. Here we find him as a nomadic
that has no fixed dwelling. After his mother’s death, he even lost his own room at his father’s house. He
not even bothers to settle down. He has no fixed home to live. His job and his desire allow him to
explore different countries of the world. He does not want to marry or take responsibility of a family.
Before his meeting with Hema he had physical relation with some girls but he did not take decision to
marry them. On the other hand, though Hema loved Julian she broke up the relation as he refused to
divorce his first wife and marry Hema. In “Going ashore” Hema wants to marry Navin not because she
loves him but because she wants to have a family.
“It was her inability, ultimately, to approach middle age without a husband, without children, with her
parents living now on the other side of the world, and yet to own a home and shovel the driveway when
it snowed and pay her mortgage bill when it came- though she had proven to herself, to her parents, to
everyone, that she was capable of all of those things –it was her unwillingness to abide that life
indefinitely that led her to Navin.” (298)
These musings are the obvious account of Hema’s embrace of tradition as opposed to Kaushik’s
nomadic pursuits. Hema’s return to traditional Indian culture is a clear indication of her gender’s
compromise with values of life to get a tolerable existence in a world that demands more percentage of
adaptation from women.
However, after her meeting with Kaushik at this point after a long time, both of them come close to each
other. He tells Hema not to marry Navin but fails to propose her. For this lack of security, Hema refuses
to go with him to Hong Kong and instead agrees to marry Navin. As a second-generation immigrant,
Hema drifts away from many customs of her motherland but she still becomes sad and nostalgic after
leaving her bangle at the security check of the airport. It reminds her words of her grandma who said
that losing gold is something ominous.
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To conclude, it can be said that women play important roles in diasporic experience. Jhumpa Lahiri in
her collection of short stories very closely narrates the crisis faced by them. It is true that very little of
the Indian identity is left among them. However, they can neither become truly American nor can they
uphold their original identity. They suffer from the problem of in-betweens. This duality is an essential
component of their being, which helps them in the process of acculturation. For this reason, Jhumpa
Lahiri reveals the negotiation process.
References
Bhabha, Homi K. (1994).The Location of Culture. London and New York, The USA: Routledge.
Ghosal, Sarani. (2011). Jhumpa Lahiri’s “Women” in Unaccustomed Earth. Rock Pebbles, 15 (2), 224-226.
Retrieved from < rockpebblesindia.com/pdf/july-dec2011.pdf
Hall, Stuart. (2003) Cultural Identity and Diaspora. In Jana Evans Braziel and Anita Mannur (Eds.), Theorizing
Diaspora. (pp.233-246). Victoria, Australia : Balckwell Publishing.
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Conflation of History and Fiction: Re-visiting Salman Rushdie’s Midnight’s
Children
Dr. Anita Sharma
Associate Professor,
H.O.D, Govt. college Theog,
Shimla (H.P), INDIA.
Abstract
History and fiction have always been porous genres having overlapping concerns as well as mutual influences.
Salman Rushdie is a prominent literary artist among the Indian English authors, who has appropriated himself
a space among the creative writers for his extraordinary range of subjects, depth, and his multi–dimensional
verbosity and for his epic concerns. Salman Rushdie’s magnum opus Midnight’s Children’s is characterized by
an urgency aimed at “moving beyond the bounds of history for the purpose of finding universal significance of
historical forces operating at a particular phase of time” (Rao, A.S. 115). The novel can be considered a
magical and haunting tale of partition and loudly talks about the struggle for independent and belongingness
that links personal life of the protagonist, Saleem Sinai to the emerging India after Independence. Within the
larger frame of narrative, run many others subplots of stories along with the main plot. It is the most popular
technique often used in Rushdie’s fictional works. . . The complicated history of India’s struggle for
independence helps the writer to offer insight into the ways of Saleem, the protagonist narrator viewing the
world around him.
Key words: history, fiction, literary, genre, magnum opus.
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Introduction
History and fiction have always been porous genres having overlapping concerns as well as mutual
influences. Nonfiction and fiction blend; they merge creating a new history, a new fiction. Roger
Webster spells out the relation between history and English as of being complementary subject of
disciplines. According to him, English suggests imagination, fiction, sensibility or feeling and history
is objective, scientific investigation. The events of history are constantly being told and retold;
interpreted and reinterpreted by different people at different times. Historical fiction seems to be a
narrative in novel form characterized by an imaginative reconstruction of historical personages and
events. “All historical narratives seem to take up some position at a point in the scale between the
demonstrations of limited relationships between discrete events and the implication of some vast, non
human design.” (Chides and Fowler 48)
Salman Rushdie is a prominent literary artist among the Indian English authors, who has appropriated
himself a space among the creative writers for his extraordinary range of subjects, depth, and his
multi–dimensional verbosity and for his epic concerns. Salman Rushdie’s magnum opus Midnight’s
Children’s is characterized by an urgency aimed at “moving beyond the bounds of history for the
purpose of finding universal significance of historical forces operating at a particular phase of time”
(Rao, A.S. 115). The novel can be considered a magical and haunting tale of partition and loudly talks
about the struggle for independent and belongingness that links personal life of the protagonist, Saleem
Sinai to the emerging India after Independence. Within the larger frame of narrative, run many others
subplots of stories along with the main plot. It is the most popular technique often used in Rushdie’s
fictional works. Stewart Nicholas adds to the discussion, “The narrative framework of Midnight’s
Children consists of a tale which Saleem Sinai recounts orally to his wife –to be Padama. This self –
referential narrative recalls indigenous Indian culture, particularly the similarly orally recounted
Arabian Nights (Web). According to Reena Mitra: “Midnight’s Children is a literary response to a
series of real life situations that have been cleverly fictionalized through allusions, disguised as well as
direct, to the country’s recent as well as not so recent past. The novel has an epic sweep covering about
six decades in the history of the Indian subcontinent”.( Mitra,2) The novel opens up the history of
nation with the Independence of India on August 15, 1947 which coincides with Saleem’s
proclamation of his birth. Right from the inception Saleem seems to be tragically aware of his central
historical role, ``I had been mysteriously handcuffed to history, my destinies indissolubly chained to
those of my country’’ ‘(MC3). This provides the form and the structural base
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to the novel where the writer could afford the facts, fancy and history to interweave stories altogether.
In the novel, Emperor Jahangir is considered as Encompasses of the earth, who built Shalimar, the
famous garden of Kashmir. Saleem describes Kashmir as a place of incredible beauty. He also notices
that in 1915, Kashmir was still pristine, looking just as it had been during the time of the Mughal
Empire:
In those days the radio mast had not been built and the
Temple of Sankarcharya, a little black blister on khaki
Hill still dominated the streets and take of Srinagar…no
Army camp at the lake side, no endless snakes of camouflaged
trucks and jeeps clogged the narrow mountain roads….
travelers where not shot as spies if they took photographs
of bridges, and apart from the Englishmen’s houseboats on
the lake, the valley had hardly changed since the
Mughal Empire. (MC,5)
It seems that Salman Rushdie’s revision of Kashmir’s history in the novel is at once an attempt to
readdress dominates conceptions of the region, and a new history of Kashmir that constantly defers an
ending. Kashmir is in focus of the beginning of the text, as a paradise that is never attained-therefore
Kashmir remains in a sketch of present time, ``stranded in the middle’’. Britain’s interest in India
began in the 1600s when the East India Company established trading stations in Surat, Bombay and
Calcutta, using the colony to import spices, silk and cotton and to export textiles. By 1757, they began
to overpower Indian states establishing their British Empire. Salman Rushdie has addressed the British
Imperial rule which after a long period ultimately led to the independence of India and the creation of
Pakistan. The complicated history of India’s struggle for independence helps the writer to offer insight
into the ways of Saleem, the protagonist narrator viewing the world around him. He has given a
realistic account of the Rowlett Act of 1919 and the Jallianwallah Bagh massacre. The Rowlett Act of
1919 proved too crucial for the Indian Sikhs residing in the province of Punjab. “The Indians have
fought for the British so many of them have seen the world by now, and been tainted by abroad. They
will not easily go back to the old world. The British are wrong to try and turn back the clock. It was
mistake to pass Rowlett Act” (MC, 37). The impugned Act debarred the people from seeking legal
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redresses from a court of law. Imprisonment without a trial was a repressive measure unheard of at any
given time in the past. People began with their protest against the Act. About the shooting incident of
Jallianwallah Bagh in Amritsar, Rushdie deftly incorporates the details.
Saleem Sinai: ``That
afternoon the streets are suddenly full of people, all moving in the same direction, defying Dyer’s new
Martial Law regulations… On April 13th, many thousands of Indians are crowding …somebody is
making a passionate and sweets…That air is filled with dust…Brigadier R.E. Dyer arrives at the
entrance to the alleyway, followed by fifty crank troops…put down their machine guns and go away
…fired a total of one thousand six hundred and fifty rounds into the unarmed crowd…one thousand
five hundred and sixteen have found their mark, killing of wounding some person…’’(MC,41) The
killing of innocent people by Dyer evokes emotive feelings and sympathy for the victims. It also
shows whims of the British colonial Rule. The incident which was an inhuman act of violence and
destruction over the peace-loving citizens took a heavy toll of human life.
Not only the historical tragic events but Rushdie also gives accounts of historical personalities. He
writes about Mian Abdullah ‘The Lion of Kashmir’ who founded his own political outfit naming
National Conference, pitted against the fanatic nature of Muslim league formed by Mohammad Ali
Jinnah. Rushdie explains: “The optimism epidemic had been caused by one single human being, whose
name, Mian Abdullah…. He was the Hummingbird, a creature which would be impossible if it did not
exist” (MC, 46). In Agra, in the summer of 1942, Adam Aziz like thousands of nationalist Muslims
was affected by the optimism of Abdullah. Aziz told Abdulla’s benefactress Rani of Cooch Nahin, “I
started off as a kashmiri and not much of a Muslim. Then I got bruise on the chest that turned me into
India. I’m still not much of Muslim, but I am for all Abdullah. He’s fighting my fight” (MC, 47).
Moreover, Saleem compare his grandfather with the rise of Mian Abdullah. He takes the struggle of
Abdullah as his father’s struggle, who started off as a Kashmir and not much of a Muslim. The
narration of the incident about the murder of Mian Abdullah, a few days before the convocation of his
party in Agra, is clothed in fantasy and grotesque. “Six new moons came into the room, six crescent
knives held by men dressed all in black, with covered faces. Two men held Nadir Khan while the
others moved towards the Hummingbird” (MC, 57)
Saleem also shows the hypocrisy of British and Indians adapting the western ways of life. Adam Aziz,
Saleem’s maternal grandfather was an educated Kashmiri Muslim and an Indian nationalist. On his
return (Adam Aziz’s), he is insulted and ostracized by the village elder Tai who point’s that his pigskin
briefcase which contained his medical instruments represent ‘an alien invader, progress’ (MC, 19) and
his Heidelberg medical bag is a “sister sleeping pigskin bag from abroad full of foreigner tricks.” (MC,
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11) The moral degradation of people after their return from abroad was noticed by him, “I know you
Europe-returned men. You find terrible women and then you try to make…girls be like them!”(MC,
38) Peoples like Dr. Aziz with Tai do not feel an affinity with Indians. Ahmad Sinai displays the
colonial mindset when he says, ‘all the best people are white under the skin’ (MC, 247). All the brutal
incidents happening under the British rule leads towards the strong determination of acquiring full
Independence by the Indians under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi.
The midnight declaration of the independence had to face a political atmosphere filled with communal
hatred and violence in the pre-partitioned Delhi. The events were moving fast towards the inevitable
end of the colonial rule and the birth of a nation. The life of tired India could be correlated with
Amina’s personal struggle with her old self, which proved formidable as her mind was still clogged up
with the memory of the first man Nadir Khan in her life. As a result “she resolved to fall in love with
her husband bit by bit” (MC, 68). Amina accepted and loved her husband in fragments. In contrast, the
political and geographical space of the country, in those times, was also breaking into fragments. The
dream of nationalist’s optimists of a unified and secular India was shattered into pieces in the wake of
the rise of pre-Partition violence and religious fanaticism.
In the Delhi section of the Midnight’s children, the imagined India reappears in the visual space of the
bioscope- the ‘Dunia Dekho’ machine that shows children the collage of a unified India. Moreover,
Lifafa Das’ peepshow presents the contemporary images. Lifafa Das has set up his black peepshow
against a wall on which someone has daubed a swastika. Swastika at that time denotes to R.S.S. party
and the Nazi’s power. Swastika in ancient India (Hindu) is known as the symbol of power. Inside the
peepshow of Lifafa Das, there were pictures of Taj Mahal and Meenakshi Temple, the holy Ganges,
Stafford Cripps leaving Nehru’s residence, untouchable being touched and ,educated persons sleeping
in large numbers on railway lines etc. Lifafa Das was attacked by street children which was the net
result of the city quarrels which turned communal. The violent Muslim crowd jumped and gheraoed
the lone Hindu. Amina after witnessing the public frenzy, rushed to the rescue of Lifafa Das. This
shows that she possess the parental gift of religious tolerance and hatred for the religious prejudice.
She used the news of her pregnancy as a weapon to save Lifafa Das. ``Listen well. I’m with child. I am
a mother who will have a child, and I am giving this man my shelter. Come on, if you want to kill, kill
a mother and show the world what men you are!’’ (MC, 100) This was an announcement of Saleem’s
arrival in the world and which turned him into ‘public property’ much before his birth (MC, 100).
Moreover the spectacle of Amina’s motherhood (full womb) before the frenzied crowd presents the
image of unity and wholeness saving Lifafa’s life.
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The narrative deliberately oscillates back and forth, calling attention to the drastic divide that separates
rich from poor or educated from illiterate in India and the transfer of power on with the announcement
of partition of India, Narrates Saleem:
On June 4th, my ill-matched parents left for Bombay by
Frontier Mail…on the same day, Earl Mountbatten of
Burma held a press conference at which he announced the
Partition countdown of India, and hung his calendar on the
Wall: seventy days to go to the transfer of power…sixty
Nine …sixty –eight…tick, tock. (MC, 120)
Bombay remains the central metaphor which informs this vast novel of epic dimension. With its
composite and secular culture it stands as a metaphor for the multiplicity of India. The city of seven
islands is brought alive through the description of historical details. “There were signs of ill –omen in
the city of Bombay. ‘…And stars are unfavorable!”(MC, 149) The novel presents in an ample
measure, the post-independence political, social, cultural, economic and psychological turmoil on post
modern lines, which “dwells upon the post-colonial situation with a postmodern gain.” (Rao, 98)
Pt. Jawaharlal Nehru becomes the first prime minister of Independent India. These prophetic words
of the first prime minister of independent India have long term implications:
…end… [Of] a period of ill fortune …… ‘This is no time for
Petty or destructive criticism’, Jawaharlal told the
Assembly, No
time for ill- will. We have to build the noble
Mansion of free India, where all her children may dwell’ A
Flag unfurls: it is saffron, white and green. (MC 157-158)
The legacy of British colonialism has undoubtedly shaped the newly independent India, just as
William Methwold has undeniably shaped Saleem. “Methwold’s Estate symbolizes the colonized
India, possessed by the British who has superimposed their culture on Indian mind. Thus the transfer
of assets has a special connotation. It is a parody of transfer of power”. (Dey, 20) Saleem is actually
the blood of poor Vanita’s, who found Amina as his mother and became ‘the chosen child of midnight
to win the Times of India prize and receive Prime Minister Nehru’s letter of congratulation. In reality
he was an Anglo-Indian, the illegitimate son of a departing colonizer, William Methwold and a poor
Hindu woman. “In fact ,all over the new India, the dream we all shared, children were being born who
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were only partially the offspring of their parents-the children of midnight were also the children of the
time: fathered, you understand by history” (MC, 159)
Rushdie also makes a passing reference to Gandhiji’s death at the hands of Godse after the partition.
The announcement of the hall manager was short but fraught with far reaching consequences. ``This
afternoon, at Birla House in Delhi, our beloved Mahatma was killed. Some madman shot him in the
stomach….our Bapu is gone!’’ (MC, 196). The narrator observes that people behave in a violent way
for issues like language, color and creed. Saleem became indirectly responsible for the violence. He
admits:
In this way I became directly responsible for triggering off
The violence which ended with the partition of the state of
Bombay, as a result of which the city became the capital of
Maharashtra so at –least I was on the winning side. (MC 265-66)
The narrator also informs the failure of government’s Five year Plans and an increase in
unemployment and population. ``On my tenth birthday, it was clear that freak weather-Storms, floods,
hailstones from a cloudless sky-which had Succeeded the intolerable heat of 1956, had managed to
wreck the Second Five Year Plan. ’’(MC, 285 ) Saleem began a psychic journey through the length
and breadth the country. The politics and economics of the nation are found to be characterized by
exploitation, corruption at all levels, bribery and electoral malpractices. It was the ‘pigmentation
disorder’ which affected a large number of Indian businessmen in the early years of independence.
Thanks to the accumulation of black money in the wake of the First Five-year Plan. The business men
of Indian turning white which may be termed as ‘pigmentation disorder’ suggest metaphorically the
process of westernization and serves as a moral allegory for the post-colonial history of the nation.
Saleem describes the events of the 1957 election. The communist party made a powerful showing,
although the communist candidates Qasim khan (Nadir Khan) lost his race. The narrator avers: On
Election Day, 1957 the All -India congress was badly shocked although it won the election, twelve
million votes made the communist the largest single opposition party; (MC,307-08).As Saleem’s
mother flirts with a figure from her past, now turned communist, India finds itself flirting with
communism as well. And India’s political turmoil, with its widespread corruption, certainly seems
dramatic. Rushdie pinpoints the gross misuse and abuse of power structure by power mongering
political personalities who only know how to plan their political expediency than the welfare of the
masses. Midnight of August 15, 1947 is a memorable event in India’s political history, therefore
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Rushdie observes, ‘Midnight has many children. The offspring of independence were not all human.
Violence, corruption, poverty, generals, chaos, greed and pepper pots…’ (MC, 405)
The relation between India and Pakistan grew worse. India conquered Goa- ‘the Portuguese pimple on
the face of Mother India’. (MC 406) India also reported the large scale U.S aid for Pakistan. Moreover
the Sino Indian border skirmishes arise in the Akshai Chin region of Laddakh. In the meanwhile,
Amina, Saleem and his sister Brass Monkey shifted to Pakistan from Bombay leaving behind Ahmed
Sinai to his lonely fate. The experience of journey from Bombay to Rawalpindi was to Saleem, a travel
from warmth of life to coldness of heart. The narrative constitutes a parody of a revolution which
overthrew and elected Government in Pakistan, Uncle Zulfikar was pleased with Saleem. Saleem
informs: “Zulfikar became the latest in the line of men who have been willing to call me… ‘My son’.
(MC, 403) The narrative presents a critique of the topsy-turvy political situation in Pakistan vis-a-vis
the midnight coup which is described as a ``revolution of the peppers pots’’ (MC, 397). Intrigue and
treason are the hallmark of Pakistan politics. China’s unprovoked attack on India on October 15, 1962
and the defeat of Indian force at Jhag-La-ridge, coincidence with the Midnight’s children launching a
concreted assault on Saleem. The war with china ended, showing Nehru’s ‘Panch Sheel’ in poor light.
Moreover Nehru’s death had precipitated a bitter power struggle. India offered Saleem ``an infinity of
alternative realities’’ but Pakistan left him confused ‘amid an equally infinite number of falseness,
unrealities and lies’’ (MC, 453) Rushdie presents a comparative political scenario during sixties and
seventies of India and Pakistan: ``President Ayub’s reputation was in decline: rumors of malpractices
in the 1964 election buzzed about. There was, took the matter of the president’s son: Gaubar Ayub…
in India, Sanjay Gandhi and his Maruti Car company and his congress youth: and most recently of all,
Kanti Lal Desai…the sons of the great unmakes their parents’’ (MC, 463). The porous borders of India
were also at trouble due to the newly formed neighbor Pakistan. Indo-Pak war broke out in April
1965 between the two countries over the ``disputed territory’’ (MC, 465) the Runn of Kutch.
Ever since partition, the Runn had been ‘disputed territory;
Although, in practice, neither side had much heart for the
Dispute…the Pakistan Government had build a string of
Border posts …several of these of Posts were occupied on
April 9th, 1965, by troops of the Indian Army…war in the Runn
Lasted until July 1st … (MC, 465)
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All the members of his family were killed by Indian bomb raids in Rawalpindi and Karachi. Saleem
escaped death but was hit at the back of his head by his mother’s silver-spittoon which had been flung
in the air by the blast. The disintegration of his body coincides with the cracking up of the nation. The
Indo-Pakistan war saw the fall of Ayub Khan. This war was soon followed by a civil strife when
Mujib-ur Rahaman declared the east wing of Pakistan as an independent state and named it as
Bangladesh. Soon was Mujibur’s proclamation, about the birth of Bangladesh, on 25th March 1971.
The human experience of Pak-Bengal war is evoked through Saleem’s travelling in war-ravaged East
Bengal as a man dog .He saw and witnessed the atrocities committed by Pakistan forces in East
Pakistan.
…during 1971, ten million refugees fled across the borders
Of East-Pakistan-Bangladesh in to India but ten million…
‘the biggest migration in the history of the human
Race’…Bigger than Exodus, larger than the Partition
Crowds, the many-headed monster poured into India. On
The border, Indian soldiers trained the guerrillas known as Mukti
Bahini; in Dacca, Tiger Niazi ruled the roost. (MC, 498)
There was widespread jubilation among the people of Bangladesh when the Indian army marched to
the capital. On 15th December 1971, Tiger Niazi of Pakistan surrendered to Sam Manekshaw of India
in a newly created state of Bangladesh with ninety-three thousand troops.
Saleem’s return to India coincides with the supposed political rebirth of Mrs. Indira Gandhi whose new
congress Party held a more than two-thirds majority in the parliament: …..the celebration of Indira
Gandhi’s new Congress Party, which had won a landslide victory - 350 out of possible 515 seats in the
Lok Sabha in another recent election. Indira seem to be ignorant, unable to see her campaign slogan,
GARIBI HATAO, Get Rid of poverty, blazoned on walls and banners across the great diamond of
India…’(MC, 494). While India was experimenting with its nuclear explosion in Rajasthan, Shiva his
son, stormed into Saleem’s life. On the public day of 1975, Saleem married Parvati who bore Shiva’s
child. Saleem’s wife Parvati converted to Islam and she took the new name, Laylah. The birth of
Saleem child mirrored Saleem’s own life because the birth of the child coincides, with the declaration
of Emergency on the midnight of 25 June 1975. Saleem narrates: ``….Prime Minister Indira Gandhi
was found guilty, by judge Jag Mohan Lal of the Allahabad High court, of two counts of campaign
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malpractice during the election campaign of1971…(MC, 582) After declaring the Emergency in 1975,
Indira Gandhi suspended civil liberties,
engaged in massive arrests, initiated a campaign of forced
sterilization, and destroyed ghettoes throughout the country. The chant “India is Indira and Indira is
India” represents a call of singularity (MC, 587). The traumatic experience of Emergency only
unnerved Saleem. He was disillusioned with post-colonial politics altogether and lost his connection
with history and politics.
Rushdie’s novel` Midnight’s children ‘is
a devising political satire and an endless entertainment.
One of the dominant themes in Rushdie’s Midnight’s children is his concept of history and its
interaction with the individual. Rushdie’s concerns with history and its effect on the individual, has
created fiction which reveals the inner features of the age, the essential human point of view”
(Chandra, 28). For Rushdie, India is a country where national history and individual progress are so
intertwined that every national event is reflected in the lives of individuals. This is amplified in the
novel where the story of Saleem Sinai and the history of India are intertwined. Saleem represents ups
and down –of country’s life with the ups and downs in his family. As Rushdie writes:
….during the first hour of August 15th, 1947-between
Midnight and one a.m. –no less than one thousand and one
Children were born within the frontiers of the important
State of India…What made the event noteworthy was the
Nature of these children, every one of whom was, through
Some freak of biology, or perhaps owing to some prenatural
Power of the moment, or just conceivably by sheer
Coincidence, endowed with features, talents of faculties
Which can only be described as miraculous? (MC, 271)
The stories traces the various crises in the life of the protagonist that synchronize with the major events
specially the Jallianwallah Bagh tragedy, Quit-India Movement, Cabinet Mission, Freedom
Movement, Muslim league and its role, riots and bloodshed subsequent to the independence, five year
plans, reorganization of Indian States, Chinese aggression, Pakistan war, Liberation of Bangladesh
and Emergency. All these major ‘historical’ events provide the novelists panoptic vision and are
reminisced through Saleem’s consciousness. Saleem’s words affirm the above mentioned assumption:
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‘I had been mysteriously handcuffed to history; my destinies are indissolubly chained to those of my
country’ (MC 3). To clarify and support Rushdie’s style of presenting history and fiction parallel, Uma
Parameswaran enumerates the following point in her work, The Perforated Sheet:
He uses birth images and metaphors to mark turning points
In history and symbolizes their long term significance; he
Links political and historical events starting with the
Jallianwallah Bag Massacre of 1919 with one of other of
Saleem’s circle of friends and family; he uses Padma as a
Character is functional at both narrative and symbolic Level. (5)
Saleem’s life resembles with the growing India after Independence. He is called, by Pt. Jawaharlal
Nehru, the mirror of young India. With Saleem’s personal history, we have the history of nation. The
historical forces prove so powerful against him that he feels “buffeted by too much history” and begins
to show symptoms of falling apart (MC 43) Being a fiction the writer couldn’t put an end to his
broader concept of fictionalizing history. Rushdie factually speaking, admits to the error in chronology
in his epic story,`` Re-reading my work, I have discovered error in Chronology. The assassination of
Mahatma Gandhi occurs, In these pages, on the wrong dates…in my India, Gandhi Will continue to
die at the wrong time…Does one error Invalidate the entire fabric? Am I so far gone, in my Desperate
need for meaning that I’m prepared to distort Everything-to re write the whole history of times purely
in Order to place myself in a central role. Today, in my Confusion, I can’t judge. I’ll have to leave it
to others. For me, there can be no going back….. (MC, 229-230)
The narration is filled with the symbolic imagination of the national history in juxtaposition with the
personal history of the protagonist. As a whole history and myths, facts and figures, fantasy and fiction
altogether formulates an unforgettable saga of the protagonist Saleem Sinai in the extraordinary nation.
Rushdie makes a dexterous synchronization of personal and national history creating a supportive fight
consciously enough to construct, intend and present a debunk Post Independence Indian history. The
hero of novel, Saleem Sinai is the real propend of this Indian mindset, and proclaims, “To understand
just one of it, you have to swallow the world” (MC, 109). Rushdie through his novel brings a
revisionist attitude to history in repositioning the postcolonial subject in the panorama of the world. He
has thus proved unique in freeing the colonial subject from the colonizers’ possession and domination
of history and politics.
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References
Primary source:
Rushdie, Salman. Midnight’s Children. London: Vintage Books, 2009. (Quoted as MC)
Secondary Sources:
Chides, Peter and Roger Fowler. The Routledge Dictionary of Literary Terms. London: Routledge, 2006. Print
Chandra, S. Suresh. “Salman Rao, A.S. Myth and History in Contemporary Indian Novel in English. New
Delhi: Atlantic, 2000. Print..
Dey, Pradeep Kumar. Salman Rushdie’s Midnight’s Children. New Delhi: Atlantic, 2008. Print
Rushdie: History and the Individual.” The Journal of India Writing in English 30.2 (July, 2002): 50-56 print.
Parameswaran, Uma. The Perforated Sheet: Essays on Salman Rushdie’s Art. New Delhi: Affiliated UP, 1988.
Print
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Travel Literature in Indian Writings: A Comparative Survey
Prof. Ashok Sachdeva
Professor
Devi Ahilya University
Indore, Madhya Pradesh, INDIA.
Since times immemorial, travelling has been an indispensable aspect of human existence. People have
always travelled far and wide for reasons innumerable viz. in order to gratify their natural and innate
desire and instinct for exploring and probing new places, to pursue their quest and quench their thrust
for knowledge, to cater to their aesthetic sensibility, for cultural exchange; and for social and political
and strategic reasons. These travelers have deeply felt an inner urge to narrate, communicate, share
and record experiences and feelings of their venture both in subjective and objective manner. This
constitutes a travel literature which is now a separate and significant discipline that provides a genuine
account of the salient feature and characteristics associated with a particular place and also describes
the beauty of Nature in all its manifestations, the typical geographical features, their historical,
importance, manners and mannerisms, customs and traditions, recreation and entertainment associated
with a place. All these features cannot be found in a single work of an author but occur in keeping
with the author’s philosophy, his personal experiences, attitudes and traits.
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In terms of the subject matter and diversity of objectives, extensive creative writing in travel literature
has flourished after independence as India began to develop political and cultural ties with the other
countries. The writers, academicians, teachers and scholars, and politicians and many others have got
ample opportunities to visit abroad and foreign countries. Fellowships, scholarships, study visits and
exchange programmed facilitated travels from India to Foreign countries and vice-versa.
Many
visitors, in turn, have settled down and have taken to jobs abroad. All these, therefore, have amply
contributed to travel literature.
The good relations to Russia resulted in Travel Literature to Russia.
The writers who have
significantly contributed to this are Dr. Satya Narayan, Mahesh Prasad Shrivastava, Rahul Sankratyan,
Jawaharlal Nehru, Yashpal Jain, Ramkrishna Raghunath Khadilker, Banarasi das,Chaturvedi,
Shersingh, Akshaya Kumar Jain, Dr. Jagdish Chandra Jain, Laxmi Devi Chudawat, Dr. Ramkumar
Verma, Dr. Nagendra, Balraj Sahani, Durgawati Singh and Dr. Jai Prakash Bharati and may others.
These travelogues describe and evaluate social, political, economical, educational, the values, attitudes
of Russian life and culture and literature, and also important places in a very interesting manner.
Jawaharlal Nehru has also given an interesting record of overall developments of Russians. These
writers minutely describe the differences between capitalist and communist approaches in
Government.
The travels to China and Japan also form a significant travel literature. Ramari (1952), Bhagatwat
Sharan Upadhyay, Rahul Sancratayana, Omprakash, Mantri, Ramkrishna Bajaj, Indu Jain, Ramdhari
Singh Dinkar have narrated their experiences in dairy form, and evaluated the economic progress of
Japan, City Architecture, the Japanese courtesy, their traffic planning and industrial development, and
have also caricatured inner aspect of life of Japanese in an intimate style. But some writers have
written on their travelogues of more than one country. The significant writers are Rahul Sancratyan,
Seth Govinddas, Ram Virsha Benpuri, Dhirendra Varma, Bhagawat Sharan Upadhyay, Smt Vimla
Kapoor, Swami Satya Bhakta, Ramdhari Singh Dinkar, Brij Kishore Narayanan, Ramkumar
Bhuvneshwat Prasad,Ramkrishna Bajaj, Prabhakar Machwe, Nirmal Verma, Satish Kumar,
Rameshwar Tantiya, Dr. Nagendra, Shrikant Varma, Shyamsingh Shastri, Trilok Deep, Anant Gopal
Shevde, Govind Misra, Shivani Pradeep Pant, Swami Sachidanand, Indira Mishra, Hemanshu Joshi,
Devendra Satyagarhi, Lallan Prasad Vyas and so on. Seth Govinddas in Sudur Dakshin Purva is about
Singapore, Australia, Newzealand and Fiji. In Prithvi Parikrima, he writes about Egypt, Greece,
Italy, Switzerland, France, Canada, America, China and Japan, their beauty and grandeur, and social,
political life and also on historical monuments.
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Bhagawat Sharan Upadhyay in his Voh-Duniya (1952) describes about Isarael, Canada, America,
England, Norway, Sweden, Denmark, Holand, Belgium, France, Greece, Egypt in the most interesting
manner. Swami Satya Bhakta’s Meri Africa Yatra (1955) describes his visit to Kenya and Yuganda.
Smt. Vimla Kapoor in Anjana Deshmein (1955) has poetic as well as literary style and describes
travelogue to Europe, America and Japan. Yashpal’s Rahabin (1956) is again a travelogue on Russia,
Vienna, London, Rome and Kabul and throws ample light on social and political life of these
countries.
Ramdhari Singh Dinker in his Desh Videsh (1957), I1970, Ageya’s Ek Boond Sahsa Uchli are very
famous travelogue to Rome, Paris, Berlin, France. Other notable writers are Gopal Prasad Vyas,
Prabhakar Machwe, Vishnu Prabhakar and Rameshwar Tantiya who describe their Europe Visit,
provide their anecdotes, write about Night pubs, Negros of New York, Grandeur of Leningrad and
even visit to Pakistan. Dr. Nagendra, Srikant Varma, Rajendra Avasthi Sailani ki Dairy (1977) are
notable among many others. Trilok Deep, Pradeep Pant’s ‘Safar - Hamsafar’ (1988), Indira Mishra’s
Do Tarah Ke Log (1990) , Himanshu Joshi’s Yatrayaen (1991) are worth mentioning.Vishnu
Prabhakar’s Jyoti Punj Himalaya (1982) describe his three travels to the Himalaya.
In the Travel literature after independence, it is not the description of a particular place that matters but
it is the travelers’ own reaction and impressions that find more expression but they try to delve deep
into deeper recesses of human mind and its nature and areas unexplored. Rather than the mere
description of places, the writers make use of images and symbols to analyze and express their world
of experiences. Writers of Travel literature are constantly making endeavors towards something more
creative achievement.
Dr. Sachidanands’ Vatssayan Ageya’s Ek Boond Sahsa Ucchli (1988) which runs into 206 pages
divided into 49 chapters is a remarkable travelogue to European countries and covers almost whole of
Europe. He writes in the first person narrative technique as a detached observer with reasonable
expressions. His language is highly polished and sanskritised yet having intimate conversational
touch. He writes and narrates like a protagonist as Tiresias does in T.S. Eliot’s The Wasteland and
himself remains a unifying link through the different chapters. He compares all European countries.
He observes that a lonely person in Paris becomes the loneliest person in the world and becomes bereft
of all means. He describes the grandeur and beauty of Paris, ideosyneracies of the French, Extra
money and extra trip in Hotels. He is all praises for Netherland, Scotland and especially and minutely
differentiated them from the English. He finds London less beautiful than Switzerland , Rome, Paris
yet he appreciates some intimate tones with London. London has been all the time different to different
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persons as with different perspectives often referred to as Shakespeare’s London, Keats’ London,
Addison and Steele’s London and London as an Indian student of English Literature often perceives it
to be. Its infatuation is colossal, unique and different. But he finds London in reality altogether
different from his own subjective perception of it. He says London after 1966 has perhaps drastically
changed. Ageya shows his special fondness for Edinburgh and finds it most beautiful city of the world
in terms of sum total effects and combinations it has.
Ageya is defensive about India He never lets it down. He compares Kashmir to Switzerland. He
always compares the past and present and telescopes past and future through the telescope of present.
He is pensive philosophical and speculative in his description with grim satire and grim humor. He
never uses irony and satire but expresses all aspect with geniality. He has written in a diary manner
and also has conveyed information in the form of letters.
At times when there is a real need he goes into historical reminiscences and historical background to
equip his readers with necessary information but in a detached manner and we find no exaggeration.
He explains the historical conflict between the English and the Scots in the most detached and
reasonable way. He tries to be very objective yet subjectively lends a charm to his expression. He
always means more than what he describe in a moderate manner.
He appreciates the standing sun rays over Europe that make it beautiful as against India’s scorching
heat. Therefore he has depicted the social political, economical, and culture and character of all
European races with historical reminiscences, recorded his observations of persons and places and
diversities and has done justice to his work.
We now see travel literature on the T.V. ‘The Lonely Planet’ and ‘The Travel and Adventure’ are
especially remarkable. The traveler (whether Ian Wright or others) take us to a tour and narrates in the
first person with a very intimate, informal and conversational style. The one hour T.V. Serial often
describes the whole visit in 8 days either to a small country or a big city (as in USA) day by day as day
1, Day 2, and so on.
The travelers shows the important places, means of transport, conveyance within city, important stay
facilities and their arguments, excursions, rivers, mountains, and the natural beautiful spots, then
shows the important food habits, main food items and recipes and also. He shows important worship
places, religious festivals, clothing, important sports and games, and tradition and customs. There are
virtual flights and visits CDs, and travel literature on Internet which also beautifully describe a
country.
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Spirituality in the Poetry of Rabindranath Tagore and Makarand Dave :
A Comparative Study
Dr. Dushyant Nimavat
Sardar Patel University
Vallabh Vidyanagar,
Anand, Gujarat, INDIA.
Radhika D. Pandya
Research Scholar
C. U. Shah University
Surendranagar, Gujarat, INDIA.
Abstract
This research paper will inquire into the spiritual poetic world of two giants belong to two different literature.
Tagore- Indian representative of spirituality and Makarand Dave- a poet seer in Gujarati literary circle.
Spirituality is the term that basically relates to philosophy. But through the ages it has been the oftrepeated subject
in literature also. In Indian literature spirituality is always combined with the religion. A sight of reality and
spiritual attainment are the linking bids between philosophical, mystical and spiritual poem. They are result of the
same spiritual vision. Spiritualistics like Tagore and Makarand Dave were enough capable to express their
spiritual insights through word-physic. Profound faith and immense love for God are clearly visible in the poems of
Tagore and Makarand Dave. They were poets who attained selfrealisation through the path directed in Vedas,
Upnishads and in other sources of Indian philosophy. This paper focuses on the spiritual aspects presented in the
poetry of Tagore and Makarand Dave. In this paper a comparative study has been done on the dealings and
differences of both the poets with theme of spirituality.
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Introduction
Gitanjali was widely read and received in Gujarati literature after it won the Nobel prize in 1913.
Translation of Gitanjali and other works of Tagore, became popular in the first half of the twentieth
century. Gujarati poets turned to the mystical and spiritual poetry under Tagore’s influence. Ramesh Dave
remarks in his preface of Gujarati Sahitya no Itihaas- vol.6:
In the decade of 1930s, Gujarati literature was greatly influenced by the ideas of Gandhi-Sardar-Nehru,
Radhakrishnan, Rabindranath, Kruplani, Kalelkar and many others. (Trans. by R.P.)
Makrand Dave (1922-2005) was a well-known poet in Gujarati literature. He was a profound thinker and
had firm views on life and the world. He was not a follower of any particular tradition in Gujarati poetry
but his poetry stands unique in its achievement. Like Tagore, Makrand Dave was also known as a poet of
spirituality and mysticism in Gujarati literature. His literary outputs were not obliged to literary
acclamation. He has been known as a poet seer in Gujarati literary circle.
In Tagore’s works one can see imprints of the Ramayana, the Mahabharata, the Vedas, the Upnishads and
other sources of Indian philosophy. Beside this, he also followes spritual cult of the Baul saints of Bengal.
In the same way, Makrand Dave has highly received Indian philosophy in his poetry. Gujarati saints or
Bhakti poetic tradition has been constantly voiced by Makarand Dave in his poetic creations. Suresh
Dalal remarks in his critical preface to a collection of poems titled Amal Piyali by Makrand Dave :
(Dalal,1980:11).
(Baul songs express devotional and spiritual ideas. Makrand found such poems of Rabindranath Tagore
familiar and intimate as if his own poems. As far as the ambience and sentiments are concerned Makrand
is closer to Rabindranath Tagore while in language he reminds us of Zaverchand Meghani. It seems that,
the poetry of Makrand is visibly influenced by Tagore and Meghani.) (Trans. by R.P.)
Makrand Dave has received Tagore in his poetry by writing poetry of spiritual mysticism. He followed
Gujarati Bhajan (Devotional song) style in composing his poems. There are unity of rhythm and harmony
yet, he has used simple language and a tone of intimacy. His poems do not reveal despair, dejection,
agony or pain. He is like Kabir, who was a fakir- rest in self happiness. His devotional poetry is a refined
products of his spritual attainments. He expresses the idea of union with God in his poems. He also wrote
well-crafted sonnets and spiritual gazals.
Here are a few lines from Makrand Dave’s poem Aditho Sangath and Tagore’s Gitanjali, verse No.99
translated by Shailesh Parekh:
Gitanjali Verse No.99
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(S.Parekh,2002:185).
Aditho Sangath :
(Dave,1980:42).
The poem Aditho Sangath has been addressed to God. The lines in poem express his spiritual faith in
God. Here, the devotion of the devotee results into deep faith on Him. Makarand Dave expresses that
almighty will never disappoint his devotee. Whenever there will be a time of despair and loneliness in life
He is always with us. Such endless faith in God results in to spiritual attainments of Makarand Dave.
Tagore and Makrand Dave, both have used symbolic representations of life. Tagore presented life as a
‘ship’ (‘
’) sailing to spiritual destination and Makrand Dave symbolizes life as a spiritual quest.
In Gitanjali verse No.99, Tagore prays to God for taking the ship of life under His control. Makrand Dave
also finds God’s help whenever he needs, surrenders himself to God. He calls it ‘…aditho sangath’, an
unknown companion. Here, Gujarati version of Gitanjali verse No.99 has been taken from Shailesh
Parekh’s bi-lingual translation of the classic. In this translation the line, ‘
’, suggests his deep
faith in God. In the last line he says that, ‘
’ because ‘
’. Both Tagore and
Dave communicate the faith, hope and devotion of the devotee in their poems. These stanzas also show
the intimacy of the devotee with God. The tone of the lines in both the stanzas sounds like prayer. In the
lines from Aditho Sangath, there is the use of end-rhyme,
in the alternate lines of the poem.
Makrand Dave’s poetry evidences the influences of Tagore in matters of themes and style. Suresh Dalal
aptly comments:
Dalal,1980:12As in the poetry of Tagore, the expressions of Makrand yearn for the refinement of soul and
thoughts. (Dalal,1980:12, Trans. by R.P.)
We can further trace the influence of Tagore on Makrand Dave from his poem titled Shu Janu? While
comparing it with Gitanjali:
Gitanjali Verse No. 38
That I want thee, only theeLet my heart repeat without end
All desires that distract me,
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day and night,
are false and empty to the core.
As the night keeps hidden in its gloom the petition for light,
even thus
in the depth of my unconsciousness rings the cry‘I want thee, only thee’.
As the storm still seeks its end in peace
when it strikes against peace with all its might,
even thus
my rebellion strikes against thy love
and still its cry is‘I want thee, only thee’ (Tagore,1974:76).
Here, Tagore has expressed burning desire to meet God. Further he says that, there are many worldly
desires which take him away from God. But still he has hope, as the light comes after the darkness of
night, he can meet God after the pangs of separation. In the last line he expresses his longing. At the
end of storm there is peace. Similarly, he yearns God after the stormy feelings which used to led him
for worldly pleasures. The same idea is echoed in Makrand Dave’s following poem taken from a
collection Amal Piyali;
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(Dave,1980:73).
The yearning for the divine, we found in Tagore has been depicted in simple Gujarati by Dave. The tone
of the poet is that of conversation with Him. He considers God as an apple of his eye. His dedication to
see Him face to face is the same as in Tagore. Yearning for the union with God is conveyed by Makrand
Dave in this enchanting lyric. By comparing the above two poems, one can see clear influences of Tagore
on the poetry of Makrand Dave. As in Tagore, we also find in Makrand Dave the quest for the glimpse of
God.
Thus, many Gujarati poets have been influenced by Tagore’s poetic works. They have received Tagore
differently. Umashankar Joshi received Tagore as an advocate of universal peace. Rajendra Shah and
Niranjan Bhagat followed Tagore in the matter of devotional and nature poetry. Makrand Dave is close to
Tagore in his spiritual quest. Consequently Tagore has put an idea of Indian philosophy and spirituality
on international stage. While Makarand Dave may surpassed in expression of spirituality in his poetry but
limited to Gujarati literary circle.
References
Soni, Raman. Ed. Gujarati Sahitya no Ithihas. 2nd ed. Vol.3. Ahemedabad : Gujarati Sahitya Parishad, 2005.
--- Ed. Gujarati Sahitya no Ithihas. 2nd ed. Vol.4 Ahemedabad : Gujarati Sahitya Parishad, 2005.
Tagore, Rabindranath. Gitanjali.Chennai: Macmillan India Ltd. 1974.
Trivedi, Ramesh. Arvachin Gujarati Sahitya no Ithihas. Ahemedabad : Aadarsh Prkashan, 1994. Third Reprint
2005.
Ghose, Sisirkumar. Rabindranath Tagore. New Delhi : Sahitya Akademi, 1986. Second reprint 1994.
Jhaveri, Mansukhlal. History of Gujarati Literature. New Delhi: Sahitya Akademi, 1987.
Naik, M.K. A History of Indian English Litrature. New Delhi : Sahitya Akademi, 1982. Reprinted 2007.
Dave, Ramesh. Ed. Gujarati Sahitya no Ithihas. 1st ed. Vol.5 Ahemdabad : GujaratiSahitya Parishad, 2005.
--- Ed. Gujarati Sahitya no Ithihas. 1st ed. Vol.6 Ahemdabad : Gujarati Sahitya Parishad,2006.
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Angst in Mahesh Dattani’s Play Where Did I Leave My Purdah?
Dr. Manish Sharma (Pandey)
Professor of English
MJB Government Girls PG College
Indore, Madhya Pradesh, INDIA.
Contemporary Indian drama in English, Hindi and other vernacular languages has taken great strides in
terms of both thematic concern and technical innovations. The dramatists have tapped the vitality of
history, myth, legend and folklore with commendable results. Mohan Rakesh, Badal Sircar, Vijay
Tendulkar and Girish Karnad have remained the most representative of the contemporary Indian drama
not only in Hindi, Bengali, Marathi and Kannada respectively but also on the pan- Indian level.
In recent times, Mahesh Dattani has emerged as a name who has become synonymous with modern
Indian Drama. Dattani has the recreated the rich and vibrant picture of Indian society, culture and its
people. In all his plays he genuinely portrays the Indian way of life along with its relative contemporary
importance. Dattani’s plays speak across linguistic and cultural barriers. His plays have universal appeal
and hence they have been successful both in India and abroad. In all his plays, almost invariably, Dattani
takes up a contemporary issue which has an implicit and hidden social message too. His plays like
Bravely Fought the Queen, On a Muggy Night in Mumbai, Tara, Final Solutions, Thirty Days in
September, etc. deal with various issues like homosexuality, gender discrimination, communalism, incest
and child sexual abuse. Mahesh Dattani’s recent play Brief Candle deals with the plight of cancer
patients. The play’s social concern is part of Dattani’s response to everyday social problems. In the radio
play The Girl Who Touched the Star, Dattani leaps into 2025 and visualizes life through the conflicts and
aspirations of a young astronaut, Bhavna. Bhavna fights the childhood demons of ingrained gender
discrimination and aspires to touch the Mars. Dattani probes the psyche of Bhavna’s parents in a very
convincing way.
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In the play Where did I Leave My Purdah?, the protagonist Nazia is an eighty two years old actress whose
talents are now confined to the histrionics of playing grandmother roles in films. Nazia is so embittered
when she is given a single line dialogue that she blurts out:
Oh! This van is too small! It can’t take my dancing.
Your cinema is too small for me. My life is big.
I am big and GENEROUS! Only the theatre deserves me!
(Dattani 5)
Dattani explores in depth Nazia’s guilt ridden past and successful dance-drama career spanning nearly
forty years. Nazia plans to restart the theatre company which she used to tour in the 1950s but before
that She has to overcome her personal dilemmas. Success has its own price and very often successful
persons are accused of being selfish and have strained personal relationships. Nazia is no exception.
Nazia is proclaimed to be a stubborn and heartless woman but as the narrative moves back and forth
between the 1950s and 1980s, the layers of the character are slowly taken peeled off to reveal the true
vulnerabilities and pain that lie beneath Nazia’s obsession to play Shakuntala. Nazia comes across as
passionate woman who is now trying desperately to forget her own painful past and move on with the
strides of time.
Pre-colonial, colonial and post-colonial experiences in literature cannot be compartmentalized or
segregated, rather they are intertwined. Successive ways of colonialization have left their vestiges in the
national psyche and national polity of our country. Before independence the Indian theatre was under
Western influence. But in the post-independence period theatre went in process of liberating itself from
western influence. So, in pre-independence days drama in English could not occupy that established place
which was enjoyed by the plays in mother tongue. Dattani uses English language as a link that helps to
bind many segments of our society together. Dattani uses English in such a manner that the language of
autocracy becomes the language of democracy.
The dialogues in his plays are not marked by any ornamentation or decoration. Dattani has simplified his
language with a purpose. The purpose is the theatrical necessity where the theatre is in process of being
democratized. A few dialogues from Dattani’s play Where did I Leave My Purdah? will exemplify the
fact that he writes his plays to be watched and heard; and not to be read, “I don’t care, I would rather die
with you than live without you.”(Dattani17) Or
“I am saying all this not to be cruel to you. I just want you to come out of yourself and
look around. We are all victims of our time.”(Dattani 29)
Gayatri Spivak in Can the Subaltern Speak? analyses the question of female subaltern, when she
describes woman as doubly marginalized subjects in colonial / postcolonial discourses:
Within the effaced itinerary of the subaltern subject the track of sexual difference is
doubly affected… it is rather, that, both as object of colonialist historiography and as
subject of insurgency, the ideological construction of gender keeps the male dominate,
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if, in the context of colonial production, the subaltern has no history and cannot speak,
the female as female is more deeply in shadow.
Spivak quotes female subaltern as “doubly effected” due to the ‘otherness’ of postcolonial literature. In
Dattani’s plays- Kiran, the Mistress of Hasmukh in Where There is a Will and Ratna, the wife of Jairaj in
Dance Like a Man both belong to the post-colonial era, the new woman bold and self confident. On the
other hand Tara, in the play with the same name, is a victim of sex discrimination, old Baa, Dolly and
Alka are victims of different trends (in Bravely Fought the Queen): Dolly victim of a brutal husband, old
Baa deserted by her husband and Alka, the wife of homosexual. Nazia in Where Did I leave My Purdah?
is a bold and assertive woman who superficially ignores her personal relationships in a ruthless way and
stands firmly for her vocation. She is an assertive postcolonial woman who almost single handedly
attempts to revive the post-partition theatre. But beneath the facade is the vulnerable Nazia who is
haunted by the demons of her past - her forced motherhood which is a result of rape and the unfortunate
demise of her younger sister Zarine. Nazia refuses to accept Ruby as her daughter because:
I could not look at you, without all that coming back! You were my flesh, wounded,
humiliated. I didn’t cry when you came at. I was relieved- that the tapeworms infesting
my belly left by those pigs who ate at my flesh, were out of my body…Not because I
hated you, but s cd DVD because I hated myself. Even today when I look at you…it
comes back. (Dattani 52)
The male hegemony subtly comes alive when Nazia reminiscences about Suhel’s attitude. Suhel is so
obsessed with the aura of motherhood that he thinks if Nazia holds the baby everything will be alright.
Adrienne Rich very aptly comments:
Though motherhood is the experience of women, the institution of motherhood is under
male control and the physical situation of becoming a mother is disciplined by males.
This glorious motherhood imposed on women conditions her entire life. (Rich 45)
Other women in the play too undergo different turmoils. Zarine loses her life in the aftermath of postpartition bloodshed and Ruby suffers due to her troubled legacy. Dattani’s women suffer as traditional
beings and at the same time emerge as emphatic postcolonial women. The chasm between the two
categories of woman presents the rift between colonial consciousness and postcolonial compulsion. The
postcolonial dichotomy comes alive and Dattani hints at the plight of women, torn between being and
becoming.
The postcolonial writers thematically offered the gift of the east in the form of Sanskrit epics, Hindu
Myths and legends. Dattani too, refuses to become a sycophantic instrument of the imperial infiltration of
Indian culture and literature. His central characters are product of colonial consciousness and they are in
search of their lost self. Nazia, Zarine and Suhel are the victims of British Colonialism and the resultant
partition of the country. Partition of the country was the most lethal incident in the history of India and
left an indelible mark on the psyche of every Indian. Novels like Khushwant singh’s Train to Pakistan and
Amitav Ghosh The Shadow Lines focus on the repercussion of this fateful destiny of India, its ugliness
and brutality. Unfortunately, contemporary Indian urban theatre in English has neglected the sensitive
issues like partition and its after effects on the Indian people. Dattani in the present play not only portrays
the post-partition trauma but also highlights the aspirations of the people in the post-independence
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scenario. Modern Indian theatre is a clear reference to IPTA- an association founded in accordance with
the aspirations of the people who had recently achieved political independence. Nazia resembles real life
stage film and television actress Zohra Sehgal. Lillete Dubey who has directed the play as well as played
the role of Nazia on stage agrees to this resemblance. But she is quick to add that Nazia is an
amalgamation of several actresses whose performance alternates between stage and screen. Sehgal sisters
were a part of Prithvi theatre.
The postcolonial writers thematically offer the gifts of the East in the form of Sanskrit epics, Hindu myths
and legends and did not desist from the portrayal of the Indian background. Far from being the
sycophantic instrument of the imperial infiltration of Indian culture and literature, Dattani seeks to enrich
literature by contributing his own Indian and feminine perception to the world. His central characters are
product of colonial consciousness and they are in search of their lost self. The British cunningly imposed
the western materialistic values on Indian culture and civilisation. This was in sharp contrast to the Indian
tradition that is essentially non-acquisitic in its emphasis but had to undergo radical change. The erosion
of enduring tradition brought dichotomy in the postcolonial writing. Nazia, Suhel and others too are the
victims of this conflict. Nazia repents her decision of leaving the family but at the same time retains the
passion for her art.
Interestingly the term Post Modern Indian theatre is directly used by Dattani, through
Nazia’s dialogue when she declares the play ‘Shaku’as an epitome of the Post –Modern Theatre. Dattani
attempts to deconstruct Kalidasa’s Abhigyan Shakuntalam. There is a play within the play. As the play
progresses the character of Shakuntala which was played by Nazia at various junctures of her life, dons
various varying shades. Nazia plans a modern version of Abhigyan Shakuntalam in which she plans to
replace kathak by something ‘snappy’ and downloaded stuff from the ITunes store. Accordingly the sage
will be replaced by a movie director. Nazia is obsessed with Shakuntala’s character. The modern version
of Shakuntala also symbolizes Nazia’s attempt to break away from the painful memories of past . But past
is part of present and has seeds for the future . It is only when Nazia fights and faces the demons of her
past that she is able to overcome her trauma and emerge as a strong creative person.
While playing the role of Shakuntala the lines between the character and the person blur. Nazia feels
when Suhel plays the role of Dushyant, he echoes his real feelings and seems to remind her of the rape
and the resultant pregnanacy. But Nazia is not Shakuntala- she is not a helpless, docile character who will
succumb to male chauvinism. The intertextual reference of Abhigyan Shakuntalam invokes a live contact
between the dramatist and the audience as the play is a part and parcel of our cultural heritage. The
trauma of partition and the communal tension hovers in the play.
Dattani simply holds up a mirror to the society but is reluctant to offer readymade solutions. In an
interview Dattani was questioned regarding this approach and he replied in a manner befitting a postmodern writer: Audiences need to make the effort. Unlike TV or cinema where the viewer does not have
to contribute, theatre is a collective experience. In fact, at a moment of truth, you will find how people
who don’t know each other join in from all corners of the darkened hall to applaud and declare their
appreciation of that important moment. And that’s when you know a play works. (Dattani in an
interview.www.anitanair.net/profiles/profile-Maheshdattani.htm, website visited on 1/02/2014)
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The word ‘purdah’ is time and again used in the play and acquires multifarious shifting dimensions in the
present day post-colonial and postmodern world. Dattani uses the word purdah as a metaphor for all kinds
of partitions including the one between men and women and also as the veil of modesty that actors have
to give up early in their career. Purdah also denotes a purdah on the stage. Zarine loses her life in the postpartition riots because she gives her purdah (Burqua) to Nazia and the same Burqua is used by Nazia as a
shroud for her sister. After the tragedy Nazia never wears a Burqua. But Nazia dons a psychological
purdah. She puts a veil of amnesia and locks her memories in a closet but they continue to haunt her.
Mahesh Dattani’s plays have varied content and appeal. He never wishes his thematic content to rise to
extraordinary heights. But what makes Mahesh Dattani one of Indian’s finest playwrights is the manner in
which he speaks to the audience straight from the heart. In the present play, Dattani speaks about his
vocation as a dramatist. Vinay and Ruby seem to echo Dattani’s views when they pronounce their views
regarding the art of theatre and the hardships faced by it. Dattani intends to achieve a harmony through
the languages of theatre, as he himself comments:
Man has created a very complex language called theatre. A language that has the ability
to redefine the natural concepts of time, space and movement. A language that goes
beyond the verbal, a movement that goes beyond the physical. Through this language of
theatre he has been able to see himself for who he is, what he has made of himself and
what he aspires to be. (Dattani 1)
Mahesh Dattani writes purely for the theatre and is a very conscious artist who always gives proper and
elaborate stage-directions. Dattani believes that the written texts are fully realized only through the
process of performance. He deals with the issues which are very much a part of the educated urban
society but the people do not want to confront them .Dattani provides a platform for such realities in a
sensitive manner so that the people become acutely aware of them. Dattani has created vibrant drama
which is definitely a development on the hitherto stagnant Indian drama in English.
References
Dattani.Mahesh,“Contemporary Indian Theatre and Its Relevance,”Journal of Indian Writting in English,
Vol.30,No.1, Jan. 2002
Dattani, Mahesh. Where did I Leave My Purdah, Unpublished
Rich Adrienne , Of Woman Born Newyork: Bantam, 1967 Print.
Spivak, Gayatri. “Can the Subaltern Speak” The Postcolonial Studies Reader, ed. Bil Ashcroft, et al.
www.anitanair.net/profiles/profile-Maheshdattani.htm, website visited on 1/02/2014.
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Nature as the Greatest Gash-Healer :
A Close Study of the Short Stories of Ruskin Bond
Yatharth N.Vaidya
Lecturer in English,
Government Polytechnic,
Rajkot, Gujarat, INDIA.
Dr. R. J. Raval
Lecturer in Englis,
Government Polytechnic College,
Rajkot, Gujarat, INDIA.
Abstract
Inadvertently I dislodged a beehive under one of the steps. I was immediately attacked by a swarm of angry bees,
who proceeded to sting me on my face, arms and legs. I got down the stairs and ran indoors, screaming for help.
(Bond , vii)
Whether we take the above words as a wake up call or the unreciprocated didactic tone of his writing, Ruskin
Bond, out of his love for humanity, seems to be concerned about Nature. When most of the modern writers appear
to be preoccupied with urban backgrounds and concern, Bond seems to be depicting rural beauty and natural
panorama while echoing the perishing avenues of Mother Earth. Not for nothing, he has been called ‘Our very own
resident Wordsworth in prose’ by India Today. His short stories are not merely the piece of writing, rather his
intimate relationship with the natural world which has sustained and inspired him over the years. He was, every
moment, very keen to find the lap of Nature as Nature was his greatest guardian, sire and God. At one juncture,
vindicating the importance of natural phenomena in human life, he writes,
I wouldn’t go so far as to say that a garden is the answer to all problems, but it’s amazing how a little digging and
friendly dialogue with the good earth can help reactivate us when we grow sluggish. (Bond, 34)
The present paper aims at exploring critically Bond’s affinity between Nature and the life of human beings and the
influence of Nature on human life in general.
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Ruskin Bond occupies an important place in the history of Indian writing in English. He is a tireless
writer of above 500 short stories. In his stories, he represents particularly North India where he lives at
present. Bond has enchanted and thrilled his readers of all ages by providing the setting of the different
hilly areas of the mountain Himalayas. He is one of the very few Indian writers who is more devoted to
the life of the hilly people, as compared to urban life, as he firmly believes that people of hills are nearer
to Nature than the people of the city. People of hills, having lost their whole belongings in natural
calamities, somehow manage to sustain in the hills as they are always optimistic and have deep faith in
Nature that it will never betray them.
The present paper aims at exploring critically Bond’s delineation of affinity between Nature and the life
of human beings and the influence of Nature on human life in general. Nature, in the short stories of
Bond, stands as the unfailing source of joy and remedy of all human predicaments. And therefore, he goes
to the extent of saying that all the ennui and irks of human life are the result of man’s estrangement from
Nature. ‘In Angry River’, Bond discusses this affinity between nature and human beings through the
characters of Sita and the boy. Whatever mood the river shows, it is not possible for them to leave since
they are part and parcel of it.
“Sometimes the river is angry, and sometimes it is kind,” said Sita “We are the part of
the river,” said the boy.
“We cannot live without it.” It was a good river, deep and strong,
mountains and ending in the sea. (Bond, 93)
beginning in the
Bond shows that people are so attached to natural phenomena that they like to be destroyed with it rather
to stay away from it. Here, the river is personified as goddess. The concept of mother earth is not new or
strange to these people. All natural resources like the river, the fire, the earth, the sea, the mountain, even
the dust have their special values and have been worshipped as God and Goddess.
In another story titled ‘Mother Hill’, Bond praises The Himalayan Mountains.
People come and go, the mountains remain. Mountains are permanent things. They are
stubborn, they refuse to move. You can blast holes out of them for their mineral wealth,
strip them of their tree and foliage, or dam their streams and divert their current. You
can make tunnels and roads and bridge; but no matter how hard they try, humans can
not actually get rid of the mountains. (Bond, 10)
Here, mountains represent Nature. Like mountains, Nature is a permanent thing. In spite of constant
attempts to spoil Nature, humans cannot actually get rid of Nature. Perhaps this is how, Bond shows
superiority of Nature over human beings.
In ‘Dust on the Mountain’, Bond depicts a forest fire. The fire spreads because of the human carelessness
and soon spreads in the vast area of the forest which cannot be controlled by human beings. But the rain
saves, in a few minutes, thousands of trees getting perished in flames. So to say, Nature has that
magnanimity, benevolence and capacity to rectify the human errors. As Bishnu optimistically says, “If the
monsoon arrives tomorrow, the fire will go out.”(Bond, 98)
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Hilly people know about the superiority of the Nature and therefore they want to stand by it, even if the
Nature shows its wrath. They always trust the nature under any circumstances. Bond conveys the message
that we should always remain faithful to the Nature and trust Nature forever like these hilly people whose
lives are happier than us. Thus, Nature becomes gash-healer.
The story ‘Dust on the Mountain’ also mentions the condition of drought in the hills. He shows that even
under this condition of drought people survive and sustain their life in the hills. It is the tendency of
Indian people that they are capable of fighting against any kind of natural disaster. People have learnt to
live with and among natural disasters and basically they have deep faith in the compassion and nobility of
God which makes them go even in the face of despair and grief. In this story, the Oak tree becomes
instrumental in saving the lives of Bishnu and Pritam in the mountains. As Bond describes,
The truck hurtled forward, bouncing over the rocks, turning over on its side and rolling
over it twice before coming to rest against the trunk of a scraggy old oak tree. But for
the tree, the truck would have plunged several hundred feet down to the bottom of the
gorge. (Bond, 112)
Pritam explains the importance of trees to Bishnu, “But for the tree, the truck would have finished up at
the foot of the mountain, and I wouldn’t be here, all bandaged up and talking to you. It was the tree that
saved me. Remember that, boy.”(113) In the same story, Bishnu who goes to Mussoorie by bus for work
becomes worried when he finds the road without trees. He asks the reasons: An old man sitting in the next
seat of the bus replies,
There were trees here once but the contractors took the deodars for the furniture and
house s. And the pines were tapped to death for resin. And the oaks were stripped of
their leaves to feed the cattle- You can still see a few tree- skeletons if you look hard –
and the bushes that remained were finished off by goats! (Bond, 100)
Like Bond, Showing concern for the natural world around, the famous essay writer and renowned critic in
Gujarati literature, Gunavant Shah humbly suggests the need to expand our compassion and friendship up
to each and every leaf of the world of trees…Isn’t it strange that we worship the Rain God and go on
destroying forests? Because of this massacre, the ‘hair-style’ of the earth is being disturbed. (Shah, 1987)
Bond’s concern for the vegetations and the forest of north India comes out in the story ‘Dust on the
Mountain’ very clearly. He feels pain to see Mussoorie with the skeleton of a few trees.
Bishnu watched in awe as shrubs and small trees were flung into the air. It always
frightens him- not so much the sight of the rocks bursting asunder, as the trees being
flung aside and destroyed. He thought of the trees at home- the walnut, the chestnuts,
and the pines- and wondered if one day they would suffer the same fate, and whether
the mountains would all become a desert like this particular range. No trees, no grass,
no water – only the choking dust of mines and quarries. (Bond, 109-110)
‘My Father’s Trees in Dehra’ depicts the sojourn, benevolent and warm kind of relationship between the
plant and the human beings. Bond mentions the scientific reason refuses to believe it.
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I noticed the tendril of a creeping wine, that was trailing near my feet as we sat there,
doing nothing in particular – in the best gardens, time has (sic) nominee. I found that the
tendril was moving almost imperceptibly away from me and towards my father. Twenty
minutes later, it had crossed the verandah steps and was touching his feet. This, in India
is the sweetest of salutations. This is probably a scientific explanation for the plant’s
behavior—something to do with the light and warmth on the verandah steps- But I like
to think that its movements were motivated simply by an affection for my father. (Bond,
119)
Again at the end of the story, he mentions that the trees know him. The voice of a cuckoo on a tree seems
to ask him who-are-you, who-are-you. It appears to him as if the trees beckon him near. This feeling of
being called by a cuckoo or a tree is nothing but his genuine communion with natural phenomena that can
find books in running brooks and sermons in stones. In the similar fashion, ‘The Funeral’ purports the
liveliness of relation between the trees and human beings. The story describes a boy whose father is dead
and is buried under the ground. He wonders why people make it difficult for the dead to rise when he
watches his father’s coffin covered with the earth. He fears that even Samson cannot come out. His father
is a gentle soul. At the end of the story he consoles himself that his father would grow into a tree and
escape that way.
The geographical setting also has the direct relationship with the behavior of the characters in short
stories of Ruskin Bond. The hilly people are simple, rustic and less educated. They are satisfied with what
they have and do not aspire more. Their activities take place in natural surroundings. Such people are not
ambitious, jealous and greedy so they are happy, while people who live in cities are highly ambitious,
greedy and jealous and never satisfied with what they have rather want to obtain more. Material pleasure
is everything to them; therefore they are not happy and suffer more than the people who live in hills. As
Murli Prasad writes, “Bond is overtly sympathetic to rural, rustic, plain and rugged characters. They have
patience and perseverance and free from guile and cunning. They take life as it comes to them.” (116)
Bond always prefers to live in hills as he has a special fascination for hills. As he mentions in ‘The
Leopard’,
I had lived in cities too long and had returned to the hills to renew myself, both
physically and mentally. Once you have lived with mountains for any length of time
you belong to them, and must return again and again. (Bond, 147-48)
Bond is a writer who prefers solitude of small towns that is suitable to his profession, rather than social
life of big cities. The company of hills and his writing is enough for him. He expresses this feeling in
‘The story of Madhu’ as,
I preferred the solitude of the small district town to the kind of social life I might have
found in the cities; and in my books, my writing and the surrounding hills, there was
enough for my pleasure and occupation. (Bond, 99)
In ‘Death of a Familiar’ Bond describes the effect of geographical setting on characters. Sunil, the
notorious boy does not behave well as long as he is in Shahganj, a small town in the plains of north India.
As soon as he reaches Simla a hill station of north India, to great surprise of the narrator, he starts
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behaving well. Bond always believes that the atmosphere of hills does affect human beings. He expresses
this belief in the story through the narrator as,
I believe that mountains do affect one’s personality, if one can remain among them long
enough; and if Sunil had grown up in the hills instead of in a refugee township, I have
no doubt he would have been a different person. (Bond, 67)
The hilly setting not only affects the behavior of human beings, even it affects the behavior of the animal
like the monkey. The monkeys of hills are polite and dignified in their behavior towards each other. Bond
describes the behavioral difference among monkeys in ‘The Monkeys’ as, “They leapt gracefully from
tree to tree, and were very polite and dignified in their behavior towards each other—unlike the bold,
rather crude red monkeys of the plains.” (80-81)
Bond’s ‘The King and the Tree Goddess’ is a story of a king, living in the Himalayan foothills, once
decides to build a beautiful palace supported by one column from the tallest tree in his kingdom. In short,
the king wants to destroy the tallest Deodar tree in order to support his palace. He selects the tallest tree of
his own park, where lives a Tree-Goddess. When Tree-Goddess comes to know about this, she appears in
his dream and requests the king not to cut her down for the following reasons.
But consider, oh king! For hundreds of year I have been worshipped by the people of all
the villages in your kingdom, and nothing but good has gone out from me to them. The
birds nest in me. I send the most lovely (sic) shade upon the grass. Men rest against my
trunk and wild creatures rub themselves against me. The earth blesses me, and sends up
new plants and herbs under my protective arms. I bind the earth with my strong roots.
Children play at my feet, and women returning from the field seek refuge in my
coolness. (Bond, 196)
The king realizes his mistake and gives up his idea to build the palace on the tree column. Today, we are
destroying trees for our own benefit. If we do not stop from here, the world will soon become barren and
the whole environment will disturb. When all the people and scientist are crying loudly about the green
house effects, global warming etc, the relevance of study of Ruskin Bond’s works is very important
because people would realize their mistakes like the king and start respecting nature only, if from the very
young age they are taught values of nature and trees through the study of stories and myth.
Epilogue
The man has set out for progress leaving the forest too far behind. Now, when he looks
back, he understands and realizes that the forest has been lost; forever….The relation
between man and the world of tree is on the verge of extinction. May be, we may rebel
against the world to favour the forest; but the million dollar question is ‘will the trees
trust us once again as intimate?’ Who, at the end of the journey, will be the loser in this
alienation with the world of trees? (Shah, 68)
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References
Bond, Ruskin .(2007).‘Angry River’. New Delhi. Children’s Omnibus, Rupa & Co.
------ ‘Death of a Familiar’ (1999) New Delhi .Collected Fiction, Penguin India Ltd.
------ ‘Dust on the Mountain’. (2007). New Delhi .Children’s Omnibus, Rupa & Co.
------ ‘Mother Hill’.( 2005). New Delhi. Himalayan Tales. Rupa & Co.
------ ‘My Father’s Trees in Dehra’. (1999). New Delhi. Collected Fiction, Penguin -India Ltd.
------ ‘The Leopard’ (1999). New Delhi. Collected Fiction, Penguin India Ltd.
Shah, Gunavant. (1987). Silence Zone. Ahmedabad. R.R.Sheth & Co.
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Towards Hope and Fulfilment : A Comparative Study of T S Eliot’s The Waste Land
and Niranjan Bhagat’s The Coral Island
Vaseem G Qureshi
Assistant Professor
Vishwakarma Government Engineering College
Chandkheda, Ahmedabad.
Gujarat, INDIA.
Abstract
Thomas Sterns Eliot, an American poet and Niranjan Bhagat, an Indian poet are considered as modern poets by
their treatments to literature and their temperament. T S Eliot’s The Waste Land expresses the “disillusionment of
a generation”. The gloom and despair of the poet are mirrored in the poem. The Waste Land is considered as an
important landmark in the history of English poetry.
Niranjan Bhagat’s Pravaldveep inheres a balanced and seasoned expression of modernism. Though Pravaldveep is
about times, places and characters in Mumbai, it is more of a psychic geography than a merely physical one. The
title Pravaldveep (The Coral Island) is symbolic like Eliot’s The Waste Land, and evokes the picture of this island
city poised to sink anytime.
The paper proposes here the critical analysis of these two master pieces written in English and Gujarati
respectively by two modern poets, i.e. Eliot and Bhagat. Bhagat’s Pravaldveep, later translated into English as the
Coral Island also suggests the same themes like spiritual and emotional sterility of modern world, urbanization,
nothingness, unreal city ‘the aadhunik aranya’ etc as are treated in the Waste Land by Eliot.
Though we live in ‘aadhunik aranya’ or in ‘arid plain’ ‘where people are like paintings’ and men are nothing but
‘fierce creatures’, it’s upon us to be detached from materialistic world. If we guide ourselves for some noble cause,
if we learn to sympathize and realize that suffering alone leads to spiritual salvation, if we follow the golden rules
of ‘Datta. Dayadhvam. Damyatta.’ (Give, Sympathize, Be controlled), then, we would be away from the ‘fear in a
handful of dust’ and there would be nothing but “Shantih, Shantih, Shantih” in our life.
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Introduction
“Shape without form, shade without colour,
Paralysed force, gesture without motion.” (Eliot 83)
The modern men have been fighting for their existence. Out of their traumatic mental psyche, it is
difficult for them to bring out the solutions. Everyone’s desire towards urbanization results into a
compulsion where one has to live in ‘unreal’ city. The solace is only the dreams that they have. T S Eliot
describes mental uneasiness of the “Hollow Men”, of the modern humans of the modern era as above.
Thomas Sterns Eliot was born in the United States on 26th September 1888. His grandfather and his
mother contribute a lot to his development as a writer, especially as a religious poet. Eliot studied
philosophy at Harvard and also received some instructions in Sanskrit and Indian philosophy. With the
outbreak of 1st World War, Eliot had to come to England and continued his study at Oxford till 1915. His
early publication was Prufrock and Other Observations (1917). In 1927 he wrote Journey of the Magi
which is the moving religious poem. His other well-known works of literature are Ash Wednesday
(1930), Murder in the Cathedral (1935), Four Quartets (1944) etc. World recognition of his genius came
with the award of the Order of Merit and the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1948. He died on 4th January
1965 in London, leaving a void in the literary world which may never be filled.
Indian Poet Niranjan Bhagat was born on 18th May 1926 in the textile city – Ahmedabad. In 1946, he
completed his Intermediate Arts from L.D. Arts College in Ahmedabad then enrolled himself for a BA in
Mumbai. Life in Mumbai brought a profound yet tangible difference to his poetic consciousness. After
completing MA, he joined L.D. Arts College as a lecturer. And after teaching in various colleges, he
retired from St Xavier’s College in 1986, but continues to be a very active member of the literary circle in
Ahmedabad.
The most tragic event of his family and his personal life occurred when his father renounced home in
1936 when he was only 10. His poetry reflects a quest for childhood as well as for the father. This feeling
of loneliness and isolation at the age of 10 continued to be a part of the unmarried poet’s life. In
Chhandolaya and Sudhamaya Varuni we find a full realization of youthfulness and love. However later
there is a sudden change from a romantic outlook to a realistic one. Later on, he shed the traditional poetic
language and adopts the unadorned manner of the older poets. He communicates this shift not by
‘statement’ but through striking images and symbols. He received many famous awards like ‘Kumar
Chandrak’ in 1949, ‘Narmad Suvarna Chandrak’, ‘Ranjitram Suvarna Chandrak’ in 1969 and ‘Narsinh
Mehta Award’ in 2000.
T S Eliot was deeply affected by the political and economic crisis in Europe during and after the 1st World
War. The Waste Land was written during the autumn of 1921, in Switzerland, where the poet was just
recovering after a serious breakdown in health, caused by domestic worries and over work. Personal
health crisis, the mental disorder of his wife, who ultimately died in a mental hospital and the nerveshattering impact of World War – all account for the gloomy picture of the human predicament as
presented in the poem so much so that it has been supported that the poem expresses the “disillusionment
of a generation”. The gloom and despair of the poet are mirrored in the poem.
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T S Eliot’s The Waste Land is considered as an important landmark in the history of English poetry. It is
a long poem of about 440 lines in 5 parts entitled (1) The Burial of the Dead, (2) A Game of Chess, (3)
The Fire Sermon, (4) Death by Water and (5) What the Thunder Said. The poem firstly published in serial
form in The Criterion and in the Dial during 1922 and in book form, with Eliot’s notes, was published in
New York in 1922. Hamilton said, “Eliot wanted the poem to be difficult and no doubt conceived of its
difficulty as an important aspect of its total meaning.” Ezra Pound described it as the ‘longest poem in the
English language because of its profundity, perplexity and density of poetic allusions, myths and
meaning.’
In the Pravaldveep, a group of poems included in the selected edition of Chandolaya, inheres a balanced
and seasoned expression of modernism. Critics have drawn parallels between Pravaldveep and
Baudelaire’s Tableaux Parisiens from Les Fleurs du Mal. Mumbai is the raison d‘etre of the Pravaldveep.
Though Pravaldveep is about times, places and characters in Mumbai, yet it is more of a psychic
geography than a merely physical one. The title Pravaldveep (The Coral Island) is symbolic like Eliot’s
The Waste Land, and evokes the picture of this island city poised to sink anytime. The poet goes as far as
to predict a geographical annihilation of the city as:
“Come, let’s go to Bombay city,
That Tailless crocodile
....
Grass will grow one day in every street,
The coral build its home here,
Before that happens, go if you will,
Time beckons you to come.” (Bhagat 3)
Titles such as “Fountainna Busstop Par”, “Churchgatethi Localman”, “Falkland Road” (the infamous redlight area), “Colaba Par Suryast” indicate clearly the subject matter of the poems. “Patro” is a unique
poem in Pravaldveep.
The translators of the Gujarati poems Pravaldveep into English as the Coral Island, Suguna Ramanathan
and Rita Kothari say: “With the publication of Pravaldveep in particular, a new kind of poetry became
possible in Gujarati. For the first time, a Westernized sensibility with its concomitant urban bias and
alienated psyche ranges over the scene.” (Bhagat vii)
The theme of both The Waste Land and Pravaldveep is essentially the spiritual and emotional sterility of
the modern world. Man has lost his passion, his faith in God and religion, and this decay of faith has
resulted in loss of vitality both spiritually and emotionally. In The Waste Land, people are shown as dead
things like a stick, a pipe, a burnished throne while in Pravaldveep there are almost comparisons with
beasts (ferocious creatures). In The Waste Land, the first line, ‘April is the cruelest month…’ (Eliot 61),
is an inversion of the popular poetic myth that April is a month of warmth and joy. To the people of the
Waste Land, April is unwelcome because they are incapable of participating in the process of the renewal
of the earth; on the contrary, they prefer the cold of winter to the warmth of summer because they cannot
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endure the pangs of rebirth and fear the possibility of resurrection. In Pravaldveep also, especially the
poem “Gayatri” talks about how man has completely lost touch with nature. In the morning, we wake up
only because we have to. Bhagat writes here:
“Same self, same name; nothing new.
Smiling at self, one asks : ‘whereto today!’
Newspaper alone proclaims the day as new;” (Bhagat 55)
The theme of the Waste Land seems to be death – ‘Death by Water’ is only one facet of it. Death is
continually contrasted with life and vice versa. In fact, according to Cleanth Brooks, the poem deals with
‘two kinds of life and two kinds of death’ and with the contrast that this fact offers. In one context, life
which becomes devoid of meaning is equivalent to death, while in another context, sacrificial death is
shown as life-giving, as almost a means of securing the renewal of life. The Waste Land is at one level,
concerned with this paradox and with variations implicit in this self-contradictory movement.
In the Pravaldveep also, we can find living men but as dead when Bhagat writes in his poem “At the
Fountain Bus Stop”:
“Some expressionless,
Some whose faces change with passing minutes,
And some changeless and fixed.” (Bhagat 23, 25)
According to the poet, there are only two beautiful persons in Bombay city who do enjoy their lives. One
is the whore who begins her business at night and the second is the poet himself because the whole world
has changed and the poet has accepted the change. Thus it is rightly pointed out that by living life
lifelessly, we are ‘Shape without form, shade without colour, paralyzed force, gesture without notion’.
(Eliot 83)
Modern life is predominantly urban, and both the poets TS Eliot and Niranjan Bhagat being modern
poets, the setting of their poetry is also urban. It may be Boston, Paris, Venice, London or Bombay, in
some metropolis, the hub of modern industrial life. It is rare to find that either Bhagat or Eliot may have
set their poems in the countryside. Their poetry is of urban landscapes.
T S Eliot writes in The Waste Land:
“O City city, I can sometimes hear
Beside a public bar in Lower Thames Street,
The pleasant whining of a mandolin
And a clatter and a chatter from within
Where fishmen lounge at noon : ….” (Eliot 69)
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In Pravaldveep, we move in charmed stretch between Malabar Hill and Colaba. We have the sweep of
Marine drive at night, the lights near the Real and the sea. We have wandering crowds everywhere. This
is the Bombay ‘Adhunik Aranya: A Modern Forest’ that catches the poet by the throat and will not let
him go. He writes in this regards:
“Cement, concrete, stones and glass,
Wires, bolts, rivets, screws and nails
Surpass the rainbow’s magic:
Of such stuff this paradise!” (Bhagat 3)
Even the very titles of the poems are very urbanized like At the Museum, At the Aerodrome, In the Café,
Flora Fountain, Falkland Road etc.
Both Niranjan Bhagat’s as well as T S Eliot’s characters are all city people no matter whether it’s
Sweeney, Aunt Helen, Tiresias in the Waste Land or the poet, the hawker, Blind man, Leper, beggar or
Prostitute of the Prawaldveep. All typify, one aspect or the other, of the gross and decaying when society
in which they live and move. They are not important in themselves but as representatives of the corrupt,
self-seeking, rotten and out of action western civilization. Their gross sensuality and animalism is
emphasized by the use of suitable imagery.
The Waste Land is a rich dense mixture with five different parts or movements, and in view of its ‘rich
organization’ it needs a protagonist. The spokesman of this point of view is perhaps Tiresias; in fact he is
the ‘seer’ of the Waste land. T S Eliot writes about Tiresias: “Tiresias, although a mere spectator and not
indeed a “character”, is yet the most important personage in the poem, uniting all the rest. … … … What
Tiresias sees, in fact, is the substance of the poem.”
In the Pravaldveep also we find such characters especially in Patro where the hawker who has no
favourable fate when he says : “I may be called pheriyo but I don’t roam; / Neither does my fate,”
(Bhagat 43) and then he wants to be a tree when he says : “Arre, were I a tree leaning over this wall! /
Seven springs went by, but not a single flower!” (Bhagat 43) In the same poem, the prostitute compares
herself to a crumpled paper which is nameless. Some call her Radha while some Rani. She complaints :
“None sees me by day. I / Have no address by night.” (Bhagat 47) Thus the characters of both the poems
depict the ultimate reality of the modern society.
Eliot and Bhagat’s themes are urban. They do not sing of rainbows, cuckoos, daffodils and ‘timid hares’
in the manner of their contemporaries. We do not get in them the romance of far off lands or of a
sentimentalized countryside. Neither do we get from them the romance of love. Love is never the central
theme of their poetry.
The protagonist of The Waste Land, Tiarsias’s failure in love with a girl has a universal significance
because it represents the sexual failure of modern men too. In the section Fire Sermon, Eliot frankly
depicts the mechanical and sordid love affair of the lady typist with the house agent’s clerk. After her love
affair,
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“She smoothes her hair with automatic hand,
And puts a record on the gramophone.” (Eliot 69)
A prostitute in the Pravaldveep cries out:
“My body worth looking at ? Believe me, the
Fragrance is external.” (Bhagat 47)
Such is the beauty of the realistic tone of the love affairs and the sexual relationship among modern men
depicted beautifully by both the poets. For both the poets, love degenerates into lust and the perversion of
the sexual function is shown to be the root cause of degeneration and decay.
At times both the texts seem circular and at times they are progressive. In Pravaldveep, the poem begins
with the decay and degeneration of Bombay city “That tailless crocodile” (Bhagat 3) and ends with the
hope that one day we will be rescued from the materialistic world and if not allowed, to live again at least
we would be given a right to choose which from of death we would prefer.
In The Waste Land also, in the beginning there is only barren desert and rock and towards the end of the
poem, there is desire for water, there are clouds and so the expectations of rain. The philosophy of
Buddha is seen in both the texts. In The Waste Land the city is unreal because it has no real civic life and
is robbed of all the vitality of a throbbing, vital, communal life. Human beings seem like ghostly figures
in this city.
Eliot writes in the poem:
“I think we are in rats’ alley
Where the dead men lost their bones.” (Eliot 65)
“I see crowds of people, walking round in a ring.” (Eliot 62)
“I will show you fear in a handful of dust.” (Eliot 61)
“…for you know only
A heap of broken images, where the sun beats,
And the dead tree gives no shelter, the cricket no relief,
And the dry stone no sound of water.” (Eliot 61)
The city according to Niranjan Bhagat is the ‘Adhunik Aranya – A Modern Forest’ where we can find
“From dawn to dusk / Crowds of people, strangers all”. (Bhagat 33) Once in the poem he says “A line of
neon lights, distinct, / Yet stung together; / Stripes of light across / Tram tracks / Brighter than in sunlight,
/ The entire road emits an iron laugh.” (Bhagat 33) The unreal-ness in the city has hopelessness and
helplessness.
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Though we live in ‘Adhunik Aranya’ or in ‘arid plain’ ‘where people are like paintings’ and men are
nothing but ‘fierce creatures’, it’s upon us to be detached from materialistic world. If we guide ourselves
for some noble cause, if we learn to sympathize and realize that suffering alone leads to spiritual
salvation, if we follow the golden rules of ‘Datta. Dayadhvam. Damyatta’ (Give, Sympathize, Be
controlled), then, we would be away from the ‘fear in a handful of dust’ and there would be nothing but
“Shantih, Shantih, Shantih” in our life.
References
Bhagat, Niranjan. 2002. Coral Island. Trans. Suguna Ramanathan and Rita Kothari. Gujarat Sahitya Academy:
Gandhinagar.
Das, Mohan. 2000. A Critical Guide to T S Eliot’s The Waste Land. Student Store: Bareilly.
Eliot, T. S. 1969. The Complete Poems and Plays of T S Eliot. Faber and Faber: London.
Nanny, Max. 1992. “Functions of Visual Form in T S Eliot’s Poetry” Eds. Vinod Sena and Rajiva Verma. New
Essays on T S Eliot. Oxford University Press: New Delhi. 98-116.
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University Library, Tirupati
A Poem by
Dr. K. V. Raghupath
Department of English Studies
Central University of Tamil Nadu
Thiruvarur, INDIA.
_________________________________________________________________________________
In 1979, with my MA in English
I learnt nothing, I realized like a monk.
I turned to the university library with
Ulysseus’s desire
that stood like a monument amidst trees.
It has a dome at the top
that looked like Taj Mahal
from the Brindavan-like garden in front
of it.
It was here I spent eighteen summers
reading, thinking and writing.
Every book that went into my hands
smiled at me.
The reading hall was full with me
alone flipping through the pages with
every new arrival
in pin-drop silence late in every evening
when everyone had left for home.
After a decade
I returned, racks are full
with untouched books jostling for space
like ants
with empty issue slips on the back, clean
and unmarked.
There are no readers turning the pages.
Some empty chairs and tables with no
books staring.
Three or four recognized me
who told me, readers visit
go around admiring at collections
have turned it into a museum.
Outside
Gandhi stands with a stick on a lotus
pedestal in the pond
watching out for readers under the sun.
On one of the steps before me are
two readers seated in two chairs
trying hard to memorise a single page.
Two parakeets, hanging low or hanging
high
performing acrobatics over the sun-laden
leaves
tender and breakable, yet safe.
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Struggle for Dalit Women Recognition: A Critical Study of Bama’s Karukku
Paramita Bhaduli
Research Scholar
Department of English
University of Calcutta
Kolkata, INDIA.
Abstract
Dalit literary writing is a mode of activism that seeks to free Dalits from the clutches of dominant ideology and
casteist oppression. In mainstream Indian Dalit feminism, untouchability is considered to be the greatest evil in
Indian society. The term ‘Dalit’ literally means ‘oppressed’ and is used to refer to a marginalized group of
“untouchable” casteless sects who have historically suffered exploitation, subjugation and oppression in Indian
society. Dalit Literature broadly delineates their consciousness, experiences as well as their anguish. The plight of
Dalit women is Indian society is horrible as they are oppressed on the basis of class, gender and caste. A renowned
Tamil Dalit woman, Bama’s intervention in Dalit literary discourse in the early 1990s made a significant
contribution in the arena of gender and caste intersections in the lives of the Dalits. Her works foreground the
cursed lives of Dalit women, oppressed on the basis of their caste as well as gender by the aristocratic class. She
feels that for the better survival of women empowerment it is necessary and it is only possible by irradiating
inequality and untouchability, by empowering them through education and employment and by taking pride in their
identity. Bama’s novel Karukku celebrates Dalit women subversive strategies to overcome the oppression. The
novel mainly focuses on two essential aspects namely caste and gender that cause pain in Bama’s life. Bama’s
novel karukku is a powerful portrayal of the most agonising and suppressed lives of the Dalits where woman are
subjected to sexual harassment and physical assault. According to Bama, “Dalit life is excruciatingly painful,
charred by experiences”. Experiences that did not find place in literary creations. Bama’s karukku, is not only a
testimony on Bama’s life but also the life of Dalits as a whole which unfolds the various problems that are
responsible for the suffering of the Dalits.
The aim of this paper is to critically examine Bama’s novel Karukku from the point of view of Dalit feminism. The
paper attempts to highlight the oppression as well as gender and caste discrimination in the life of Dalit women.
Keywords : Oppression, Gender, Caste Discrimination, Patriarchy.
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Dalit literary writing is a mode of activism that seeks to free Dalits from the clutches of dominant
ideology and casteist oppression. Dalit Literature is a strong oppositional voice which narrates the ability
of the dalits to fight against all odds and injustices. A Dalit feminist writer, Challapalli Swaroopa Rani
states that:
“In India, both women and Dalits are equally exploited and strategically excluded
because of caste. Ambedkar did a war against these two social evils.” (Challapalli
Swaroopa Rani.16)
The first message from Ambedkar to the Dalits was to: "Educate, organise, unite" that is validated in this
instance that a young Dalit girl should take the initiative to empower Dalit consciousness to analyse and
evaluate unjust social practice. (12)
The term ‘Dalit’ literally means ‘oppressed’ and is used to refer to a marginalized group of “untouchable”
casteless sects who have historically suffered exploitation, subjugation and oppression in Indian society.
For centuries, in mainstream Indian Dalit feminism, untouchability is considered to be the greatest evil in
society subjected to contempt and injustice. Exploitation and oppression of weaker sects by the stronger is
as old as mankind itself. Dalit Literature broadly delineates their consciousness, experiences as well as
their anguish. The plight of Dalit women in Indian society is horrible as they are oppressed on the basis of
class, gender and caste. All women are victims of a particular kind of exploitation on account of their
womanhood. In dalit community, each and every women has to survive under the dual power of caste and
patriarchy. Challapalli Swaroopa Rani States:
“It has a long time for Dalit women to overcome their oppression, as Dalits and put to
creative use the gains of social and literary movements. There are of course common
issues that bind Dalit men and women, like untouchability and caste oppression. But
women also suffer from patriarchal oppression.”(Challapalli Swaroopa Rani, 21.)
The powerful entry of Dalit Literature on the literary scenario in Maharashtra in the 1960s was followed
by increasing Dalit women writings especially autobiographical narratives in the 1980s which was
inspired by Ambedkarite thought. A detailed study of dalit feminist writing reveals a tale of endless
miseries, inhuman victimization and shocking gender discrimination but in the modern era, dalit is a
symbol of change, revolution and resistance. In the Post-Ambedkar period, Dalit women used literature as
a weapon to counter the mainstream feminist writing. A renowned first Dalit woman writer, Faustina
Bama’s intrusion in Dalit literary discourse in the early 1990s made a significant contribution in the arena
of gender and caste intersections in the lives of the Dalits. She redefined ‘woman’ from the political
perspective of a dalit. Her works foreground the cursed lives of Dalit women, oppressed on the basis of
their caste as well as gender by the aristocratic class. Dalit Literature challenges the upper caste
ideologies and delve into the neglected aspects of life. She feels that for the better survival of women
empowerment it is essential to eradicate inequality and untouchability, by empowering them through
education and employment and by taking pride in their identity. Bama says in an interview that,
"All women in the world are second class citizens. For Dalit women, the problem is
grave. Their dalit identity gives them a different set of problems. They experience a
total lack of social status; they are not even considered dignified human beings. My
stories are based on these aspects of dalit culture...The hard labor they have to do all
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their lives. Other problems are the same for all women. The Dalits particular
caste...more agony and hard labor can be attributed to them. Dalit women have put up
with a triple oppression, based on class, caste and gender. They die in order to
live.”(Limbale 116)
Bama’s novel Karukku (1992) depicts the exact way to explore the sufferings of Dalit women and
subversive strategies to overcome the oppression they are going through. ‘Karukku’ means Palmyra
leaves with their searing edges on both sides, like a double edged sword. Here, Karukku symbolises the
desperate urge to break these unjust social bonds. In this autobiography, Bama tries to discover the
identity of being a ‘Dalit woman’. A central section of the narrative in Karukku is presented through the
eyes of a Dalit girl child where the author/ narrator relate her experiences as an eleven-year-old girl. The
novel mainly focuses on two essential facets namely caste and gender that cause pain in Bama’s life. A
continuous quest for self is the prime concern that is depicted in karukku. Bama freed herself from the
shackles of unemployment and poverty by completing her education not for a luxurious life but for her
passion to uplift Dalit community the so called unprivileged. She decided to become a nun to serve her
community and this continuous search for self and ongoing struggle constitutes the core theme of
karukku.
Further in the novel, Bama discusses the issue of identity crisis. Patriarchal society considers women as
unworthy and have always engaged in the task of constructing and deconstructing identity. This form of
discrimination based on identity is similar to racism. As Simon de Beauvoir states:
“It is civilization as a whole that produces this creature, intermediate between male and
eunuch, which is described as feminine” (Hammondsworth 16).
Bama’s novel karukku is a powerful portrayal of the most agonising and suppressed lives of the Dalit
women where they are subjected to sexual harassment and physical assault. It was emphasized that sexual
oppression, economic exploitation, and socio- cultural subjugation are the sources of unequal gender
relations. It is the patriarchal division that defines woman as a marginalized being. According to Bama,
“Dalit life is excruciatingly painful, charred by experiences”. Experiences solely presides over the
writings in Dalit Literature making authenticity as its prime hallmark. Karukku, is not only a testimony
on Bama’s life but also the life of Dalits as a whole which unfolds the various problems that are
responsible for the suffering of the Dalits. As Bama herself reveals in the preface of the book:
“The driving forces that shaped this book are many: events that occurred during many
stages of my life, cutting me like Karukku and making me bleed; unjust social structures
that plunged me into ignorance and left me trapped and suffocating; my own desperate
urge to break, throw away and destroy these bonds; and when the chains were shattered
into fragments, the blood that was spilt then; all these, taken together.”
(Holmstrom.XIII.)
Caste uses gender to construct caste status, power relations and cultural differences and thereby
oppressing lower caste women. Since childhood Bama was aware about untouchability as she saw the act
of handing over the sweets using a string to an upper class person by a dalit elder and this was a painful
reminder of her caste. Bama’s anger against this and her longing to grab that packet and pollute it with
her dalit hands throw light at the malicious system of caste divide. The special financial grants by the
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government to the Harijans was more humiliating for Bama as it highlighted her caste. It is the caste
which shapes the integral part of the gender status and identity of dalit women. According to Dr.
Ambedkar the complexity and sustainability of the caste system is the main factor of graded inequality.
Due to this factor, each and every caste regards itself to be superior to other caste which are lower in caste
hierarchy. This kind of caste discrimination is vividly evident in karukku. Bama has an ambivalent
attitude towards Christianity. She explores how violence and discrimination against Dalit women is
legitimised and institutionalised by state, family, church and upper caste communities. She is full of grief
when she observes how Dalits are treated within church where they are forced to render menial service,
shouted at, and branded as uncultured creatures, not amenable to improvement. (Bama 21) Karukku
depicts the denial of dalits singing in the church choir and the formation of separate schools for all
sections in the same campus levelled on the basis of caste. Further in karukku, Bama portrays the
prejudice showed by the warden sister to the dalit children “these people get nothing to eat at home; they
come here and they grow fat” (Bama 19)When she sees these things, she thinks of her own people living
in misery, taking in only gruel all the time. As a result of her humiliating experiences as a Dalit, Bama
realises that through the right type of education the whole community of Dalit can be empowered and
they can regain self-dignity and respect. Bama passes through many emotional encounters and
experiences. The whole process is a trail of discovery, which makes her a self-made woman.
Bama ends the novel with a positive note appealing for the change and better life of a dalit women in
various fields that includes sex, caste and gender discrimination, equal opportunities for employment,
educational rights etc. She further says that dalit women are now challenging their oppressors like the
double edged Karukku. Dalit women’s are denied voice thus withering away at the margins of such
literature. Bama’s feminist writings has done justice to the plight of dalit women by not only encouraging
them rather spreading the consciousness so that the dalit woman themselves can stand up for their own
rights. Dalits in the 21st century still have to undergo casteist oppression even though caste discrimination
has been declared as an offence under the law. Inequality still prevails not on the basis of economic
disparity but by the unequal order caused by the caste system. Bama is very optimistic and hopeful of the
fact that the century old historical neglect, alienation, humiliation, hatred, shame, bondage and misery of
dalit women would convert into overall freedom and upliftment for a better future. Therefore, Dalit
Literature intends to bring a change in the existing norms that is dominated by inequalities on the basis of
caste and gender. Bama has left the major responsibility of formulating her vision in searching their true
identity to the community itself.
References
Bama, “Author’s Preface,” Karukku. Trans. Lakshmi Holmstrom. (Chennai: MacMillan, 1992) XIII.
Lakshmi Holmstrom, “Introduction,” Karukku. By Bama. Trans. Lakshmi Holmstrom (Chennai: Macmillan India,
2000) IX.
Bama. “Dalit Literature”. Trans. M. Vijayalakshmi. Indian Literature XLIII.5 (1999):97-98
Bama. Karukku. Trans. Lakshmi Holmstrom. Ed. Mini Krishnan. Chennai: Macmillan. 2000.
Limbale, S., Towards an Aesthetics of Dalit Literature: History, Controversies and Considerations. Trans. A.
Mukherjee. Hyderabad: Orient Longman, 2004.
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Prasad, Amar Nath. Dalit Literature: A Critical Exploration. New Delhi: Sarup and Sons, 2007.
Challapalli Swaroopa Rani, “Dalit Feminist Literature and the influence of Ambedkar,” in Dalit Voice, Hyderabad:
Dalit Voice Publications, 2006, 16.
Challapalli Swaroopa Rani, “Dalit Women’s Writing in Telugu,” in Economic and Political Weekly, April 25,
1998, 21.
Limbale, Sharan Kumar. Towards an Aesthetic of Dalit Literature: History, Controversies, and Considerations.
New Delhi: Orient Longman, 2004.
Kulkarni, Mukta. Reading Bama. Indian Association of Women Studies. April 2005. Print.
Jadhav, R. “Dalit Feelings and Aesthetic Detachment”. Poisoned Bread: Translations from Modern Marathi Dalit
Literature. Ed. A. Dangle. Hyderabad: Orient Longman, 1992.
Guru, G. “Dalit Women Talk Differently”. Gender and Caste. Ed. A. Rao. New Delhi: Women Unlimited, 2003.
Beauvoir, Simone de. The Second Sex. Trans. and Ed. H.M. Parshley. Hammondsworth: Penguin, 1972.
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Shifting Personalities in the Fiction of Women of the Indian Diaspora
Prof. Sujal Pathak
Assistant professor
A.A. Patel Commerce College
Kadi sarva vishwavidyalaya
Gandhinagar, Gujarat, INDIA.
Dr. Vikas Raval
Assistant Professor
Gujarat Power Engineering and Research Institute
Mehsana, Gujarat, INDIA.
Abstract
This paper addresses fundamental questions regarding the notion of feminizing the diaspora in Indian fiction. A
significant aspect of postcolonial studies, the diaspora has been explored from various sociological,
anthropological and cultural angles, yet the narrative has most often remained masculine in its approach. This
paper attempts to trace the movement of the Indian diaspora in the West and examine ways in which women have
attempted to, at once, negotiate identities in terms of the new land in which they find themselves as well as retain
memories of the old land in their role as cultural custodians. While the various phases of diasporic experience are
outlined, the predominant concern of the Indian woman is seen to be the struggle with concepts of hybridity and
‘third space’ narration, making possible the emergence of a woman who finds creative potential in the hyphenated
spaces of the diaspora while retaining a uniquely Indian Identity.
Key words: feminine identity, hybridity, diaspora and women, feminizing diaspora, women in Indian literature.
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Etymologically the term ‘Diaspora’ is derived from the Greek term “diasperien”, from ‘‘dia–across” and
“sperien–to sow or scatter seeds’’ (Wikipedia-the free Encyclopedia). It is based on Hebrew word of
diaspora - ‘galut’, meaning ‘exile’ (that is from t he Holy Land) (The New Encyclopedia of Britannica
(vol.3) ).
The concept ‘Diaspora’ refers to dispersal of Jews from Palestine throughout the world. Along with
physical dispersal of the Jews, the term carries religious, philosophical and eschatological connotations,
in as much as a special relationship is understood to exist between the land of Israel and Jewish people.
This relationship ranges from eventual “ingathering of the exiles” to the classic view of Reform Judaism.
Some of the Jews submerged themselves in non-Jewish environments more completely than the others.
Because of assimilation and acculturation diaspora Jews were the Jews in a religious sense only.
Another early historical reference is the Black African diaspora, in 16th c., with slave trade, who exported
(forced) West Africans out of their native lands and dispersed them in the “New World ” - parts of North
America, South America, the Caribbean and elsewhere. Dispersion of Africans, Armenians, Irish,
Palestinians and the Jews conceived their scattering as arising from a cataclysmic event that had
traumatized the group as a whole. Their dispersal was involuntary, pathetic and tragic.
The term ‘Diaspora’ is used to refer to any people of ethnic population forced or induced to leave their
traditional ethnic homelands; being dispersed throughout other parts of the world; and the ensuing
developments in their dispersal and culture. The original meaning of ‘Diaspora’ was cut off from the
present meaning.
The Indian diaspora today constitutes an important, and in some respects unique, force in world culture.
The origins of the modern Indian diaspora lie mainly in the suppression of India by the British and its
incorporation into the British empire. Indians were taken over as indentured labor to far-flung parts of the
empire in the nineteenth-century, a circumstance to which the modern Indian populations of Fiji,
Mauritius, Guyana, Trinidad, Surinam, Malaysia, South Africa, Sri Lanka, and other places attest in their
own peculiar ways. Over two million Indian men fought on behalf of the empire in numerous wars,
including the Boer War and the two World Wars, and some remained behind to claim the land on which
they had fought as their own. As if in emulation of their ancestors, many Gujarati traders once again left
for East Africa in large numbers in the early part of the twentieth century. Finally, in the post-World War
II period, the dispersal of Indian labor and professionals has been a nearly world-wide phenomenon.
Indians, and other South Asians, provided the labor that helped in the reconstruction of war-torn Europe,
particularly the United Kingdom and the Netherlands, and in more recent years unskilled labor from
South Asia has been the main force in the transformation of the physical landscape of much of the Middle
East. Meanwhile, in countries such as the United States, Canada, and Australia, Indians have made their
presence visibly felt in the professions.
Most studies of the diaspora revolve around defining different versions by framing it historically,
examining a host of diasporic features including issues of identity and the self, and choices made between
marginal and multicultural constructions. It is observed that 'Diaspora' is a masculine concept, both
etymologically and symbolically, with the notion of 'dispersal' giving procreative powers to male
narratives (Gopinath, 1). Emerging voices in the diaspora was most famously suggested by Gayatri
Spivak, who said, “If, in the context of colonial production, the subaltern has no history and cannot speak,
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the subaltern as female is even more deeply in shadow” (Spivak,3). The resulting emphasis on women in
the diaspora led to an increased focus on marginal women’s writing, represented through the works of
Buchi Emecheta in the United Kingdom, Maxine Kingstonin the United States, and Hiromo Goto in
Canada. This “feminization‟ of the diaspora gets acceptance from the reality that migration as a feminine
act has been until now unexplored and that lending a voice to these voiceless narratives becomes a social,
cultural and literary imperative. In this paper the researchers explore the way in which women of the
Indian diaspora in the West come to terms with the changing roles which they give themselves and those
given by society, often caught between continuing a shared, older tradition and making way for a new
one. In this sense, the “hybridity‟ much associated with diasporic identities is seen to be questioned by
these women whose literatures reveal a need to occupy a space distinctly reminiscent of their Indian past.
As Diaspora Studies has developed, feminists have paid particular attention to how gender shapes both
the material experience of migration and the ways in which diaspora is conceived and represented in
gendered terms. For example, Avtar Brah points out that women are perceived as the embodiment of
“culture” and “tradition” in both the homeland and host land and argues that the construction of
“difference in discourses of nation is a gendered phenomenon”(Parker, 2010)
Asian women in the West manage to explore possible spaces for the expatriate to occupy. Jhumpa
Lahiri’s short story “This Blessed House‟, for example, “can be read as an interpretation of the meaning
of hybridity in a post-colonial context. It underlines the centrality of cultural translation in the process of
possessing and re-possessing the past and the present, both chronological and spatial” (Kuortti, 16). This
strong connection among women writers, their narratives and the language best adapted to a rendering
of their story immediately contextualizes a major area of diasporic discontent in the postcolonial
context. For the woman in a foreign land, already alienated by an internalized patriarchal system and the
shock of confronting an alien society where she is further marginalized through colour, dress and accent,
the experience could be traumatic. The immigrant Indian woman artist, by virtue of class, race and
gender, confronts a challenging situation largely irrelevant to men who share the predominant
assumptions of gender hierarchy with the adopted land. In some ways, the assumed superior status
accorded to men prevents them from participating in this crisis of “difference” because his experiences
limit themselves to the predicament of being the coloured “other”. The working of feminist equations and
related issues of race and class becomes vital in the agenda of the postcolonial migrant woman, whose
task of representing a continuing tradition of values brought from home with emerging trends along
western concepts of identity and relationships assume paramount importance. As Chitra Divakaruni
states, it is important that the woman artist like herself be identified as being concerned with “immigrant
issues as well as the role of women in the new society” (Divakaruni, 2005).
With postcolonial women writers in Africa, South Asia and the Caribbean addressing issues directly
relating to themselves as colonial remnants and members of the second sex even in the new world, the
expatriate woman novelist would necessarily have to negotiate betweenthe two worlds of feminist theory
as represented in the first world where the issues tossed for dialogue include phallocentricisms and the
castration complex. The more immediate concernsof the third world feminists, however, continued to be
the retrieval of woman narratives from oral histories and folktales to release the burden of colonial and
patriarchal practices through the ages. Subcontinental feminism until the end of the twentieth century
more immediately related itself to issues peculiar to its own geographical and cultural contexts such as
bride burning, Sati and bonded labour.
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The migrant women would therefore have to arrive at a point where the baggage of predetermined assum
ptions was sought to be challenged in the new world by participating in and questioning the basis of
feminist theory and its implications for the immigrant world. In this context, an increasing number of
women writers emerged in the last decade of the twentieth century whose primary project
became focussing on “the issue of gender as the centre of diasporic consciousness” (Nelson,
1993).Caught within the contradictions of their role as traditional family and home makers, these women
found themselves catapulted into a relentlessly individual experience of an alien, coloured woman, a
situation which is brought to a crisis and sought to be imaginatively explored.
The predicament of the Indian woman expatriate assumes manifold complications when the cultural
alienation of the land couples itself with the secondary status she inherits in the new world. Uma
Majmudar, a writer settled in Atlanta, notes that “...an Asian woman’s struggle to adapt to a western
culture is, in my opinion, much more painful and poignant” (1960)
As
sociological
studies
reveal,
the
physical
movement
from
the
place
of
birth and primary experiences often leads to a tremendous sense of freedom and a widening hope of
human possibilities. Zerbago Gifford, in a study of the experiences of Asian women in England,
concludes: “Sometimes, the arrival in a new land can free one from the restrictions of the old. While all
the women in the book feel an affinity to and pride in Asian roots, for a few, Britain held promise of a
haven from the taboos of Asian tradition”(Gifford, 1990, p. 20). The sense of endless possibilities, of a
new life of action, of strange new sensuous experiences is so palpable as to inject the most reluctant
migrant venture into a new world with an inquisitive mind, probing for the freshness which has been
hitherto denied in the world left behind. The new world appears to even transform appearances making
the commonplace look beautiful and enticing: “Marriage suits Vinita. In the months she had been a wife
in Gullenberg, New Jersey, she has become even prettier. Her long black hair has a gloss that owes as
much to a new sense of well-being as to the new shampoos she tries out (Mukherjee, 1985, p. 162). For
the migrant writer, this sense of promise and joy is a phenomenon which is, however, temper by the
problems which living in an alien society brings with it. Uma Majmudar divides the immigrant’s story of
adjustment into four stages including the shock, the struggle, anxiety and adjustment (Majmudar, p. 4).
Much literature written by immigrant India women in the early phases of migration reflects these varying
emotions, of doubts and hesitation, of tentative investigation in the darkness of an unexplored world and
of the first tentative, questioning steps to form a new imaginatively rich relationship with the adopted
land.
The life of Indian diasporic communities especially that of women and the social, cultural and religious,
racial and ideological conflicts faced by them in the host country becomes highly relevant here. The
concept of space is very relevant in the study of diasporic communities. Cultural otherness, generational
and cultural alienation from their ethnic community leaves the Indian diasporic women trapped in a space
between the culture of homeland and that of the host country. They lack security and emotional support
from their family and this isolation leads diasporic women who are emotionally and economically
dependent on their husbands to the problems like depression, loss and nostalgia.
Ashima’s immigrant experience, identity problems, the tension between India and United States and
between family tradition and individual freedom, the generation gap, the relationship between parents and
children the uneasy status of the immigrants are the major themes dealt with in Jhumpa Lahiri’s “The
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Namesake”. Ashima represents the majority of women expatriates who are reluctant to change or adapt to
the culture of the host country and the social, cultural, religious and ideological conflicts faced by them in
the host country. The first generation especially Aashima finds it very difficult to accustom to the host
culture. Pregnancy was a hard time for her as there was no one to soothe her in the alien land.
Motherhood is a glorious stage for a woman but for a migrant in a foreign alien land, loneliness and
strange surroundings nearly kill such feelings. She was the only Indian in the hospital with three other
American women in the adjoining room. Ashima “is terrified to raise a child in a country where she is
related to no one ,where she knows so little, where life seems so tentative and spare”(p. 6). She is always
nostalgic about her relatives in India. After Gogol’s birth she says to Ashoke, “I am saying I don’t want to
raise Gogol alone in this country. It’s not right. I want to go back” (p. 33). Ashoke feels guilty for
bringing her to this alien land. But she is determined to bear the pain and to give birth to the infant in an
alien land for the sake of his child. She wants her grandmother who is staying in India to assign a name to
her new born which shows her desire to hold fast to the conventions of her culture and the resulting
disappointment because of the failure to do so. She suffers from sleep deprivation in a house alone with
her baby and she visits the supermarket where everyone is a stranger to her. Often recalls her paralyzed
grandmother and is never able to give up her Indianness. She gives her children full freedom to move out
and explore the world, teaches the culture of her own country but never force them to do or practice it.
Through the existential struggle of Ashima, Lahiri presents an intense pain of a woman living in an alien
land, caused by a sense of isolation. She misses her homeland and this trishanku experience of being
neither in Calcutta nor in America nearly kills her. She is a representative of diasporic people living in
similar hidden trauma. Like a traditional Indian wife in appearance and in ideologies, her life revolves
around her husband and children and she sacrifices all her comforts for the sake of her family. She is true
to her rule assigned to her as a daughter, granddaughter, wife and a mother and emerges as a winner.
Immigration has widened the mental horizons of the people from the east and Divakaruni questions this
practice through collection of short stories Arranged Marriage. After their exposure to the west in various
ways e.g. working outside the home their increased independence, particularly in decision making –
things they could not do back home in India, makes them respond differently to the marital situation as
well. How difficult it is for Indian South Asian women to achieve a clean break from tradition and selfconsciousness even when they are trapped in unhappy arranged marriages is discussed in the short story
Bats. Clothes on the other hand describes the relief felt by a young widow who knows that in America she
will not have to lead the austere life that she would have been subjected to in a similar situation in India.
Sandra Ponzanesi in her essay “In My Mother’s House” states:
As far as the condition of migration and diaspora is concerned, women are often called
to preserve their nation through the restoration of a traditional home in the new country.
The idea of home entails the preservation of traditions, heritage continuity; there is even
an intense emotive politics of dress for some communities. (245)
In the public realm, as professionals, there is a freedom of self – expression on many levels, but at the
same time the pressures from family and career often begin to clash, resulting in one of the increasingly
common conflicts South Asian women experience in the process of cultural assimilation. And this leads
to the fragmentation of their self. It is also a psychological coping mechanism created as a response to the
cultural dissonance that surrounds them. The image of the subservient Indian woman stems from Indian
mythology and the manner in which Indian females are represented in it. The image of ‘Sita’- has a
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profound effect on the Indian psyche. Her chastity and loyalty to her husband represents the ideal for an
Indian wife. This inordinate amount of emphasis placed on Indian women to be like ‘Sita’ makes women
freeze in the same practices and mores of ancient Indian Mythology and culture. But this subservience of
Sita contrasts greatly with the feminism of America and emphasis on women’s independence and
equality.
Thus, whatever position is assumed by women writers of the Indian diaspora, it becomes very clear that
recent formations of hybridity have helped them to position themselves in a way which voices both their
identities in the new societies and voicing the past as being part of a historical continuum.
References
Divakaruni, Chitra Bannerjee.(2001, Oct. 21) The Reluctant Patriot. Los Angeles Times.
Divakaruni, Chitra Banerjee “Clothes.” (1996, June) Arranged Marriage. New York: Random House.
Gifford, Zerbagoo. (1990) The Golden Thread: Asian Experiences of Post-Raj Britain. London: Grafton Books.
Gopinath, Gayatri.( 2005) Impossible Desires: Queer Diasporas and South Asian Public Cultures. London: Duke
UP.
Kuortti, Joel. (2007) Writing Imagined Diasporas: South Asian Women Reshaping North American Identity.
Newcastle: Cambridge Scholars Publishing.
Lahiri, Jhumpa.. (2003) The Namesake. New York: Houghton Mifflin Company.
Majmudar, Uma.( 1956) “Writing in America”. Journal of South Asian Literature. Vol. 21, No. 1,
Mukherjee, Bharati. (1985) Darkness. New Delhi: Penguin Books,
Nelson, Emmanuel. (1992) Reworlding: The Literature of the Indian Diaspora. London:Greenwood Press,
Parker, Emma. (2009) Introduction: Unsettling Women. Contemporary Women’s Writing .Vol. 3, Issue 1.
Ponzanesi, Sandra. (2000 )“In My Mother’s House: The Mobil ization of Home in Women Writers of the Indian
Diaspora.” The Literature of The Indian Diaspora: Essays in Criticism. (Ed)AL, McLeod, New Delhi: Sterling.
Spivak,
Gayatri.(
1988)
“Can
the
Subaltern Speak?”
http://dspace.library.uu.nl:8080/bitstream/1874/29948/1/scan0112pdf
Retrieved
Feb
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20,
2012
from
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The Global Journal of Literary Studies
I
May 2015
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Vol. 1, Issue 1
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Expatriate Sensibility in Queen of Dreams by Chitra Banerjee Divakaruni
Pushpa D. Dixit
Assistant Professor
Swami Sahajanand College of Commerce & Management,
M.K.Bhavnagar University,
Bhavnagar, Gujarat, INDIA.
Abstract
Expatriate Sensibility encounters new epistemologies and new ways of living in Queen of Dreams. Chitra Banerjee
Divakaruni living in America away from her land of birth realizes the vulnerability of her identity. She portrays
expatriate sensibility through her protagonists. They are detached from their native homeland for various reasons,
though they physically accept; mentally retain their nostalgia for homeland. Her protagonists make new
adjustments in their new surroundings and for this they reinvent themselves. Their physical distance from their
home and their encounters with new ways of life confer upon them a kind of double vision which enables them to
look both objectively and nostalgically at their own culture and the alien culture into which they seek to integrate.
This research paper focuses on the portrayal of modern Indian women who are torn between past and present,
tradition and modern culture and also between desire and reality.
Keywords : Expatriate – emigrant, Sensibility – deep feeling, Vulnerability - weakness, Protagonist – main
character, Integrate – Incorporate, Nostalgia – Longing for home.
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Introduction
The Indian Diaspora has witnessed a massive migration of people of their own volition from the Indian
subcontinent to the metropolitan centers of Europe, America, Canada and Australia. The diasporic Indians
of this group are highly educated professionals; and because of their professional exigencies, they have
stayed away from their motherland, and in a majority of cases they have become settlers where once they
were only sojourners. The pace of border-crossing has risen to a new dimension, with migrants seeking to
transfigure cultural boundaries and re-create new representations of their pasts, their selves, and their new
milieus. Consequently, identities and cultures get delocalized -- but seldom detached from memories of
the past. These diasporic people evoke the past in highly selective modes and build a present that is a
hybrid of multiple cultures and experiences.
All journeys away from home are only journeys towards home. To some extent the diasporic experience
begins with some of our great freedom fighters, like Jawaharlal Nehru, who also felt that he was an alien
in India and abroad. Writers have often assumed a role in the development of society by using literature
as a platform to invoke social change. South Asian diasporic writers have attained official recognition as
part of the American literary tradition. Some of the names, which foreground their literary status, are
Bharathi Mukerjee, Chitra Banerjee Divakaruni, Meena Alexander, Meena Nair, Kiran Desai and Jumpa
Lahiri. In Diaspora and Multiculturalism (1998) Ramraj observes that
Though diasporic writing is about or by peoples who are linked with common histories
of uprooting and dispersal, it develops different cultural and historical identities
depending on the political and cultural particularities of the dominant society. (229)
About the Author
Chitra Banerjee Divakaruni is an Asian American with her ancestral roots in Bengal, India. She has
transcended boundaries, negotiating two different worlds from various perspectives. She attempts to
interlace the elements of myth, magic and ancient culture alongside the contemporary culture. The eastwest confrontation or the clash between tradition and modernity is the impulse behind the works of
acclaimed migrant writers. Chitra Banerjee Divakaruni tries to fuse the oriental values with the occidental
ethos. She often focuses on characters balancing two worlds, particularly on Indian immigrants’ struggle
through life in America. Most of her works are about the Indian immigrants in the United States from the
author’s native region of Bengal and the stories are often told by female narrators from the first person
point of view. Living in the United States, Divakaruni becomes more aware of the differences in culture
which urges her to explore it in all its essentials. This distinguishes her from other writers such as Bharati
Mukherjee who famously advocates the immigrant’s rights to become an un-hyphenated American
(Mukherjee 460).
Divakaruni exhibits an excellent perspective of life between and within the two cultures in her novel
Queen of Dreams (2004). The novel talks about the trials, tribulations and experiences of the Indian
American community through the lives of a Bengali immigrant family. The novel is divided between
India and the United States of America, although the entire story takes place in America. Divakaruni
focuses on characters balancing two worlds, particularly Indian immigrants struggling through life in
America and attempts to fuse both the values in her novels. In Queen of Dreams, she attempts to bridge
the gulf between an American-born daughter and an Indian immigrant mother. The mother is gifted with
the ability to interpret dreams. The daughter yearns to understand her mother’s behavior and her work.
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Mrs. Gupta, a first-generation Indian immigrant in America is the queen of dreams. Her job consists of
interpreting other people’s dreams and warning them about the imminent danger and problems. Rakhi,
her daughter is an American by birth and grows up with a feeling of belonging to her land of birth. She is
a young divorcee and a struggling artist. She runs a tea shop named The Chai House to earn a living and
provide for her six year old daughter Jona. Her partner in business and her best friend is Belle, a secondgeneration Indian American who provides a sharp contrast to Rakhi in her pro-American attitude.
Although Rakhi is comfortable in her American life, she feels a strong connection towards her Indianness.
However, her mother wants to spare her the tale of her strange and painful past in India and her ability to
read dreams. This only arouses her curiosity and she starts craving for all things Indian. She admits, “I
hungered for all things Indian because my mother never spoke of the country she’d grown up in -- just as
she never spoke of her past” (QD 35).
Rakhi desires intensely for India, and also wishes for closeness with her own mother, a closeness that has
always been denied to her because of her mother’s profession of being a dream teller.
My mother always slept alone. Until I was eight years old, I didn’t give it much thought
-- My discovery occurred on an afternoon when I’d gone to play at the home of my
classmates -- Why don’t you sleep with Dad? I Kept asking . . . Don’t you love us? -- I
do love You -- I don’t sleep with you or your father because my work is to dream. I
can’t do it if someone is in bed with me. (QD 6-7)
Divakaruni’s books are devoted to the study of women of all races and faiths who share a common female
experience. All her heroines find themselves within the constraining boundaries of their cultures and
religions. Her female characters struggle in their balance between family responsibilities and individual
happiness. It is in a way at the centre of the conflict between the Hindu culture which always shows the
mother as the giver, as the nurturer, and as sacrificing herself for the good of the family and the western
concept of self-happiness. All through Rakhi’s childhood, her mother is careful to ensure that her dream
work did not disrupt her family’s life. This is what Rakhi resents: “. . . that her mother, with such
meticulous motherness, kept her out of the place she wanted most to enter. That she denied her birthright
and doomed her to the bland life of suburban America” (QD 43).
In the western cultures, dream interpretation is a science, practiced by the psychologists. In the Indian
culture, dream interpretation is a gift. This gift is possessed by Mrs. Gupta and she relishes the gift. She
does not want to share her secrets with her daughter. Rakhi, natural to her American culture, wants to
analyze her mother’s gift.
I wanted to be an interpreter. -- I grew obsessed with the idea. I saw it as a noble
vocation, at once mysterious and helpful to the world. To be an interpreter of the inner
realm seemed so Indian (QD 35).
Rakhi also wants to understand the dream interpretations scientifically. Rakhi is fully tuned to the
American culture. She is shocked to see her mother’s behaviour as a dream interpreter. Rakhi is also
happy that she has not learnt the ways of her mother. At one time Rakhi wants to analyse; at another time
she feels happy that she has not learnt the ways of her mother. This brings out the insecure feelings in
Rakhi. For a second-generation Indian-American like Rakhi, the sensation of being in-betweens is
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particularly accentuated. Conflicts typically arise from the cultural clash between American individualism
and Indian communitarianism. The value system and culture of the second-generation is unclear. When
Rakhi compares her stance with that of her mother, she reflects, “Thank God, my world is simpler. Even
my tragedies are simple ones, colored in commonplace blues” (QD 41).
The second half of the novel Queen of Dreams concentrates on the mingling of reality, dreams and
nightmares. Rakhi locates the dream journals after her mother’s unexpected death. She reads them with
the help of her father in order to translate the Bengali words. This is an attempt to interpret and
understand her mother’s life and Rakhi tries to make sense out of her mother’s death. Rakhi also finds
herself struggling with her business, relationships and the overwhelming events relating to 9/11. Rakhi
says:
We see clips of firefighters heading into the blaze; We see the buildings collapsing
under the weight of their own rubble -- We look at them all, then at each other in
disbelief. How could this have happened -- here, at home, in a time of peace? In
America? (QD 255)
Rakhi, is not able to come to terms with the division in her family’s history, between India and the US.
She runs an ethnic-style coffee shop in Berkely, California with her friend Belle. Recently divorced,
Rakhi does not discuss the reasons for her divorce. It is Rakhi’s search for meaning and truth that is at the
heart of the novel. She searches for the meaning of what life is. Rakhi tries to understand her relationship
with her father; her friend Belle; her husband Sonny and her daughter Jona.
In the novel, the conflict of ideas between Mrs. Gupta and Rakhi illustrates the notion that there is always
an inner battle between a first-generation Indian American and a second-generation Indian American. The
transfer from her homeland to foreign land shows the adjustments of the inner conflicts, outer reality and
dislocation. Reading the dream journals of Mrs. Gupta, Rakhi is faced with many doubts. She thinks:
“Did my mother make the wrong choice in deciding to come to America with my father?” (QD 211).
After reading the journals, Rakhi begins to see what Mrs. Gupta hid from them so craftly: “her regret, her
longing for community, her fear of losing her gift” (QD 211).
Rakhi thought of her mother as a serene person. But after reading her journals, she
understands that her mother refused to accept sadness, which she considered a useless
emotion. Mrs. Gupta survived by making herself believing that loneliness was strength.
Rakhi describes her mother as the one who is beautiful and sad, like a princess from one
of the old Bengali tales (QD 200).
In Queen of Dreams, an ethnic coffee outlet, the Chai House, later renamed as Kurma House, is an
embodiment of cultural fusion of cuisine, music, conversation and myth, assimilating them into the
American mainstream. On a visit to Chai House, Mrs. Gupta tells, “This isn’t a real cha-shop -- she
pronounces the word in the Bengali way -- but mishmash, a westerner’s notion of what’s Indian” (QD
89). This is a perfect cogent of Kakar’s concept of assimilation in American life:
In the process of convergence the impact of minority cultures on the mainstream can
occur when elements of their culture are absorbed by Anglo-American community, thus
creating a composite culture. (Kakar, 25)
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Queen of Dreams explores the connection between wakefulness and the subconscious in the backdrop of
diasporic life. One morning when Rakhi is about to step out to the car, she sees a bird in the maple tree,
which she has not seen in that part of the state before. The bird is “large and gray with bright orange
mihinda eyes” (QD 185). The bird watches her intently, without any sign of fear. She runs inside to get
her father, but by the time they return, the bird is gone.
Could it be an omen? I ask. What’s an omen? he says. I sigh. I don’t want an argument
between us today, but I know this; the universe does send us messages. The trouble is
most of us don’t know how to read them. (QD 185).
In the case of Rakhi’s mother, Divakaruni explores the practice of the ancient culture of dream telling in a
place far away from the place where she has learnt it. In India a dream teller will have the support and
encouragement not only of her culture, but also of a circle of fellow dream tellers. In California, despite
the vibrant Indian community, Mrs. Gupta tells her dreams alone. Divakaruni has written some of the
dream chapters and has discovered that she has to bring the daughter’s voice in, as an important way to
communicate, what it means to be an American, especially for people of culture that is the Orientals.
Indian civilization has evolved through centuries of change. This collective consciousness has been
reflected in the expatriate writings through the rich tradition of myth, social and religious customs,
intermingling with the western ideas and their culture. Divakaruni has transcended boundaries negotiating
two different worlds drawn from various perspectives. The usual thematic core of expatriate writing
between the native and the alien, the self and the other seems to have acquired new richness and
complexity in the novelistic vision of Chitra Banerjee Divakaruni, balancing the various diversities of
being born an Indian, a woman and finally acquiring the status of an immigrant. Divakaruni has explored
the force of tradition of her native country as well as the challenges faced by the immigrants in her
adopted country.
Divakaruni blends both the metaphysical with the tangible physical world. The novel Queen of Dreams
juxtaposes Mrs. Gupta’s numinous world of dreams with the everyday concerns of her daughter’s life. As
Rakhi observes:
To give my mother credit, she never tried to pressure me into staying with Sonny once
I’d decided to leave. Even though I could never bring myself to tell her why. -- One
more way in which I’m different from my mother, -- this is why she dreams and I paint.
(QD 31)
Dreams look to the future whereas paintings try to preserve the past. The dream journals render an aura of
exoticism. The dreams themselves take on a poetic feel filled with symbolisms that reveal an image of
eroticized India with its cultural beliefs, the myths and legends.
If you dream of a closed door, you will ultimately be successful in gaining what you
desire, but it will take much effort. -- In your dream if someone presents you with sugar,
beware. Such a person is not to be trusted. (QD 76)
The element of mystery is maintained till the very end with the recurrent appearance of the snake and a
mysterious man in white. Mrs. Gupta wants her daughter not to hanker for her imagined India. For Rakhi,
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India is a place which she wants to visit. As she is not able to understand her mother’s nature, she wishes
that she will be able to understand her mother if she comes to India. Hence she has an assumed picture of
India. She tries to exhibit her imagination in her paintings.
Rakhi borrows from the South Asian library, a tape with songs about the Bengal monsoons. “how the
skies grow into the color of polished steel, how the clouds advance like black armies, or spill across the
horizon like the unwound hair of beautiful maidens” (QD 81). She day-dreams about the storm-whipped
palm trees, the red-breasted bulbuls taking shelter among the hanging roots of the banyan. She recalls:
“The lightening was silver combs decorating the rain maiden’s hair. The rain was warm, like human tears.
One of the singers had compared her heart to a dancing peacock” (QD 82).
Rakhi wonders as to whether there was any truth in that, or was it merely a poetic trope? When she
confronted her mother by a direct question, her mother grudgingly admitted that there were peacocks and
that from time to time they did dance. Her father informed her, with “gruesome glee” (QD 82) that
Calcutta flooded with heavy torrential down pours of rains and also people died of cholera. But Rakhi
was not satisfied with her parents’ answers. She thought that they were hiding ‘beautiful, mysterious,
important things’ (QD 82) from her as they always had. Belle had told her that her parents and the parents
of other desis she knew, loved to go on and on about India, “which in their opinion was as close to
paradise as you could get” (QD 82). Rakhi desperately remarks, “Still, I think that before I die I would
like to go to India- if only to lay to rest the ghosts that dance in my head like will-o’-the-wisps over a
rippling sea” (QD 83). Mrs. Gupta wishes her daughter to get accustomed to her American way of life
and to line in between two nations. She holds Rakhi responsible for her failing business in the Chai
House. She says:
The reason you don’t have enough power to fight that woman there is that she knows
exactly who she is, and you don’t. This isn’t a real cha shop but a mismash, a
westerner’s notion of what’s Indian. Maybe that’s the problem. May be if you can make
it into something authentic, you’ll survive. (QD 89)
Rakhi retorts her mother telling that her haunting silence about her country and her own past accounts for
her “warped sense of what’s Indian?” (QD 89). Mrs. Gupta admits her fault and offers a valid explanation
for her act thus:
You’re right. It is my fault. I see now that I brought you up wrong. I thought it would
protect you if I didn’t talk about the past. That way you wouldn’t be constantly looking
back, hankering, like so many immigrants do. I didn’t want to be like those other
members spitting you between here and there, between your life right now and that
which can never be. But by not telling you about India as it really was, I made it into
something far bigger. It crowded other things out of your mind. It pressed upon your
brain like a tumour (QD 89).
Here Divakaruni tries to blend the orient and the occident through the character of Rakhi. Rakhi, feeling
too American and seeking out a more authentic Indian identity, is a manifestation of her love and loyalty
torn between her imagined homeland and the country of her birth.
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Queen of Dreams is a tale of east-west encounter. It is a story of how a woman touches those around her
during her life and into death. The focus is on family, relationships, pride in one’s heritage, and how one
may not truly understand another as well as one thinks. The funeral of Mrs. Gupta was held at the Valley
View Funeral Home, a squat beige building of a freeway. When Rakhi looks at the gathering, she wants
to say something to them; something consoling and meaningful, for they are her mother’s true family, her
mother’s orphans. Rakhi says:
What could I tell them? They knew her better than I did; they knew her in her essence.
Until now I’d held on to the hope that someday I would know her, -- I realized that it
was never going to happen. My mother’s secret self was lost to me forever. (QD 114)
Things change when Mrs. Gupta dies in the tragic automobile accident. The dynamics of some of Rakhi’s
important relationships change forever. She notices her father for the first time, and he is not the same
indifferent man as he used to be. Earlier she felt, “I cannot remember a single instance in my life when I
felt close to him” (QD 115). After Mrs. Gupta’s death it is only through her father that Rakhi learns about
her parent’s past. Her father helps her in her chai business. Together they read her mother’s journal. This
is an act that changes both of them forever. She also finds in her a maturing relationship with Sonny,
while she herself is changing and growing too.
Rakhi invites Sonny and cooks for him -- something she had vowed she would never do again. But she
feels warmth in cooking in her small kitchen, Jona and Sonny and herself crowded around the countertop,
chopping green onions and sautéing chicken with ginger. One night she finds herself thanking Sonny for
saving her life. The novel speaks about the possibility of salvaging relationships, if one chooses to forgive
and move on -- as Rakhi does with her father and ex-husband. To forgive and to forget is again an Indian
way of life.
In a tragic way the aftermath of 9/11 pushes Rakhi into maturity and a new vision for herself. India
becomes little more than a myth after the terrorist attack on America. She and her family love India and
yet it is also the key to their past and present lives. “There would always be mysteries about the people -enigmas central to their lives -- Love worked its slanted way along other paths” (QD 290-291). Rakhi
understands the ways of life. She has understood her father’s affection; Sonny’s love and her daughter’s
affection. Her daughter Jona, has inducted the characteristics of both her grandmother, Mrs. Gupta and
that of her mother, Rakhi; She can dream and also paint. Jona is an enigmatic character. Rakhi observes:
With her grandmother dead and her mother overwhelmed, painting must have given her
stability. A way to express her emotions. I observe the care with which she delineates
details. The windows of the tall building gleam in the light from the flames. -- The sky,
too, is full of fire. It’s hard to wrench my eyes from the strangely magnetic quality of
the painting. (QD 212)
The experiences of migration and living in diaspora have been beautifully portrayed in Queen of Dreams.
In Rakhi, Divakaruni has combined the feelings of an immigrant who has an oriental past and tries to live
up to the occidental ethos. The character grows from questioning many aspects of what is happening
around her to a state where she is ready to accept the reason behind all happenings. Rakhi raises her voice
against mental trauma, cultural alienation and identity crisis of the dislocated people from their homeland
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India. Rakhi’s terrible sense of alienation and homelessness create the impetus that forces Rakhi into the
necessary changes to get her life back on track. She attempts to acculturate to the alien country. This
results in the erasure of the painful, unpleasant incidents with her husband and her family from the mind.
Towards the end, Rakhi begins to question her most basic assumptions and motives, the true nature of
love and the capacity to forgive, to re-kindle her love for her husband and her family, and eventually her
own community. The dynamics of some of Rakhi’s important relationships are changed in the phase
between her identity crisis and acculturation. Divakaruni has yoked together beautifully the diasporic
reality with myths from the ancient culture (India) within a woman-centered social environment in
America.
The characters in this novel are in search of their true image, torn between the traditional values they have
absorbed from childhood and the new values which they have been introduced due to their immigration.
This is a confrontation with the occidental ethos in order to discover one’s own self. All the main
characters are Bengalis; their desh is America. Divakaruni’s characters settle down in America. Queen of
Dreams is a novel about three generations -- Rakhi, a single mother in Berkely who has grown up in the
United States, her immigrant mother and her unquestionably American daughter, Jona.
Conclusion
Expatriate writing occupies a significant position between cultures and countries. There is a need to
realize the significance of the cultural encounter which takes place in diasporic writing, the bi-cultural
pulls and the creation of a new culture which finally emerges. In the novels taken up for study Divakaruni
has portrayed the fusion of the oriental and occidental cultures. The desh-pardesh syndrome, so typical of
all diasporic writers, finds a different exposition in the works of Divakaruni, who has managed to find a
bridge between the two cultures. Though Divakaruni lives in the United States, her work is imbued with
Indian culture and sensibilities.
Queen of Dreams is a good example of Divakaruni’s blending of the oriental values with the occidental
ethos. The very idea of diasporic literature conveys two dimensions of relationships: One, the relationship
to its motherland, which gives rise to nostalgia and reminiscences; second, the forged relationship with
the new land and its people, which give rise to conflicts and split personalities. Dislocations are a natural
offshoot of diasporic conditions, which have to be dealt with by way of embedding and assimilation. In
contemporary society, diasporic status is an inherent reality which is dealt with artistically by Divakaruni.
The search for identity and a sense of emotional completion is not confined to small corners of the world.
It is a dilemma that all human beings can understand. Divakaruni effectively takes the reader into an
immigrant culture in this novel. She also shows the common ground which lies in a world that is alien.
Confrontation with the west for the discovery of one’s own self is evident through the protagonist, Rakhi.
This search constitutes a quest for a satisfactory attitude towards the west, and for a realistic image of the
east. The fusion of the western and eastern cultures is beautifully brought out by the novelist. Thus, apart
from the melting of the two cultures, Divakaruni succeeds in presenting the expatriate sensibility of the
South Asian diasporic women and the process of identity formation.
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References
Divakaruni, Chitra Banerjee. Queen of Dreams. London: An Abacus Book, 2004. Print.
http://www.chitradivakaruni.com/
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chitra_Banerjee_Divakaruni
http://www.bookslut.com/features/2013_08_020206.php
Kakar, Sudhir. “Tradition and Modernity: A Critical Review” accessed on 25th Dec. 2014. Web.
-- https://www.academia.edu/7590896/Tradition_and_Modernity_A_Critical_Review by Sudhir_Kakar
Mukherjee, Bharati. “Beyond Multiculturalism: Surviving the Nineties.” Multi-America: Essays on Cultural Wars
and Cultural Peace. London and New York: Penguin, 1998. 454-461. Print.
Ramraj, V.”Diaspora and Multiculturalism”. National and Postcolonial Literatures, ed. Bruce King. Oxford;
Clarendon Press, 1998 Print. P.229.
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Fantasy Fiction in Indian English – A rewritten genre
Ms. Prerna Somani
English Language and Literature,
Institute of Language Studies and Applied Social Sciences,
Vallabh Vidynagar.
Anand, Gujarat, INDIA.
Abstract
Indian writing in English has developed into a plethora of interconnecting genres which carry with them the
simplicity of Indian lifestyle and the complexity of Indian beliefs in an adopted language, English. The introduction
of English language in the Indian literary scene has changed the face of almost every genre, ranging from drama,
thriller, romance, tragedy to non-fiction and poetry. However, one genre remains conveniently untouched by the
influence of this western language and its traditions and that genre is Fantasy Fiction. In the first look at the
shelves itself; we notice how almost every book or series published under the fantasy-fiction category today is
nothing but a rehashing of old Indian mythological scripts, especially the Ramayana and Mahabharata. Somehow,
all larger-than-life literature produced in English language in our country includes all sorts of major and minor
references made to our ancient Sanskrit literature. However, when we look closer we realize that the new literature
isn’t an exact duplication of the original works. Authors today are striving to interpret and rewrite old stories so
that they can become more conceivable and relevant for the current audiences.
One such author is Ashok K. Banker. In a series of eight books, Banker has rewritten and added his own creative
narratives to Valmiki’s Ramayana. The research paper deals with the various alterations Banker has made in his
series keeping in mind his current audience and how the series reflects on the attitude of a present day Indian
reader towards mythology and culture. Interpreting and analyzing Banker’s work is important because it has a
direct correlation with the changes the Indian society has undergone with respect to its perception about the genre
of fantasy fiction and why we are unable to encourage more original thought in this area of literature.
Keywords: Fantasy Fiction in India, Indian Mythology, Ramayana, Ashok K Banker
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“Animals don’t tell stories. Plants don’t tell stories. Rocks don’t tell stories.
They don’t need to. They know who they are in the food chain and
the pecking order of their pack, or herd, or hive.
Humans tell stories, because we need to. They tell us who we are in this world by giving the world a
structure. Stories transform us into heroes, villains, victims and martyrs.
Without stories, we have no identity; we are just animals with imagination.
Neuroscientists and psychologists around the world are finally appreciating
the value of storytelling in human lives.”
- Devdutt Pattanaik, author of Jaya and Sita
Often associated with children, Fantasy fiction is the genre of unreal magic, fairies, wizards, dragons and
supernatural elements. The main aspect of its allure lies in the fact that this genre deals with creative
flights imagination in alternate realities; that is to say, this genre deals with the impossible yet the
desirable. Just like science fiction takes base in pseudoscience, this genre originates from mythology,
folklore and legends from ancient literature. Alternate realities, secret worlds hidden in the real world and
magic realism are some of the popular kinds of fantasy fiction available in the global markets today.
However, in India the trends show quite a bit of deviation.
Fantasy Fiction written in English language is one of the fastest growing genres of literature in India
today. It is no more taken as a children’s reading and the authors are easily enjoying wide readership as
well as lucrative commercial success. The genre receives this impetus from its primary inspiration and
subject matter – Ancient Indian Mythology. New age fantasy fiction novels in India share one common
attribute, other than the increasing mass appeal – these books are in essence a rehashing or rewriting of
mythological tales and legends which are now being expounded with a post-modern perspective. While
authors abroad are keen on creating alternate parallel realities and establishing secret passageways to
magical worlds, Indian authors have focused their talents on the rich cornucopia of legends and tales that
weave the basic fabric of our culture. Instead of going ‘back to the Vedas’, contemporary Indian authors
have gone back to the Puranas and epic sagas only to come back with a fresher interpretations of the
olden texts.
Renovating and retelling old stories has been a very deep-rooted tradition of the Indian culture. Orally or
textually, the stories have been passed down from generation to generation with modifications of a nature
parallel to the ideological and socio-political background of that particular generation. Every generation
has taken away some elements from the original story or added some innovations which matched their
definitions of appropriate, inspirational and entertaining. Because of this, over the decades thousands of
recreations of these stories have been discovered. These versions differ from each other based on the
time, geography and social structure of the community they were created in. The Indian society has
always found ways to adapt to myths instead of isolating them. Every generation of story-tellers has
something new and unique to offer to the audience, which is one of the reasons that these stories continue
to hold places of prominence and wide discussion in the Indian literary scene. Ashwin Sanghi took
references from mythological and historical texts and set them in contemporary thrillers like The
Chanakya’s Chant and The Krishna Key. Krishna Udayashankar’s Aryavarta Chronicles series is a
reconstruction of the Mahabharata while V. Ravi’s The Exiled Prince blends Ramayana with science
fiction.
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Mythology is an integral part of the Indian society’s cultural conscious. However, because of lack of
expertise in Sanskrit there is a very remote section of the population that has actually read and studied the
original manuscripts. And at the same time, grandparents, temples and television have made sure that
every Indian knows his/her mythology. This knowledge is incomplete and yet sufficient enough. In this
manner, majority Indians are familiar with the mythology but also alien to its intricate truths. This binary
– of the known and the unknown – is what makes the myth so enchanting and engrossing. Since the
audience is already familiar with the setting, the process of developing a story that the audience will
connect with becomes easier for the author. Taking advantage of all that is unknown and undiscovered
about the ancient manuscripts and the lack of copyrights, Indian authors freely manipulate the original
plotlines to recreate the same story with a different scope. Another reason for the immense success of this
genre, despite being a rewritten one, is the intrinsic pride an Indian feels towards his/her culture and
civilization. Even with the western thought dominating an Indian’s daily etiquette, general population
continues to seek refuge and solace in the glorious past. Reinterpreting and rediscovering mythology are
some of the common ways in which people of this land relive their culture. Even though these stories are
thousands of years old, the fascination and mystery they carry has not been dulled, on the contrary,
modern day Indian is keener to find out more about these stories in order to ascertain their historical and
philosophical value by his or her own standards. The population continues to be divided into Believers
and the Atheists; majority of the readers are faced with an age-old confusion as to whether the ancient
stories were real or just a figment of a creative mind’s imagination; more so, were these superheroes
incarnations of God or were they regular human beings who used their mortal prowess in order to rise up
to the level of a publically worshipped figure. The curiosity and the thirst for truth are never quenched
and a fantasy fiction author preys on his thirst. A work of mythopoeia promises an enthusiastic audience
as well as a ready-made foundation, which is why authors refrain and publishers discourage original
fantasy works.
"Mythopoeia has taken off in the Indian Diaspora because there has been a change in
readership from a mature audience to a younger one. This lot has a desperate yearning t
o reconnect. They want to consume mythology but in a well packaged and easily
digestible way."
- Ashwin Sanghi, author of The Rozabal Line, Chanakya's Chant and The Krishna Key
While defining myth, mythologist Devdutt Pattanaik draws a clean yet thin line of difference between
myth and fantasy. He says “Mythology is subjective truth. Fantasy is nobody’s truth.” Mythology is the
study of subjective truth revealed through stories. While history is the study of objective truth revealed by
factual undisputed data, mythology explains what people believe to be true and how these beliefs are
indifferent to rational thought. Mythology reaches out to the psychological avenues of the society while
history deals with the social aspects. This proves that mythology is open to all sorts of interpretation and
none of these interpretations can be certified as one hundred percent correct or false. In here lies the
beauty of the genre. Any and all construal of ancient texts is acceptable. While rewriting a particular
legend or story, the author writes keeping in mind his/her own views and opinions and the general attitude
of the target audience. The practise of retelling has undergone remarkable changes in order to cater to the
expectations of modern readers. Attribution of innovative interpretations of mythical stories has enriched
its contextual meaning. For instance, Chitra Banerjee Divakaruni’s Palace of Illusions is a retelling of the
Mahabharata from Draupadi’s viewpoint. With gender studies as an upcoming avenue of interest, this
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novel is a highly relevant piece of literature which explores interesting issues like the genesis of the
famous war and Draupadi’s role in the turn of events. Creatively, the novel also talks about Draupadi’s
unrequited love for Karana. Anand Neelkanthan’s Asura and Ajaya retell the epics from the viewpoint of
the vanquished antagonists. Ancient literature is now being reviewed under the lens of feminism,
postmodernism, casteism and many more contemporary critical theories and beliefs. People want to have
a sharper idea of where they come from and how relevant is their history to their present. Thus,
mythology is perpetual and keeps maturing in terms of perspectives and connotations.
“There are some crucial reasons for this. You see, in Greece or Egypt, no one talks
about Zeus or Amun Ra. But Indian mythology surrounding Ram, Krishna or Shiva is
very much alive in the Indian mind. They have become a part of our collective
consciousness. In the last 20 years, we’ve emerged as an economically confident nation
and there’s a newfound interest in our culture. I’d say we’re at the right place at the
right time.”
- Amish Tripathi, author of the Immortals of Meluha triology
The reworking of mythological subject matter through contemporary modules of expression has proved to
be a successful approach in connecting our present day life-styles with the principles of our past. An
important reason behind the success of these creative retellings is the fact that these novels address to
many contemporary concerns as well as perennial conflicts of the human nature. While presenting
alternate or extended versions of popular mythological texts these novels portray gods, deities,
superheroes, villains as regular and rational human beings. There is a certain proportion of mysticism and
supernatural power involved in the plot but the characters are largely shown to be mortals. For instance,
the protagonist in Amish’s Immortals of Meluha is but a Tibetan refugee who gets drawn into the battle
between the Suryavanshis and the Chandravanshis. The protagonist is a common mountain-man with a
keen sense of reason and bravery. The heroes of contemporary fantasy fiction novels are as flawed as any
human is bound to be. How they achieve greatness despite these inherent flaws is one of the main themes
of such novels. Moreover, these novels attempt at emphasizing on “the other side” of the story. Post
colonial authors try to deconstruct domestic grand narratives while making sure that the minorities or less
dominant cultural groups within the society also get the same amount of emphasis as the colonizers.
Stories are being retold from the feminine perspective, where the entire story is centred on the heroine of
the novel. Characters marginalized in the original works are given voice in these retellings in order to
create a balance between the modern concept of justice and equality and the original plotlines. These
stories are retold not just for the mythical fascination they imbibe but also because the socio-political
commentaries made in them continue to hold relevance even today.
Increasing urbanization has resulted in the breaking down of traditions; people have lost ties with their
ancestral villages and oral transmission of tales isn’t suited to city life. Given the country’s religious
diversity and constitutional secularism, government certified academic curriculum steers clear of all
teaching pertaining to a specific religious community. This has created a gap between the demand and
supply of mythical knowledge which the current surge of fantasy fiction is trying to fill. Sweeping war
epics of grand conflict and conquest are being deconstructed and reframed into equitable tales of mortal
heroism.
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“Tales of Ramayana and Mahabharata were traditionally conveyed by elders in the
family to youngsters. Breaking up of the family structure and the Indian diaspora
spreading far and wide has created a need for the new generations to connect with their
culture. A modern format of retelling the stories is important for this generation.”
- Ashwin Sanghi
Contemporary writers use mythical framework, historical settings, humanized characters and relevant
socio-political themes to create their own work of fantasy fiction. Authors from the previous generation
assigned perspectives, meanings and connotations to traditional myth. They were focused on using
archetypes of legendary heroes, symbols and theme. However the current breed of writers is seen
experimenting with mythology by blending it with other modes of writing. For instance, Amish Tripathi
and Ashok K Banker blend mythology with fantasy in their works which are essentially modernizing the
Indian myths.
J.K. Rowling’s Harry Potter series can be said to have changed the game of Fantasy writings in English.
Magic, extraordinary living beings and surreal events were beginning to gain favouritism among the
young audiences. When Indian youth started looking for magic in their vicinity, they rediscovered
mythology, a universe of fantastic beings that do fantastic things. However it should be noted how
mythological stories are interpreted these days because it reveals the dominance of western thought
processes of capitalism and rationalism in the Indian mind. Critics continue to argue that the recently
published works of mythological retelling aren’t reclaiming the Indian culture but only helping the
cosmopolitan elite Indian to adapt to it. These stories are inherently a pivotal part of our vernacular
culture and by rehashing them in English language, a language comparatively new to us, we are simply
making them available to the liberal English-speaking class. These novels have been bashed by critics for
attempting to bring back ancient stories into conformity with a dualistic world view that now appears,
because of the economical and cultural politics of the post-Cold War world, to be inevitable, natural and
even true. These books are shaped based on the society’s criteria while the original works were written to
shape the society.
From about tenth century onwards, the written word became very important. This marked the increase of
regional scripts as well as regional literature and the first book to be invariably retold was the Ramyana.
Written books became enshrined and worshipped with utmost reverence and the trend of retelling spread
like wildfire. Starting from the southern languages of Tamil and Telegu, it spread to the east and finally
reached north with the creation of the Ramacharitmanas in the 16th century.
"No ancient story, not even Homer's Iliad or Odyssey, has remained as popular through
the course of time. The story of Rama appears as old as civilization and has a fresh
appeal for every generation."
- David Frawley in The Oracle of Rama.
Each generation of Indian storytellers has assumed it to be their cultural duty as well as right to retell the
story of Rama. Customarily they begin with eulogizing the first known text of this story, Valmiki’s
Ramyana and after that they unreservedly deviate from it in several significant ways, altering details of
plot, characters, viewpoints and the chronological order of events as well. Along with changing the
portrayal of Rama, the original story has gone through many transformations which reflect the
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transforming Indian society. Brave new aspects and events are added to every regional reworking of the
story in order to make it more appealing and sympathizing to the locals and their cause. It is from these
regional works that we learn of events and characters such as Ratnakar’s transformation into Valmiki,
Lakshman’s wife Urmila, the story of the boatman who helps the exiled trio cross the Ganga, Shabari’s
half-eaten berries, Lakshman-rekha, Sita probably being Ravana’s daughter, Hanuman being an
incarnation of Shiva and so on. For majority Indians these popular stories make up the real Ramayana;
however only few realize that these indigenously developed incidents are not a part of the original
Ramayana.
Today, fiction based on Indian mythology has become the most marketable segment of India’s English
language literary scene. This trend started in 2003 with the publication of the first volume of a bestselling
eight-part series written by Ashok K. Banker on the epic, Ramayana. Going back to the original sources
of the Puranas, Banker initiated the practice of modernizing myths by reinterpreting ancient manuscripts
in modern language and perspective. This imaginative retelling presented as a cocktail of fantasy and
mythology worked on demystifying the old epic and has caused the tomes to fly off the shelves. In his
introduction, Banker insists that the Ramayana known to most of the Indian audiences has been reduced
to a moral tale of righteousness, as opposed to the actual story of prince Rama, which consists of amorous
escapades of King Dashrath, macabre details of the battles fought, physical description and thorough
insight in the lifestyles of the repugnant Asuras, astounding powers possessed by the great seers and so
on. Each book in the series captures a different phase in the journey of the protagonist.
The immensely engaging reconstruction of the olden epic starts with Prince of Ayodhya which is the first
instalment in the series of eight. The tale opens with Rama having an unnervingly real vision of the
gruesome misfortunes that are about to fall on his beloved native land of Ayodhya, wrecking it to
nothingness. Sage Vishwamitra is seen warning King Dashratha of impending doom with the imminent
and eventual rise of the demon forces of Ravana. After much debate and persuasion, the king reluctantly
allows his beloved sons Rama and Lakshman to accompany the fierce sage to the forest in order to
expunge the asuras and minions of Ravana that have been the cause of terror and trauma for the natives.
Vishwamitra imparts the knowledge of the divine weapons of Bala and Atibala to the brothers which
successfully equips them to battle monsters of terrible heinousness. Meanwhile Ravana is readying a
massive army of the most abhorrent creatures to invade Ayodhya and eventually the entire Prithvi lok.
The first books ends with a prophecy of annihilation and events seem to be moving towards their
inexorable conclusion.
The second book is Siege of Mithila. It begins just as eerily as the first book; this time it is Sita who has a
prophetical dream. Bestial hordes are roaring towards the capital city of Ayodhya, creating senseless
destruction on their way. If Ayodhya falls, all mortals fall. Rama is unable to return home to defend his
family and this forces him to journey to Mithila – a city that lies straight in the path of demonic
devastation – to join a small band of heroes planning a valiant defence against the armies of darkness
which are led by Rama’s nemesis, the terrible soul-slayer Ravana. Meanwhile, in Ayodhya Manthara, a
stooge of the demon king continues with her nefarious schemes to eliminate Rama. Sita is portrayed as a
true warrior princess who is steadfastly determined to contribute in defending her motherland. On the
way to Mithila, Rama rescues Ahalya from her condemned existence as a stone and this is one of the most
magical chapters in the book. Vishwamitra reveals that Mithila will bear the brunt of Ravana’s onslaught
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and from there, the book moves rapidly to a momentous climax with the impermanent but massive defeat
of Ravana’s army with the Brahmastra.
Demons of Chitrakut is the third instalment in the series and story picks off where it left in the second
book. The curtain reopens to an atmosphere of matrimony and celebration. While Rama weds Sita,
Lakshman is married to Urmila and Bharat and Shatrughna are married to Sita’s cousins Mandavi and
Shrutkirti respectively. While returning back to Ayodhya, the wedding party is interrupted by
Parshurama, the warrior-sage known as the Rama of the Axe. The conflict resolves with Parsurama’s
defeat and Rama wins the celestial bow. The procession reaches Ayodhya where King Dashratha declares
Rama’s coronation as the Crown Prince the following morning. Manthara traps Kaikeyi and makes her
commit acts of terrible evil while Dashrath’s health desecrates rapidly. Using the two boons Dashratha
promised to her during their marriage, Kaikeyi demands an exile of fourteen years for Rama and the
throne for her son, Bharat. Despite being sturdily opposed by the crowds, Rama, Sita and Lakshman leave
Ayodhya to honour Dashrath’s word. Parallel to this, in Lanka, the demonic forces have suffered a
terrible blow. However with the help of his younger brother Vibhishan, Ravana attempts to break out of
the energy prison he has been trapped in. Disguised as a doe, Supanakha’s character keeps following
Rama in hopes of luring him. Banker’s interpretation of the Lakshman rekha is more realistic than its
previous versions of grains-of-rice or arrow-on-soil.
In the fourth instalment, Armies of Hanuman, readers are reunited with the characters after a leap of
thirteen years from the day on which the trio left Ayodhya. In these thirteen years, Rama, Lakshman and
Sita along with a motley band of outcasts and outlaws are shown to fight a rigorous battle with the Asura
hoards; Rama’s forces eventually prevail. Tormented by insatiable lust and spurned in her advances,
Supanakha desperately assistance from her comatose cousin, Ravana and succeeds in reviving him. The
resurrection of Ravana and his plans to seek revenge on Rama are some of central aspects of this book.
Towards the later part of the book Ravana abducts Sita using sorcery and brute force. Rama and
Lakshman begin their journey to Lanka on foot. Rama’s prowess as a military leader and his unfailing
commitment to dharma attract the attention of a Vanar (highly developed descendants of apes), Hanuman
who has been entertaining hopes of enlisting to Rama’s aid in restoring Sugreeva to his rightful throne.
Rama and Sugreeva strike a deal of friendship where Rama helps Sugreeva regain his throne from the
usurper Bali and in return the Vanar army assists the brothers in their war against Lanka.
Bridge of Rama is the fifth book in the series of eight. The character in spotlight for this novel is
Hanuman, who manages to recruit an unparalleled janaya-sena (generation army) for Rama and
Lakshman which includes vanars as well as a massive force of bears. The extraordinary army progresses
to build bridges on the ocean that will lead to the island of Lanka but several precious lives are lost in the
process. An accident leads to the revelation of Hanuman’s true identity as the son of Vayu, the Wind God.
Spurred by the discovery of safer and more efficient construction methods and Hanuman’s sheer strength,
the building of the bridge speeds up rapidly. New crisis arises when Rama is visited by his dead father
who warns him that Sita will die by the end of the night if Rama does not intervene. Panic stricken, Rama
asks Hanuman for help, who in turn flies to Lanka. Infuriated by the iniquitous treatment Sita is receiving
in captivity, Hanuman begins to destroy Lanka. Ravana loses many good generals and sons to Hanuman’s
annihilation. Indrajit, Ravana’s eldest son manages to manipulate Hanuman into relenting by threatening
the use of Brahmastra. However the Lankans pay a high price for the capture of Hanuman when the
Vanar demigod sets Lanka on fire and mashes the Tower of Lanka to shreds.
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Directly following the events of the previous book, King of Ayodhya starts with a vexed Ravana who
begins to use his demonic powers to the full extent by birthing millions of new rakshasas for his army by
chanting evil mantras. Nearly a tenth of Rama’s army is destroyed by the tidal wave Ravana conjures
through his control over Varuna, the Ocean God. Furious and pained Rama threatens to unleash his
Brahman Shakti against the ocean. Varuna appears instantly before Rama, pleading for mercy and using
long platoons of sperm whales, the Ocean God helps Rama’s forces cross over the ocean. Meanwhile,
Ravana’s younger brother Vibhishana gets banished from Lanka for trying to convince Ravana to give up
Sita. On the island of Lanka the Great War ensues. For three days Rama and his forces battle against
Ravana’s demonic monstrosities and subterfuge by using ingenious war tactics and Brahman shakti. The
novel ends at an exultant note where Ravana is killed, Vibhishan is crowned as the king of Lanka and Sita
is securely returned to Rama. Having completed fourteen years of exile, the trio journey back to Ayodhya
with their victorious army on the enchanted Pushpak Vimaan. The series starts with Prince of Ayodhya
and comes to a full circle in the sixth instalment King of Ayodhya.
The seventh instalment of the series, Vengeance of Ravana is considered to be an unnecessary addendum
by majority readers. Ayodhya is shown to be threatened once again by forces of Atikya, Ravana’s son and
Mandodari, Ravana’s widow. On the battlefield, amidst high amount of drama and descriptive dialogue,
Atikya presents a sharp twist in Sita’s parentage. Somehow Ravana seems to awaken from the dead once
again. Significant emphasis is given on Sita and Rama being a form of Lakshmi and Vishnu respectively
which is a break from the author’s original take on the epic. Up till the seventh book, the portrayal of
Rama and Sita was strictly mortal.
The eighth book Sons of Sita is the conclusive instalment in the series, although it can be independently
read as a complete story in itself. It traces the story of Luv and Kush, twins born to Rama and his exiled
wife Sita. Luv and Kush are brought up in Sage Valmiki’s ashram and are trained to be first class warriors
by their mother and her friend, Nakhudi. Meanwhile, King Rama of Ayodhya is presented as a
megalomaniacal despot who is manipulated by his corrupt ministers into employing extremely distorted
forms of dharma. The story witnesses some interesting twists when the sacred stallion of King Rama’s
grand Ashwamedha Yagna crosses paths with his estranged sons who are determined to defy the military
might of Ayodhya and the emperorship of Rama himself. Sita, Nakhudi and Luv and Kush defend their
ashram diligently and bravely against the mercenaries that are hired by the Ayodhyan army to keep the
sacred horse safe. In the chain of events, Sita meets Rama once again; however things take a turn for the
worse when she is ordered to undergo another Agni-Pariksha in the name of Dharma. The novel ends
with Rama and his brothers entering voluntarily into the state of Samadhi or eternal sleep while Luv and
Kush take over the reigns of Ayodhya with competent counselling from Nakhudi and Kaushalya and
Sumitra. The last scenes of the book leave the readers with an image of Vishnu mounting Garuda to
return back to Ksheer Sagar (Ocean of Milk) to his beloved Sri and best friend Anantha. After several
interesting divergences, the books ends exactly where the Valmiki Ramyana ends.
Banker’s free form fantasy renders the epic more relatable and anticipatory by breathing humanity into
the characters that most Indians considered as deities. Steering away from brahminical and chauvinistic
traditions of writing or narrating epics, Banker’s Ramyana series has fascinated the readers because it
brings freshness and makes intricate, discursive narratives more accessible to an audience that is
accustomed to the linear plotlines followed by Hollywood and Bollywood movies.
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“I neither seek to venerate nor desecrate the deities. The Hindu icons/characters make
for great stories irrespective of the religious perspective. It is the success of the stories
over religion. I have completely surrendered to the power of the story.”
- Ashok K. Banker, while describing himself as an ‘iconoclast’
Mythological fiction and Fantasy fiction are quite synonymous to each other in the current Indian literary
scene in English language. While this genre is coveting prime space on the book shelves, it is imperative
that the authors diligently work to avoid inescapable déjà vu from creeping in their work by evolving
originality of approach and uniqueness of philosophy. In that sense, the author must take creative liberties
while rewriting a certain ancient text. Banker’s Ramayana also marks several inventive details, of which
some heighten the reader’s fascination while others seem unnerving. Banker’s Dashrath is portrayed as an
aging warrior turned hedonistic dotard who is dying of a mysterious disease. His chief queens are shown
to get into undignified squabbles and cat fights. Kaikeyi is presented as an alcoholic gluttonous
nymphomaniac with primitive intelligence and she is dominated by her maid Manthara who worships
Ravana through horrific tantric rites. The characters' speech patterns keep fluctuating from Elizabethan
platitudes of the 16th century and modern day slang. Ribald jokes shared between the Ayodhyan princes
are an unusual shift from the popular image of Rama and his brothers being the epitome of pious
perfection. One of the most fetching aspects of the series is the portrayal of Sita as a true warrior princess.
This presentation is a major break from the conventional idea of Sita who was only known as the
virtuous, obedient, pitiable and star-crossed wife of Rama till now. Banker’s Sita blazes forth like a
supernova casting even Rama into shadow at various places in the narrative. Rama, on the other hand, is
the mighty warrior who has an exceptionally strong sense of justice and wisdom but Banker presents him
pragmatically as a human being and therefore subjects him to the same downfalls as a regular being. In
Sita’s words he is a ‘broken god’ and that, for most audiences is the most fitting crown Rama has ever
worn.
In his foreword to the text, Banker clarifies that his version is by no means authoritative and it merely
follows the trail blazed by various authors of Ramayana over the centuries, including Valmiki, Tulsidas
and Kamban. Banker’s sole intention, he states, is a desire to portray the nature of ancient India and the
epic story of Ramayana through a medium that appeals to modern writing. In this quest of his Banker
highlights specific segments of the story of Rama to help present day readers connect to it better. The
concept of Brahman shakti is explained in detail which helps in demystifying a lot of unreal miracles
associated with the story. The relationship between Sita and Rama is given special focus throughout the
series because one, it is important for the audience to understand the profound connection Sita and Ram
shared and two, for centuries Rama has been crowned as the Maryada-Purushottam (the most dutiful and
ideal amongst all men); everyone wants to know how he dealt with his love life back in his day.
Lakshman’s extraordinary devotion towards his elder brother is an extremely rare sight today, which is
why it is considered mythical. Banker’s Lakshman is a devoted brother but he is shown to face his own
set of doubts and differences in opinion which only get quelled because of his infinite trust in Rama.
Characters in Banker’s Ramayana are never clearly black or white, they are painted in varying shades of
grey and this gives them the needed tinge of reality. The extent of Ravana’s demonic powers and the
lifestyle of his bestial army are described in tremendous detail and so are the war tactics and battles.
Through this the readers being to grasp how truly horrifying an enemy Ravana was and they start
appreciating Rama’s imperturbable gallantry as a mere mortal.
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The Indian fiction scene is going through a generational change where the audience is finally shedding
colonial influences and the idea of capitalist superiority. Indian authors find the very idea of being
inspired by the likes of Tolkein, laughable. Tolkein’s tale, they verbalize, is barely a hundred years old
and his sources are another thousand years old or so. On the other hand, the myths and legends of ancient
Indian tradition are arguably far older than any piece of literature the West possesses. Contemporary
Indian authors of fantasy fiction are very firm in their belief that Indian civilization predates the Greek
civilization. The character and tradition of storytelling in India is closely connected with the wellspring of
its cultural life. The Indian thought has always valued mythology over history. British imperials frowned
upon this practise and since the scientific revolution, history gained ascendancy over mythology.
However as the World Wars put an end to European dominance over the world, people began realizing
the value of subjectivity and its pervasiveness under the veneer created by rational philosophies. Miracle
stories about the Ramayana have gained prominence over the Valmiki Ramayana because Indian people
like to believe in miracles more than actuality; they like to believe that the bridge to Lanka was created by
rocks with Rama’s name written on them as opposed to Valmiki Ramayana’s version where the bridge
was constructed by proper civil engineering. On studying the trends of the past centuries it can be
predicted that however skilfully as author tries to rewrite the Ramayana from realistic or scientific
viewpoints, at the end of the day it is the miracle stories that will survive the brunt of time. Such is the
condition of India’s god-loving population. But at the same time, this successfully allows authors in every
generation to retell the same story to retell the same story in sync with the realities of their time.
“What is true mythology? The creation myths in Shiva Purana and Brahma Purana are
different. Which one do we believe? The Kambha Ramayana and Ramacharitamanasa
are different from the Valmiki Ramayana. There is a lovely line in the Rig Veda which
perhaps sums it up nicely. ‘Ekam sat, viprah bahuda vadanti’. Truth is one, wise men
speak it differently.”
- Amish Tripathi, author of the Shiva Trilogy
References
Dr. M. M. Nivargi, A Brief Survey of Myth and the Contemporary Indian English Popular Novel. European
Academic Research Volume II, Issue 2. May 2014
Philip Lutgendorf, (Too) Many Ramayanas?
Sangeetha Devi Dundoo, A good old-fashioned story. The Hindu. May 2014
Ian Emsley, Ashok K Banker Interview: Epic Retellings From the Edge. July 2004
Varsha Verma, Interview with Ashok K Banker. August 2013.
Wikipedia, Ashok K Banker. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ashok_Banker
Kasmin Fernandes, Ficition genres new and improve!. Times of India. June 2013
Kalyani N, Lover of Mythology gives Sons of Sita another chance, The Indian Express, December 2012
Devdutt Pattanaik, On Stories we tell. http://devdutt.com/articles/indian-mythology/on-stories-we-tell.html
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Devdutt Pattanaik, How we read Mythology. http://devdutt.com/articles/indian-mythology/how-we-readmythology.html
Devdutt Pattanaik, How do you tell a story like Ramayana. http://devdutt.com/articles/indian-mythology/how-doyou-tell-a-story-like-the-ramayana.html
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The Global Journal of Literary Studies
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May 2015
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Vol. 1, Issue 1
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The Portrayal of Social Aspects in the Novel and Movie Parineeta :
A Comparative Study
Ms Vinayba Jadeja
Assistant Professor
ILT B.Ed. College, Jamnagar.
Gujarat, INDIA.
Abstract
Under the social perspectives of Indian sensibilities, this paper will draw attention to the social portrayal the novel
Parineeta by Saratchandra Chattopadhyay by fore grounding two different films adaptations. Novel Parineeta is a
mirror image of the social structure of particular time. It is a story of class, religion, love, jealousy, dignity and
freedom of choice. It encompasses a romance between a lovable orphan and her true mentor. It also reflects what
was going on in Bengal at certain time, equally, issues of child marriages and rise of Brahmoism.
Although this paper’s prominent focus is on Bimay Roy’s and Pradeep Sarkar’s movies. There are differences
between original text and two different movies. It analyses how the novel is watching with the perspectives of
novelist and in what manner movies are reading with directors’ point of view. This paper will also study the
concept of directors’ while adapting text and are they able to justify the real crux of the novel. Thus, this paper will
endeavour to explore social aspects of Perineeta on the visual screen through the text.
Keywords: Bengal Renaissance, Hinduism, Brahmoism, Child Marriage, Dowry and Social Aspects.
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Introduction
Where the mind is without fear and the head is held high;
Where knowledge is free;
Where the world has not been broken up into fragments by narrow domestic wars;
Where words come out from the depth of truth;
Where tireless striving stretches its arms towards perfection;
Where the clear stream of reason has not lost its way into the dreary desert sand of
dead habit;
Where the mind is led forward by thee into ever-widening thought and action –
Into that heaven of freedom, my Father, let my country awake.
-Rabindranath Tagore
(“Where the mind is without fear” Kinger, 2010, p. 100)
It is a prayer by the poet for his country that it may rise above narrow notion of progress. He prays to God
for an atmosphere of freedom and equality, based on truth and fearless intellectual. As the Indian society
has developed through the ages and improvements have taken place in miscellaneous fields. It has
witnessed many reforms before being independent. Every reform, each major decision has left their
footprints in society. Whatever happened in society it effects on every area of human race. Among all
fields Literature is also rolled in humanity. The view that is associated with the 19th century French
literary historian, Taine, who evolved the formula of the race, the milieu, and the moment to explain the
origin of all literature. Not only literature but writer cannot escape from the society. As Taine mentioned:
All individuals of a nation at any particular time are to be regarded simply as the
products of the three great impersonal forces which he evokes to account for them; and
thus the study of any author is reduced by him to an examination of the manner in
which his genius and work express the combined action of the influences which play
upon him in common with all his fellow countrymen and contemporaries. (Scott James,
2008, p. 22)
Thus literature is being a bridge between man’s inner life besides its independent urge and rights;
however literature has the social function of making a channel between man and society. The twentieth
century countersigned many up heals all over India. Among all Bengal Renaissance played pivotal role in
socio-political changes of the Nineteenth century. It is neither a creation of a sudden improvement of
literary geniuses who started to shine in isolation but it also saw authors who were politically sound and
predominantly searching the cause of women in the society that turn the authors truly contradict the
orthodox sensitivity of the male dominated society. Women have been given the importance that she
deserves for the first time in Bangla urban literature. Bengali authors, poets and intellectuals likes Bankim
Chandra Chattopadhyay, Ram Mohan Roy and others had contrived the rise of the middle class Bengali
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Hindus in their literary works in the 19th century. They are the same literary persons who have
macadamize the way for the later writers like Rabindranath Tagore and Saratchandra Chattopadhyay
whose works have brought the middle class of the Bengali society in the glare of publicity.
Saratchandra Chattopadhyay is commonly known as one of the greatest Indian novelists of the twentieth
century. His novels are episodic in periodicals and successively published in book form. He earned
enormous fame in the early decades of the century, and established him as Bengal's master narrator. After
passing seven decades of his death, he remains one of the most popular novelists in Bengal, and is widely
read in translation into various languages and equally his works made into films. Among his best novels
are Srikanta, Devdas, Palli Samaj, Parineeta, Charitraheen, Grihadaha and Pather Dabi. Saratchandra’s
each novels is like every day’s stories, it articulated in a simple yet fascinating style, stout characters,
painstaking plotting, true-to-life dialogue, and remarkable portrayals of life in turn of the century Bengal.
Parineeta is one of the renowned and highly acclaimed novels of Saratchandra, indicated by the huge
popularity of its different movie adaptations. The novel is translated by Malobika Chaudhury and too
short to be termed as a proper novel. It portrays the forfeit and benevolence of the existing Hindu Bengali
woman. Parineeta represents the socio-cultural ethos focusing the complete traditional women in
twentieth century Bengal. The word Parineeta means the married woman, basically limited by the
accustomed principles. The story centers on a poor thirteen-year-old orphan girl Lalita who lives with the
family of her maternal uncle Gurucharan. Gurucharan has five daughters and the overhead of paying
dowry for each girl. He is enforced to take a loan from his neighbour, Nabin Roy.
Shekhar is a son of Nabin Roy who is twenty five-year-old successful lawyer and nearby to Lalita.
Whereas Lalita is obsessed with him the differences in wealth, class and religion prohibit marriage of
them. As Swagato Ganguly states in the introduction to the 2005 English translation, "child marriages
were the norm during much of Saratchandra Chattopadhyay's life time (1876-1938), and did not attract
any penalties from the law at the time of Parineeta's publication in 1914" (Chattopadhyay, 2005, p. v-vi).
Many a times Shekhar is jealous of Girin who is the uncle of Lalita's friend, Charubala. His influence is
over Lalita's family helps Gurucharan to recompense the loan of Nabin Roy. He also encourages
Gurucharan to convert himself and his family from Hinduism to Brahmoism as it prevented to give dowry
in a marriage. It awakes a number of misunderstandings between a triangle; Girin, Shekhar, and Lalita. At
the end of the novel, Shekher accepted Lolita as his wife and signified the title of novel.
Present research paper is dealing with the thematic study with special focus of social aspects of twentieth
century in India by comparing Saratchandra Chattopadhyay’s Parineeta by foregrounding Bimal Roy’s
and Pradeep Sarkar’s movie adaptations. Accordingly there is necessity to get basic idea regarding
Comparative Literature. To start with simple, as Susan Bassnett said, “Comparative Literature is involves
the study of texts across the cultures, that is interdisciplinary and that is concerned with patterns of
connections in literatures across both time and space.” (Bassnett, 1993, p. 1) Comparative Literature
provides mirror image, accurate graphic when something is compared. As Matthew Arnold mentioned,
“Everywhere there is connection, everywhere there is illustration. No single event, no single literature is
adequately comprehended in relation to other events, to other literatures.” (Bassnett, 1993, p. 1) It has its
own areas of studies in literature like Genre Studies, Reception Studies, Influence Studies, Translation
Studies, Thematology Studies, etc. Among these many studies, thematology plays very significant role in
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Comparative Literature. Theme is considered to be a primary pre-occupation in the school of
thematology. Profoundly, thematology puts two themes together and by comparing them it illustrates how
themes are treated in the same or a different way. Thematic studies enable us to scrutinize and
differentiate the spirit of different cultures and era.
Parineeta (1914) novel opens with the news of having fifth girl child’s birth, Gurucharan who was a bank
clerk with a salary of sixty rupees a month, had no energy to even release the deep sigh after listening this
news. The first paragraph is bound how people are not happy for the birth of girl and equally having die
wish to bless by baby boy. For giving birth of girl child, Khurima, wife of Gurucharan is blamed by him.
He speaks to Shekhar, ‘You have heard what your Khurima has done this morning?......Shekhar; only I
know what this really means.’ (Chattopadhyay, 2005, p. 4) Being a bank clerk an educated man he has
orthodox notions. Gender discrimination disturbs present and future both. It is not only illustrated the
situation of novelist’s time but even today, girl child is least welcome in most India families.
Whereas the movie directed by Bimal Roy in 1953 starts with the arrival of Shekhar who is listening his
father’s conversation to collect money with all interest then after movie leads to Gurucharan’s wife
complaining about household work with having daughter in her lap. After a span of period Pradeep Sarkar
and Vidhu Vinod Chopra’s adaptation of Parineeta which is presented the scenario of 1960s Calcutta
with the narrating voice of Amitabh Bachchan. The story focuses the marriage of Shekhar, only son of
Navin Ray and Gayatri Tantiya, a rich industrialist's daughter. Subsequently the images of Lalita are
calling Shekhar by his name in flashback through his mind. Novel and 1953’s Parineeta is without
flashback. Therefore, the each beginning forms different image with the point of view of novelist and two
different era’s directors.
The boiling point till the beginning of twenty first century was the social evil dowry. It is one of the worst
social practices that have affected our culture. Equal situation is portrait in Gurucharan’s worry about
Lalita and his other daughters’ dowry lead him to borrow money from Nabin Roy. Even he says to
Shekhar, “Shekharnath, just look around in your circle of friends. May be something can be done for this
girl. I have heard that there are some boys who don’t think so much of money or dowry, but take into
consideration only the girl herself.”(Chattopadhyay, 2005, p. 5) So, Gurucharan is searching appropriate
boy who is not going to take money or dowry. Same point is covered in movie by Bimal Roy, he pointed
out the dowry’s matter as Saratchandra mentioned. However the last adapted movie by Vidhu Vinod
Chopra is not mainly focused the aspect of dowry but it’s an ill health of Gurucharan causes to bring
money from Novin Roy.
Not only where the parents are in trouble to give high amount of dowry but the boy’s parents are
searching those girls’ proposal whose father’s economic condition is well established. Even it is
pondering by Manorama, Charu’s mother, is also sure about the intension of Nabin Roy to collect huge
amount of dowry. Individually both the movies touched this part, Navin Rai in the movie of 1953 sent his
son to see girl of Mr. Chaudhari who is ready to propose 10,000 rupees to them before marriage.
Sabyasachi Chakrabarty performed as Navin Ray in 2005‘s Parineeta movie, wants his son to marry Lala
Shyamlal Tantiya, a rich industrialist's daughter Gayatri to accomplish his business. At this juncture,
Director knows very well how to make changes when it represents two different times.
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In twenty first century still a girl has to question about her rights. Even Nobel Peace Prize winner Malala
Yousafzai said in her noble acceptance lecture, “I wanted to speak up for my rights. . . . I didn’t want my
future to be just sitting in a room and be imprisoned in my four walls and just cooking and giving birth to
children. I didn’t want to see my life in that way.” (Yousafzai, 2014, “Malala Yousafza – Facts”) Is it four
walls world appropriate to mention the situation of women? Women are never allowed to establish their
own identity. While talking to Shekhar for searching perfect suitor for Lalita, Guruchar is also praised her
quality to master over cooking and other household work and it is sufficient for society. This type of
psychology raised many questions. Women are only made for cooking, serving food and to give birth of
child only. They were not allowed to take breath in air, to fly in sky and to think freely. While performing
role of daughter, sister, wife and mother, she is remained for others’ life. Hence Lalita was not allowed to
take a single step without Shekhar’s permission. Both the novel and movies didn’t allow Lalita to do
something by her individual. Shekher even stops her to drink tea, indirectly his disappointment to send
her theatre and disliking of her playing cards. In her relationship with Shekhar she happily condenses
herself choice-less. All her decisions and activities are dictated to by his wants and moods. At this point,
it crosses heights when Gurucharan is appointing Shekhar and Girin to find boy for Lolita. They are
discussing about boy’s look and education. Gurucharan never asked Lalita in a single saying for her wish.
They have rights to take major decision of her daughters’ life. He uttered, ‘Of course, the boy is not good
looking, but what difference do looks make to a man? It suffices that he is qualified.’(Chattopadhyay,
2005, p. 46) He wanted to relieve him from huge responsibility. Lalita comes across not like a person but
equipment. Her uncle, Shekhar and all the other male characters in the novel addresses questions like:
Where can she be put? What is to be done with her? Who will take charge of her? Who can she be
married to? Which house can she be moved to next? And this is exactly how girls and women are
regarded in India even today! It is as if to be women is to be a non-entity-with no voice, feelings and
choices. Her life is not hers to decide what to do with. She does not decide who she wants to be or not be,
what she wants to do or not do, and where she wants to go or not go. Despite the fact that movie by Bimal
Roy screened these aspects as it is but last contemporary movie is not focused on traditional way as novel
discovered, it took big turn when heart attack of Gurucharan forced Lalita to agree for marriage.
The incident of infanticide, early marriage, and less education is not renewed black spot in India. Women
are differentiated against from early childhood. The psychology of society is very narrowing which
affects thirteen years child also. When marriage discussion of Lalita was going on, she thought rationally
and uttered, “But if I marry and return home a widow, then there will be no problem or no shame. But,
where is the difference between a widow and a spinster! Why should giving shelter to one be shameful,
while giving shelter to the other was perfectly acceptable?” (Chattopadhyay, 2005, p. 34) These types of
logical questions arose naturally in her mind; thirteen how can understand the old tradition of society. To
be unmarried it’s like a curse but being a widow and live at parent’s home it is not harder for society and
for tradition. This way of thinking is still spoil many girls’ life.
Continuously the circumstance of Gurucharan is always in a worry regarding dowry, rest of the
daughters’ marriage and find good suitor for Lalita. Society decided the marriage age of girls. Their
maturity, liking, disliking and wishing are not significant whatever men thought about them it’s a true and
without single question they have to accept all the things. Even they are not allowed to marry her again.
The conversation between Girin and Shekhar is mentioning situation. Girin said, “Besides, a lady cannot
marry more than once, can she— whatever is the matter?” (Chattopadhyay, 2005, p. 87)
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Above covered all aspects originated from one matter and that is male dominated society. Similar features
viewed in Bimal Roy’s movie but modern movie as having focused on twenty first century’s scenario, it
took only few points. Vidya Balan who performed the role of Lalita is free to take education, to compose
music and allow to do job. Therefore, director is directed a movie to keen focus on present era, without
affecting main idea of novel.
Religion is present in the every single particle of India. People are creating anything for the sake of God
and religion. In the late nineteenth century and early twentieth century there are two different streams in
Bangla: Hindu and Brahmo. Brahmo Samaj has no faith in any scripture as an authority, faith in the
doctrines of Karma and rebirth, no faith in Avatars, but against caste restrictions. Religion plays main role
in novel’s turn. Gurucharan is enforced to convert himself into Brahmo creed. While wiping his eyes and
talking with Nabin Roy he said, “I was not in my senses, Dada. I did not know if my problem would lead
me to putting a noose around my neck or whether I should surrender to the Almighty— I did not know
which way to go. Ultimately, instead of committing suicide, I decided to submit to divinity . . . and so
converted.” (Chattopadhyay, 2005, p. 58)
How the strength of people is vanished when there is no option left for them. The matter is not over when
Gurucharan’s being converted in Brahmo but it emerges or rather ruined all his family members. Shekhar
who exchanged garland with Lalita, is scared to accept her as his wife after being Gurucharan’s Brahmo.
He had no guts to oppose his father, Nabin Roy. After the parting of both the houses, Shekhar’s words
with Lalita revealed how the religion easily broke dominant bond of love. He told Lalita, “Yes, true, Ma
will not want to accept you. She has heard that your uncle has accepted a lot money from another.
Besides, now all of you are Brahmos and we are Hindus.” Even then Bhuvaneshwari, mother of Shekhar
sent Braahmin cook at Gurucharan’s house when Khurima was not well. Love, affection, caring and
neighbouehood are not important when there is a question of religion. It ruined years and years of
friendship, love, social statues and respect. Every social perspective somehow or in other way covered
perfectly in 1953’s movie Parineeta. But Pradeep Sarkar’s movie took different turn to reach climax.
While Shekhar is off to Darjeeling on a business trip, Navin Ray aggressively roars at Lalita about the
loss of his hotel project, humiliating and degrading her. Ray gets a wall built between his and Gurcharan’s
house and that signifying the end of their relationship.
A large segment of the Indian society is suffering from poverty. And it is because of poverty people have
no choice to pay high interest. Gurucharan is about to lose his forefather’s ancient house because of
paying high rate of interest. The foremost reason to convert himself into Brahmo is none other than but
debt. Even Bhuvaneshwari knew very well for becoming Gurucharan’s Brahmo. She whispered to
Shekhar, “This much more I will also say, it is because of your father that Lalita’s Mama has been forced
to give up his religion. Your father has been hounding him repeatedly for payments— any man can overreact in disgust.” (Chattopadhyay, 2005, p. 73)
On the night of the doll's wedding, Lalita playfully garlands Shekhar at the auspicious time. Shekhar who
is a growing lawyer, lets her know that this constitutes a form of Hindu marriage. He follows it up by
garlanding the ecstatic Lalita, completing the wedding ceremony! Lalita’s age could be reflected a factor
here. She’s a child of thirteen and he’s a man of twenty five. Still Lalita was not a child but a young
woman of marriageable age. Certainly her manners, behaviors, beliefs, etc are all exhibit on the perfect
woman appearance. It reflects a lot on what was going on in Bengal at the time, what with the child
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marriages, the rise of Brahmoism, the importance of class rigidity, etc. Moreover in Chopra’s movie
Shekhar and Lalita have been friends since childhood and slowly this friendship blossoms into love. It is
quite digestible in this century and appeals all logically.
Parineeta suggests a married woman restricted in all the social customs. Being a married woman, the
protagonist Lolita observes all the values and customs as a faithful Bengali woman should follow. She is
charming whereas Shekhar is a handsome chunk. Shekhar’s affection for her transforms into love which
Lolita understands only when he explains. Even she was about to lose her love Shekhar, being challenged
by the social boundaries. In spite of being a blameless woman, who is wife of Shekhar from soul, Lolita
had to submit herself in the hatred of Shekhar, whom she loved.
The title truly signifies the contemporary Bengali woman steeped in the renaissance background. Lolita
downed with the womanly passion and strength and induced by Renaissance in the Bengali society. At the
end defeated all the social customs, which accepted the desires of a guiltless soul. It is a novel of social
protest which discovers disputes of that time period related to class and religion. It is a story of class,
religion, love, jealousy, dignity and freedom of choice. However, still the novel is good and has ample
score for expansion. It is one of those books, where written words are few, but the image created is huge,
left for interpretation by the readers. Whereas both movies are faithful to main text but Bimal Roy's
version of movie is a more realistic depiction of Sharatchandra's classic romance and Pradeep Sarkar's
adaptation is spicier and attractive in terms of acting and visuals.
References
Bassnett, S. (1993). Comparative Literature : A Critical Introduction. Oxford: Blackwell.
Chattopadhyay, S. (2005). Parineeta. (M. Chaudhuri, Trans.) Haryana, India: Penguin Book India Pvt. Ltd.
Kinger, A., Shah, N., Pandya, K., & Upadhyay, A. (2010). Mastering English. Mumbai, India: Orient Blackswan
Private Limited.
Kumar, A. (Producer), & Roy, B. (Director). (1953). Parineeta [Motion Picture]. India.
Chopra, V. V. (Producer), & Sarkar, P. (Director). (2005). Parineeta [Motion Picture]. India.
Scott James, R. A. (2008). Tha Making of Literature. Jaipur, India: Shreen Niwas Publication.
Yousafzai, M. (n.d.). "Malala Yousafza - Facts". Retrieved January 12, 2015, from Nobel Media AB 2014:
http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel prizes/peace/laureates/2014/yousafzai-facts.html
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‘Disgrace’: A Study of Pluralistic, Fractured Identities
Dr Deepa Vanjani
Head, Department of Languages
PMB Gujarati Science College, Indore
Madhya Pradesh, INDIA.
Abstract
How are identities born or formed? Are identities only the congealed effect of certain collective and historical
experiences? Are they imposed? Does one change his/her identity due to a strategy of domination? The question of
identity is a crucial one. Modernist and post-modernist literature has grappled with this issue in myriad ways.
Identity, it is believed, is a given and not a biological construct, rather a social and political construct. Identities
show affiliations or disaffiliations, they can be appropriated or misappropriated [computer hacking, stolen
identities] and have multiplicity. And they are influenced by three factors- history, location and culture.
How does one acquire an identity? An identity is born in the context of:



Individual vs. others
Identity vs. difference
Community vs. conflict
Identities may be fractured, fragmented or split. If I say, “I am a Sindhi, Hindu, Indian, unmarried woman”, I am
giving myself five identities, which also includes ethnicity and my gendered identity. And all this fluid. For instance
one can opt out of one’s marital identity the moment one walks out of the marriage. And have another identity if
one chooses to be a gay or a lesbian or get into a live-in relationship. Writer Kamala Das converted to Islam, thus
opting out of her given identity. Education enables one to give oneself a different identity. Immigration and travel
change locations and thus identities. In this sense identities are refracted. They are going on and off. Modern
literature raises many relevant questions about loss of identity or fractured identities due to immigration or war or
revolution, about quest for identity and also stereo-typed identities in patriarchal societies or subverted identities.
The question of ‘Identity’ also involves economic issues. For instance there is a definite connection between
racism, imperialism and capitalism. Eric Williams has stated, “The Industrial Revolution in England was founded
on the proceeds of Negro slavery in the West Indies.”
My paper is an attempt to trace the identity politics as reflected or revealed in JM Coetzee’s novel ‘Disgrace’.
Keywords : Colonialism, identity, identity markers, language, location, pluralistic.
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Disgrace is a novel by J. M. Coetzee, published in 1999. It won the Booker Prize. The writer was also
awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature four years after its publication. It covers a number of topics:
personal shame, the subjugation of women, a changing country, animal rights, and romantic poetry and its
symbolism.
But the novel also speaks of identities-fractured, marginalized, and gendered. The three points of the
novel David Lurie, Lucy and Petrus constitute, as it were, three identity polarities. Each represents an
axis. Let us first see David Lurie.
David Lurie, 52 year old white man.
David Lurie, professor of English at a university in Cape Town, post-apartheid South
Africa.
David Lurie, father of a daughter named Lucy.
David Lurie, married twice and divorced.
David Lurie, the Casanova.
David Lurie, the non-conformist atheist.
Where does he belong? Which one is the true Lurie? How does a White man place himself in the changed
context of changed location, in this case South Africa? Amartya Sen in his essay Making Sense of
Identity has pointed out “It is necessary to recognise that identities are robustly plural, and that the
importance of one identity need not obliterate the importance of others.”(19) when it comes to belonging
by location shared history gives us a sense of shared identity, though shared history is the only way we
see ourselves belonging to a group.
But Lurie is difficult to place. He has no sense of belonging in the university where he teaches
communication skills to students. “Although he devotes hours of each day to his new discipline, he finds
its first premise, as enunciated in the Communications 101 handbook, preposterous: 'Human society has
created language in order that we may communicate our thoughts, feelings, and intentions to each other.'
His own opinion, which he does not air, is that the origins of speech lie in song, and the origins of song in
the need to fill out with sound the overlarge and rather empty human soul.”(Coetzee 3) No doubt then he
proves to be a rather average teacher with nothing interesting for the giver and the receivers. Yet, the
position at the university has given Lurie a place in society, in the academic circles, among his family. He
has a quarter allotted to him and he can go back to his haven after his voyeuristic adventures with the
prostitute Soraya he visits. So then, despite being divorced twice, he has a life of his own. But this is
staked when his sexual preferences lead him to indulgence with his student Melanie Issacs. And this
proves to be his undoing. When matters are out in the open, an enquiry is initiated against him. Instead of
apologizing for his deed he accepts the punishment meted out by the enquiry committee. He describes
himself as having become the “slave of Eros”. The result is that his reputation is ruined and so is his
career. But he believes he has a right to have sexual preferences. He makes a choice. The choice to be the
man he is and forgo his identity as a professor of English. Says Sen, “Important choices have to be made
even when crucial discoveries occur. Life is not mere destiny.”(39) In the economic context, as also the
social, for David Lurie his position at the university makes him what he is and sans that he has lost
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everything, as his former wife Rosalind states categorically. Then who is David Lurie, the man? If man is
not ‘something’ does he become unfit for society, does he become an object of pity or sarcasm, nothing
more?
Lurie, the man, is also the father and the husband? The slave of Eros, who has a sexual preference for
young women, proves to be a failure as a husband twice. The` result is that he lives alone. As a father
though, he is protective and caring. He worries about Lucy’s [his daughter] well-being, feels enraged at
the outrage of her modesty, is ready to confront the assailants and feels helpless when Lucy refuses to
follow the course of action he thinks is best suited to her.
Importance of a social identity depends on a social context. Gender, like other identities, is also a given.
In fact Judith Butler calls it a performance. It is stylized and fluid. So we are men or women extrinsically
and not intrinsically. Human beings can be like fish that can change its identity in its seventh year. Butler
has also criticised Kristeva for demonising lesbianism, as also for valourising motherhood.
Lucy is that variety of fish. She is the modern woman who has chosen a life for herself which is different
from those of other women. She is a lesbian, white woman who runs a farm in a black -dominated South
African countryside. She is liberal and assertive. When David after losing his university job, visits her
home, he wonders how he and his Lucy’s mother, intellectual city folk could have produced “this sturdy
young settler”. He approves of her independence in every way, her asexual clothes and her turn away
from men.The thought that then crosses his mind throw`s light on how man is not just a product of
her/his biological identity, it is the history, the geography, the culture of the place he belongs that have
also shaped him/her. Coetzee captures his thought process in the novel thus ,“But perhaps it was not they
that produced her: perhaps history had the larger share.”(61) In the context of the location she has chosen
for herself, she has become the vulnerable target. For the native men she is the other, the white, the land
owner.
The land from the point of view of economics is the bone of contention and Petrus the patriarch wouldn’t
let a woman from another country be the owner, the individual. So he gets her violated. He shows her her
place as it were. This brutal assault fractures Lucy’s identity. Now who is Lucy? Lucy, in the social
context, is the violated white woman. Coetzee once again puts forth this as David’s thoughts, “How they
put her in her place, how they showed her what a woman was for?”(115) This social context is more
important to her for her chosen life, for her own survival, and so she accepts it, rather than complaining
against the culprits or attempting to punish the perpetrators of the act against her. But the choice is hers.
To bring in Amartya Sen again, “…a person has to make choices…about what relative importance to
attach, in a particular context, to the divergent loyalties and priorities that may compete for
precedence.”(1)
Location plays a vital role in determining identities. In terms of racial identity and one’s location it is the
‘gaze’ which plays a role in determining one’s identity. The same principle works in case of gendered
identities. Gaze creates the ‘otherness’, giving one the sense of not belonging or not being a part. The
colour of the skin, black, yellow, white, in short, ones ethnic and racial identity is the first identity
marker. The hair colour, colour of eyes, shape of noses are `stable physical attributes which underwent a
change only when hybridization began and with it also came in jokes` and ridicule as for example in case
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of blond women. These markers acquired at the time of birth, are crucial determiners of identity in this
globalized world.
In the novel, the location, the geographical background is Africa, the post-apartheid Africa which is in a
transitional phase. So the facets of the relationships with the natives have undergone a change. It is no
more the colonizer-colonized relationship. It is no more the hegemony of the white that reigns large nor
subversion and oppression of the marginalized black that works. There is a power shift, a role reversal.
This is exemplified in Lucy’s` relation with her neighbor Petrus. Petrus is not the subjugated tenant on
Lucy’s farm nor the worker who can be ordered around. He is the farmer-owner in his own right. When
Lucy is violated, David, her father, wants her to report it to the police so the perpetrators of the barbaric
act be punished. But Lucy’s response states her mental clarity on how her location demands a different
reaction to her situation. She says,” …in another place it might be held to be a public matter. But in this
place, at this time, it is not.” (110)
And yet the white mindset carries residue of the colonial past. When Lucy asks David to help Petrus with
the farm work, he mocks thus, “Give Petrus a hand. I like that. I like the historical piquancy. Will he pay
me a wage for my labour…?” (77) She jolts David out into the reality of the modern world where race as
an identity marker doesn’t work in favour of the white skin anymore. “Wake up David…this is
Africa.”(124) she tells her father. So David Lurie the white professor, hair and eyebrows burnt as a result
of the assault on him, works on Petrus’ farm everyday becoming a “country recluse” and “losing himself
day by day.” He helps Bev Shaw, the animal right activist, again a black, in disposing dead bodies of
dogs she puts to sleep. In the process he becomes the dog man and feels he has become unfit for society.
On going back to Cape Town he feels uncomfortable, “a figure from the margins of history.”(16)
This question of a black paying him a wage for his labour is momentous if one looks at it from the point
of view of history and the entire rhetoric of slavery. Economic freedom and ownership over land become
symbolic of power, assertion of one’s identity in one’s own land and the reversal of roles. When Bill
Shaw goes all out to help them in their distress saying what are friends for, David thinks that doe`s this
man born in a small place in Africa, having seen so little` of the world, who works in a hardware store,
think that by sharing a cup of tea with him, David and he have become friends? His dislike for Petrus is
evident more so when it becomes clear that Petrus might have a hand in the attack on his daughter. He
looks for several reasons for the victimization they have suffered. It couldn’t have been just because they
were the first white folk the attackers came across that day. The reason he believes is more
‘anthropological’. The course of events is a by- product of colonialism. The hatred vented out on Lucy in
the sexual assault is a culmination of centuries of subjugation and subversion in the name of racial
superiority. Ashish Nandi in his book The Intimate Enemy calls colonialism as a hyper-masculine world,
and so the west is not a geographical, but a psychological construct.
In this way the novel brings out the aspect of the change in power dynamics of groups that were once
solely dominated or subordinate. In simplistic terms Disgrace is the story of a white South African male
in a world where such men no longer hold the power they once did.
Language too is brought into play by Coetzee as an identity marker. There is a hierarchy in languages as a
result of which English has continued to occupy the position of a power language. In the process of
privileging of a language, other languages are discounted. English then represents the masculine and the
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other languages the feminine effeminate. While one’s mother tongue is the mother looking over your
shoulder, father tongue is the adopted language. So for the natives in Africa their language Xhosa is a
symbol of their identity. Lucy has learnt the language and this blurs the distinction between ‘they’ and
‘them’, homogenising them and helping her mingle with them. The scene in the novel is of Petrus’ party.
The party brings out many facets of the tug of war and the shifting paradigms in the Post-apartheid
Africa.
David and Lucy are the only whites present, making them targets of curious glances. Lucy speaks with
the hosts wife is Xhosa and present ser with a gift. The lady in turn thanks her in English. Language thus
becoming a symbol of role-reversal and power once again. “Lucy is our benefactor”, declares Petrus at
this. David finds the word benefactor rather distasteful. He ponders how the language which Petrus is
using with aplomb is tired and eaten from within by termites. David then spots one of the men who had
attacked them. He confronts the boy. The boy is not startled. He turns around and asks David “Who are
you?” meaning “By what right are you here?”(132) It is their world and David the white is the outsider
who does not fit in.
Towards the end of the novel the game of economics and politics between black vs. white is a complete
check mate in favour of the former. Lucy has been impregnated by the rape by the three black men. She
has decided to have the baby despite David’s protests. Petrus has chosen to be her caretaker by marrying
her and giving the child his name. The white woman carrying the black man’s baby, soiled by his seed
and in need of protection, which too is provided by a native by a neat proprietorial arrangement. David is
shocked that his daughter is ready to accept Petrus who already has two wives. “This is not how we do
things. We: he is on the point of saying, We Westerners.”( 202) He tries to make Lucy see the light of the
day. But it makes no sense.
I would like to conclude with the ensuing dialogue between father and daughter just when the novel is
about to end:
“How humiliating,” he says finally. “Such high hopes, and to end like this.”
“Yes, I agree, it is humiliating. But perhaps that is a good point to start from again.
Perhaps that is what I have to learn to accept. To start at ground level. With nothing. No
cards, no weapons, no property, no rights, no dignity.”
“Like a dog.”
“Yes, like a dog.”(207)
References
Coetzee, J.M. Disgrace. Penguin, 1999. Print.
-- Disgrace. Vintage, Great Britain, 1999. Print.
Sen, Amartya. Identity and Violence. Penguin, 2006. Print
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R. K. Narayan's Approach to the Emancipation of Women in India :
A Comprehensive Study of Narayan's Novels
Sayantina Dutta
Research Scholar
Department of English Language and Literature
The University of Calcutta,
West Bengal, INDIA.
Abstract
R. K. Narayan is considered as one of the best Indian authors writing in English. His narratives highlight social
context and provide a feel for his characters through everyday life. He was clearly aware of the changing social
scenario of the Indian middle class and the conditions and positions of women within the society. In the novels of
Narayan, these women characters are delineated as wholesome and true-to-life images and not as mere lifeless
entities.
In this article, I want to explore Narayan’s approach to the emancipation of women in his writing. In India, women
are either glorified or belittled; if, on the one hand, women are worshipped, on the other, they are considered little
better than slaves. Narayan was sensitive to the woes of women and this is discernible from his reminiscences on
the plight of women in his memoir My Days. They seem to be perpetually struggling against the society to retain
their identity. He came up with a philosophy envisioning the emancipation of women which he termed as ‘Women’s
Lib movement.’ His early novels portray women as simple, modest, gentle, loving and obedient. They are religious
and traditional in their ways. As they grow old, more matured and experienced, they become more independent and
assertive. In his later novels we see the portrayal of stronger and firmer female protagonists. They express their
resistance to male dominance, cruelty against the fair sex, denial of identity and freedom of expression. These
young women, unlike the old women characters, speak out their voices and assert power whenever possible.
In this paper, I would like to establish that Narayan favours freedom for his new women and wants to see them
educated, active and independent. These truly emancipated women are liberated from the emotional ties and the
restraints of the humdrum domesticity.
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R. K. Narayan is considered as one of the best Indian authors writing in English. His narratives highlight
social context and provide a feel for his characters through everyday life. He was clearly aware of the
changing social scenario of the Indian middle class and the conditions and positions of women within the
society. In the novels of Narayan, these women characters are delineated as wholesome and true-to-life
images and not as mere lifeless entities.
Narayan portrays with equal ease both the genders: if the array of men are delineated along with their
peculiarities and oddities, his women characters are never inferior to any. Subhendu Mund is of the
opinion that “...his [Narayan’s] women are apparently stronger than the male counterparts”. Narayan’s
women characters can make an interesting study for the writer has painted the different facets of
womanhood along with their beliefs, practices, professions and positions within the society. In this article,
I want to explore Narayan’s approach to the emancipation of women in reference to his novels published
at different phases of the twentieth century. In India, women are either glorified or belittled; if, on the one
hand, women are worshipped, on the other, they are treated as domestic servants.
Narayan was sensitive to the woes of women and this is discernible from his reminiscences on the plight
of women in his memoir My Days. They seem to be perpetually struggling against the society to retain
their identity. His early novels portray women as simple, modest, gentle, loving and obedient. They are
religious and traditional in their ways. As they grow old, more matured and experienced, they become
more independent and assertive. In his later novels we see the portrayal of stronger and firmer female
protagonists. They express their resistance to male dominance, cruelty against the fair sex, denial of
identity and freedom of expression. These young women, unlike the old women characters, speak out
their voices and assert power whenever possible. Narayan favours freedom for his new women and wants
to see them educated, active and independent. These truly emancipated women are liberated from the
emotional ties and the restraints of the humdrum domesticity.
In the first novel of R. K. Narayan, Swaminathan’s mother is a typical Indian housewife- loving, dutiful,
meek and docile. She is the instrument of bearing child and looks after the needs of her husband and
family. Here, she obviously is not the decision maker. We only feel an inconspicuous presence of
Swami’s mother in the story.
Swami’s grandmother is portrayed quite emphatically by the writer. She is a widow, aged and lives in the
memory of her past. There is a strong companionship between Swami and his granny. Inspite of being
old, she enjoys the information shared by Swami about his friends, school and cricket. Like the writer
himself, Swami turns to his grandmother for all the emotional succour and reassurance.
After the night meal, with his head on his granny’s lap, nestling close to her, Swaminathan felt very snug
and safe in the faint atmosphere of cardamom and cloves.
Like Chandran’s mother in The Bachelor of Arts, Granny leaves a deep influence on the life of Swami.
Both the mothers of Chandran and Krishnan (of The English Teacher), who typify the pragmatism of a
middle-class Indian housewife, are equally dynamic and authoritative within the periphery of the house.
Chandran raved: “To the dust-pot with your silly customs.” But his mother replied that she at any rate
belonged to a generation which was in no way worse than the present one for all its observances; and as
long as she lived she would insist on representing the old customs.
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By the phrase ‘old customs’ in the given context, Narayan refers to the dowry a boy’s family expects
from the bride’s father. Though his father is quite lenient, Chandran’s mother objects to the love marriage
and insists on following the traditional norms while fixing a match. But finally the filial affection
triumphs and she agrees to consult the matchmaker first and then the astrologer.
The marital disposition of Krishnan’s mother and wife, Susila is a complete contrast to Savitri, the meek
and oppressed housewife of The Dark Room. Both Susila and her mother-in-law appear to contend each
other in the field of domesticity. They have received the respect and attention from their husbands and are
contented in looking after their families. Unlike Savitri, Susila is the acknowledged mistress of her
household and does not have to undertake a fight to establish her identity and self-respect. She does not
face the hostility and oppression of her loving husband.
In his memoir My Days, Narayan once writes:
I was somehow obsessed with a philosophy of Woman as opposed to Man, her constant
oppressor. This must have been an early testament of the “Women’s Lib” movement.
Man assigned her a secondary place and kept her there with such subtlety and cunning
that she herself began to lose all notions of her independence, individuality, stature, and
strength. A wife in an orthodox milieu of Indian society was an ideal victim of such
circumstances. My novel [The Dark Room] dealt with her, with this philosophy broadly
in the background.
This excerpt reveals the writer’s perception of woman in the Indian society. Narayan was conscious about
the repression and segregation that women constantly faced in her family; they could not decide for
themselves, nor could they protest against their oppressors. At the end of the novel The Dark Room,
Narayan consciously attributes Savitri the capacity to rebel against her husband, Ramani by abandoning
him. Though she is forced to return, she is metamorphosed into a different being.
Here Savitri, the female protagonist of the novel is shown as a victim of the existing male-dominated
society. She is a typical Indian middle-class housewife - meek, submissive, always dominated and
entirely dependent, both socially and financially on her husband. This sense of utter dependence and
helplessness lets her decide to educate her children which would help them to establish their identities in
the society: “Sumati and Kamala must study up to the BA and not depend for their salvation on
marriage.”
In the first chapter of the novel, she reacts to her husband’s total insensitivity to her feelings and her lack
of dignity in relation to her children: “How impotent she was, she thought; she had not the slightest power
to do anything at home, and after fifteen years of married life.” Later on in the novel, she tries to assert
her own rights: “I’m a human being... You men will never grant that. For you we are playthings when you
feel like hugging and slaves at other times. Don’t think you can fondle us when you like and kick us when
you choose.”
But when she comes to know about Ramani’s illicit liaison, she thinks that she cannot take it anymore.
Unable to endure, Savitri leaves the house of her husband in a fit of disappointment and anger. Finally,
she has to return to her family but she too learns to ignore her husband, the god of her life. This emotional
detachment certainly empowers her and relieves her of self-pity. Therefore, her return should not be
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considered as an act of complete submission. Though she could not succeed in making her own identity,
she has made an effort to assert her individuality.
Is this novel, Narayan projects the grim situation and powerlessness of woman like Savitri in the society.
But the writer also highlights her only act of rebellion- that of leaving home and asserting herself and not
accepting, though temporarily, the insult that is meted to her.
Here, Narayan has also objectively depicted the characters like Ponni, the wife of the blacksmith, and
Shanta Bai who possess the mental strength to assert themselves and live life on their own terms in the
highly conservative society of the colonial India when the position of women was even more deplorable.
While the The Guide was published in the post-independent era, India was in a state of flux. There was a
rapid change in the social sensitivity. It is through the character of Rosie that Narayan takes up and treats
the concept of women emancipation.
Rosie is a highly educated woman of the free India. She hails from a family of temple dancers, but
manages to procure liberal education. She proudly tells:
“She [Rosie’s mother] put me to school early in life; I studied well. I took my master’s
degree in economics. But after college, the question was whether I should become a
dancer or do something else.”
It is her education that prepared her to face the world.
Rosie is married to Marco, a rich bachelor of high social standing and academic interest and thereby,
climbs up the social ladder. But his relationship fails to provide her the emotional support. Being a trained
classical dancer, Rosie wants to pursue the career of a performing artist. Marco is fascinated by the
dancing figurines sculpted on the walls of the ancient temples, but it becomes difficult for him to accept
his wife to be a dancer. This exposes the typical male mentality of the patriarchal society that prefers to
possess a highly qualified woman as a trophy wife, devoid of any self-identity and personal vocation.
Rosie walks out of her unhappy marriage in search of freedom and an identity of her own. She marries
Raju, the tourist guide, but is disillusioned soon. She struggles for space in a world where everyone
considers her only an object. Raju cleverly manipulates Rosie’s artistry and helps her to become an
established dancer. Her devotion and passion for dance soon makes her famous. Raju gradually takes
control of her life and monitors her every move. He believes:
She needed my inspiring presence... I had a monopoly of her...she was my property.
To Raju, she becomes ‘...a gold-mine’ out of which he makes a fortune and lives lavishly. Raju forges
Rosie’s signature on a legal document and gets arrested. Rosie does her best to reduce his punishment and
shows amazing skill in managing her own affairs proving herself to be an independent and self-reliant
working woman. Raju realizes that he is no longer indispensable to her. Rosie breaks free again and
decides to lead her life alone.
Rosie tells Raju about her decision:
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“If I have to pawn my last possession, I’ll do it to save you from jail. But once it’s over,
leave me once and for all; that’s all I ask. Forget me. Leave me to live or die, as I
choose; that’s all.”
Rosie’s emancipation thus involves a breaking away from family and relationships.
She breaks free from the well-defined confinement of women in Malgudi and refuses to be mere puppets
in the hands of her male companions. Unlike Savitri of The Dark Room, she denies accepting the fate of
an Indian middle class married woman and does not go back to either Raju or Marco. Raju observes:
Neither Marco nor I had any place in her life, which had its own sustaining vitality and which she herself
had underestimated.
The two female characters in the novels –Waiting for the Mahatma and The Painter of Signs - Bharti and
Daisy symbolize the new age women of Narayan. In both cases, the woman is politically conscious and
working for a cause, demanding her male companion to join her in her endeavour. Waiting for the
Mahatma apparently seems to be a love story of two young people, Bharti and Sriram, and their search for
identity at the backdrop of India’s struggle for independence. But according to some critics, this novel is
an ideal example of Narayan’s vision of women emancipation through empowerment. Narayan has paid
special attention to create a remarkable character like Bharti.
Bharti is a political activist who conforms to the social values, participates in the national politics and
chooses to live the hard life of a political worker. Narayan has portrayed her as a strong assertive woman
– a model that was formulated through the characters of Shanta Bai and Pooni and attained near
perfection in Rosie. Bharti is a strong-willed woman, and a staunch supporter of the Gandhian principle
whose priority in life is freedom of the country. She is a woman who evokes a sense of awe in the mind of
her suitors: “He [Ravi] was frightened of her. She seemed too magnificent to be his wife.’ Bharti is an
emancipated heroine of Narayan with a true vocation. She gives precedence to her work, and hardly cares
for the humdrum domesticity of the conjugal life.
Bharti is an orphan and has been brought up in an ashram since childhood. Mahatma Gandhi’s unbiased
approach regarding women participation in the freedom movement has led Bharti to face all odds and
hardships of a political strife. This is something incomprehensible to the middle class dwellers of
Malgudi. At the end of the novel, Bharti says:
“Yes for about a year I have been with Mahatmaji. He was at first unwilling to take me
to all places but I bothered him again and again after I was released from jail. I don’t
know how many villages I have seen. We followed the Master through burning villages.
Of course, anything might have happened to us anywhere.”
The indomitable spirit of Bharti makes her voluntarily accept the path of renunciation and abstinence.
Sriram meets Bharti at the market place where she is raising funds for the Congress Party. Her beauty and
straightforwardness fascinates him and he instantly falls in love with her. He is so influenced by Bharti
that he volunteers to take part in the freedom struggle even without any prior political commitment. The
most interesting feature of their relationship is perhaps R. K. Narayan’s deliberate effort to portray a man
obey the rules of a woman without a second thought.
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While Bharati’s cause is comprehensive and idealistic, Daisy’s is more specifically social, focussing on
family planning. In The Painter of Signs, Daisy is a working woman who dares to act as a family planning
worker – a profession still considered to be highly unconventional in the changing milieu of the
independent and progressive India. She seems to be ahead of her time and takes up such an issue of birth
control and family planning that violate the traditional Indian notion of procreating a large number of
children. The spirit of liberation has been manifested in the character of Daisy. Whereas Rosie has the
traditional woman in herself in her dependence upon the male companions, Daisy is strikingly modern in
her spirit of independence.
At the tender age of thirteen, she experiences the humiliation of being treated as a doll when the
prospective bridegroom visits her.
“And then they seated me like a doll and I had to wait for the arrival of the eminent
personage with his parents.”
The above remark of Daisy exposes the age-old custom of treating a woman as an object in the marriage
market. She has to go through a process of scrutiny and verification before she is approved by the
bridegroom and his entire family.
Daisy’s independent nature becomes more evident when she is proposed to marry Raman. She agrees to
the proposal under certain conditions, including the one that they would produce no child. She declares:
“If you want to marry me, you must leave me to my own plans even after I am a wife.
On any day you question why or how, I will leave you.”
Daisy is entirely different from the other female protagonists of Narayan’s earlier novels. While other
female characters struggle against the traditional norms, beliefs and restrictions, Daisy faces no such
dilemma. She has been presented by the author as a newly emerging, rejuvenated and conscious woman
of India who dares to lead a life beyond her home and hearth.
In his novels, R. K. Narayan’s immediate concern is with the oddities and eccentricities of men. Women
are generally confined to the boundary of the household, and all sorts of restrictions and traditions are put
on them. But as the time gradually changes from a strictly orthodox one to that of progress and liberation
which comes in the wake of modern civilization, women of Malgudi slowly and subtly begin to assert
their independence in the society. A few women do venture to realize their potentialities. Many of them
face hostilities and end up in failure.
The world of Malgudi is sustained by grandmother and aunts and by their innumerable superstitions.
Susila, Savitri and the mothers of Swami, Chandran and Krishnan are traditional and devoted to the
domestic duties and commitments. Into such a pattern of traditional life, the actions and desires of Shanta
Bai, Bharati, Rosie or Daisy create a lot of turmoil.
The oppression and humiliation faced by Savitri compels her to question the authoritarian and adamant
attitude of her husband. Rosie refuses to accept the whims and fancies of her male partners and moves on.
Savitri fails to break free of patriarchal violence and dominance. But Rosie succeeds and struggles to
continue her already established identity. She leaves her male partners and pursues life single-handedly.
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Bharati and Daisy are new age women who demand equality, and at times submission, from their male
companions. They show the audacity of prioritizing their personal ambitions over conjugal and social
obligations and value system. They represent the new generation of progressive Indian women. These
female characters of Narayan have the potential to act as “crucial markers of change in a modernizing
world.” They seem to be perpetually struggling against the society to gain their point of vantage.
The women of Malgudi are an alienable part of society and thus are subjected to the influences and
pressures of the changing times. The barriers of orthodox and social conventions forbid a woman to
choose her own way to realize her individuality. Those who have crossed their domestic boundaries even
for reasons are disparaged by the tradition-ridden society. These women are subjugated by the male
power because of their economic and emotional dependence and powerlessness.
R. K. Narayan’s engagement with the woman question is a very subtle affair. In an objective and
detached manner, the writer delineates these female characters journeying along life’s varied experiences.
Even though the female individual appears to lose all “the notions of her independence, individuality,
stature and strength”, in the fictional reality of Narayan’s world, she manages to emerge self-reliant,
stronger and more dignified with every new novel.
References
Subhendu Mund, ‘Looking for the Hero: Narayan’s Valorisation of the Female Self and The Guide’ in Indian
Legendary Writers In English: Mulk Raj Anand, R. K. Narayan and Raja Rao, Jaydeep Sarangi (ed.) (Delhi:
Authorspress, 2009) p. 76.
R. K. Narayan, Swami and Friends (Mysore: Indian Thought Publications, 2004) p. 18.
The Bachelor of Arts (Mysore: Indian Thought Publications, 2003) p 70.
My Days (Mysore: Indian Thought Publications, 1973) p. 119.
The Dark Room (New Delhi: Orient, 1976) p. 63.
The Guide (Mysore: Indian Thought Publications, 2001) p. 85.
Waiting for the Mahatma (Penguin Books India, 1955) p.193.
The Painter of Signs ((Mysore: Indian Thought Publications, 1976) p.131.
Lakshmi Holmstrom, ‘Women as Markers of Social Change: The Dark Room, The Guide and The Painter of
Signs’, in R. K. Narayan: An Anthology of Recent Criticism, C. N. Srinath (ed.), (New Orientation series, Pencraft
International, New Delhi, 2000) p. 102.
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Cross- Culture Synthesis in Manju Kapur's The Immigrant
Nilam Hasmukh Gajjar
Senior Research Fellow
Carolx Teachers' University
Ahmedabad.
Gujarat, INDIA.
Abstract
Manju Kapur is well known Indian woman writer who achieved immense fame in the level of with others Indian
female writers in recent modern Indian English literature. Manju Kapur’s novels, Difficult Daughters (1998), A
Married Woman (2002), Home (2006), The Immigrant (2008) and The Custody (2011) projects strong self-assured
female protagonists who raise female concerns and show courage to apprehend their destiny. In the novel The
Immigrant (2008), Nina has spent her childhood in various capitals of Europe and was educated in International
Academy at Brussels and she returned to India at young with the feelings of nostalgia of Europe which she has
spent in her childhood. Nina married a person named Ananda, a dentist who is settled in Halifix, Canada. After her
marriage Nina shifted to Canada and in Canada she feels different between her childhood days spent in Europe
and present day's circumantances in Europe. This paper tries to attempt how Nina becomes victim of European
culture because of her skin colour differences. The paper also discusses how the central protagonist Nina has feels
the problem in other land Canada such as problem with her social relationship, problem of culture and nostalgic
sense of feelings towards homeland India. Manju Kapur has portrayed the dilemma of Indian woman in other land
and tires to lead her protagonist with the fusion of East- West culture. The paper looks into the idea of flowing
identity which depends on social relationship, social environment, family and society in other land. Researcher
also tries to focus in this paper Kapur's Nina the Indian immigrant person accept her cultural transmission or not
in Canada and how Manju Kapur through her protagonist, Nina describes immigration experience as a voyage and
cultural hybridity appears with cross- cultural encounter.
Keywords: Identity crisis, home land, other land, cross- culture encounter, cultural hybridity
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Manju Kapur was born in 1948 in Amritsar, a town in the northern Indian state of Punjab. She graduated
from the Miranda House University College for women and went on to take an M.A. at Dalhousie
University in Halifax, Nova Scotia, and an M.Phil at Delhi University. Manju Kapur lives in New Delhi,
where she was a teacher of English literature at her alma mater Miranda House College, New Delhi. Now
days, she is enjoying retired life. . Manju Kapur has written five novels till date, Difficult Daughters
(1999), A Married Woman (2002), Home (2006), The Immigrant (2008) and The Custody (2011) which
project strong self-assured female protagonists who raise female concerns and show courage to apprehend
their destiny. She is the winner of the Commonwealth Writers’ Prize for Best First Book Difficult
Daughters (Eurasian section) which was a number of best sellers in India. Home was shortlisted for the
Hutch Crossword Book Award in 2006. The Immigrant was shortlisted for the Hutch Crossword Prize for
fiction. She has earned critical acclaims as well as commercial success both in India as well as in abroad.
She has written five novels till date which emphasizes her consistent effort.
Manju Kapur's fourth novel The Immigrant, published in 2008, is a story of middle-class, globalized
individuals, whose spatial and sequential identities are in a status of unvarying fluctuation, as their lives
become put of challenge betwixt different cultural persuades. Kapur tries to show the dilemma of middleclass migrants, obsessed with a yearning of professional utopias and prosperous living style, willingly
dispose of from their homeland where they were born and ascertaining a new identity at with new home
in other land. They happily accepted their living style with cosmopolitan, globalized world in which the
spatial and cultural constriction can always be bargained for the vital for better career opportunities. The
backdrop of the novel torn in betwixt the East and the West, correspondingly signify by India and
Canada. Canada is the country whose official policy is multiculturalism, signify with the essence of
nostalgia of homeland for many immigrant who is migrates in Canada for their career establishment who
having experiences of their amendments and adjustment which apart them with feelings of other land.
Kapur has brilliantly draw this feeling and sickness of homeland in her central protagonist Nina who
brought up in her early childhood days in Western country and she returns India with his father and she
take care sick mother and nurturing her and married to dentists named Ananda and moves to again in
Western county. This paper tries to confer the essence of immigrant's person's feelings towards his/her
native land and how much person survive and adjust in other land for maintain her own individual
identity.
In The Immigrant (2008), Manju Kapur sets out a complex network of multiple
relationships that affect its protagonists not only as human beings, but also as political
subject and societal members. As the title indicates, these individuals find themselves in
the process of naturalizing their migration experiences in a world of increasing global
interconnectedness. Indeed, Nina and Ananda’s experiences, two Indian-born citizens
permanently moving (albeit in different times) to another Western country, are shaped
by at least two major institutional and cultural apparatuses: India and Canada.
Addressing the influence and significance of Western and Indian societal and cultural
structures on the protagonists’ selves,…the immigrant venture and the experience of
marriage. Kapur invites the reader to consider that both ‘global’, and to an extent
essential zed, models need redefining as they are no longer adequate for describing the
protagonists’ sociopolitical realties in a postliberalization Indian context and in
diasporas (Alterno, 2013, p. 77 ).
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The novel is surrounded with the central character Nina who is in her age of thirty, an unmarried lonely
lecturer who is living with her widowed mother in a curbed Delhi apartment at Jangpura. She is the
daughter of an IFS officer, so she has depleted her childhood in diverse capitals of Europe, was educated
in International Academy at Brussels. She is She is a fervent aficionado of English and European authors
particularly E.M Foster and D.H Lawrence. She reckons Europe with "her spiritual home"( Immigrant 5)
and memorizes her childhood days in Europe with feelings of reminiscences. She hated her grandparents'
home after the death of her father "'she hated Lunknow , her grandparent's house and Loreto Convent" "(
p. 5). She depicts vigor and fortitude with the hope of job that would make possible for her to shift from
the town and "'add to the small monthly pension her mother got from the government" (p. 5). She
annoyed with beleaguered by importunate stress of her mother, who is always worried about the marriage
of her "sweet, innocent, virgin"(p.6) daughter. Her daughter, who has been "chewed, mashed into pulp
and swallowed"(p.6) by a serial lover, Rahul, with whom she had "fallen in love during her M.A"(p.6), is
suspicious of hastening into a relationship even though she is very conscious of her age and the body
clock ticketing within her. Anyhow with the help of an astrologer, she entertains marriage proposal of
person named Ananda who is a dentist and settled in Halifax, Canada. Nina has accept the marriage
proposal from Ananda's side because he is wealthy enough who give her bright future and also her
worried about her ongoing age and the constant pesky of her mother could be stop."Ananda promised her
such future, laced with choices edged with beautiful snowflakes that glittered through the distance,
promising at the very minimum change, novelty and excitement" (p.79).Her remuneration for agreeable to
be his bride was "the prosperity of the west and a freedom not available to her at home"(p.79).
Ananda was distressed by the death of his parents who were died in tragic road accident and was brought
in shade of his maternal uncle, a dentist in Halifax, Canada for the last twenty years. He is in thought of
that in Canada he started his life from beginning and it will be helpful for him to forget his past. Ananda
is suffering with the pain of loss of his parents, aloofness and his influenced towards his uncle and a part
of that his brother- in - law stimulates in him with "the mindset of an immigrant departing with no desire
to return"(p.18). When he disembarks in Canada, his uncle explained him about the colossal opportunities
that available for a dentist there and illustrates his influx in Canada as an act of the chance to reimburse
him for his loss. His uncle had taken twinge by absorb himself with Canadian culture and had married a
Canadian girl, Nancy. Ananda's uncle helping him because he wants him to preserve his touch with his
ancestry and paying back to his family, especially his deceased sister. Having pungent with India for
fading "value its minds"(p.18), he demonstrates himself as a true multi-ethnic person as:
"Looking at me. I am a citizen of the world." In other words, every simmer they went to
Europe. In Romo, Florence, Paris, Venice, London, Amsterdam, Munich in art galleries,
theatres, and museums, he exposed his family to the fines artifacts of the western
civilization (p. 26).
Ananda willingly endures the procedure of acculturation to acclimatize himself with his host country
Canada. He prefers to be called as Andy and throw away his outlawed in opposition to nonvegetarianism, a crucial ingredient of his Brahmin custom in India. He tries merged himself in host
country Canada and diminishes pull of disorienting desires and homesickness towards his native land
India, he creates mindset towards his native land by "nothing…. was clear, all was messy and
complicated"(p.67) and relations are more important than values in his birth country. Ananda is conscious
about his birth country's people where they having antiquated thoughts and they believed in old customs
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of arranged marriages, he discovers a conjured description of "his courtship, the long wait"(p. 85). His
allures for Nina put in the hybridity of her savors and ethics:
She was perfect mix of East and West. Her devotion to her mother and her willingness
to consider an arranged introduction proved her Indian values, while her tastes, reading,
thoughts, manner of speech and lack of sexual inhibition all revealed western influences
(p.86).
Nina after marriage when she lands at Toronto Airport, Nina is singled out for meticulous crossexamination by the immigration officials. Nina having valid visa after her marriage to stay there, but in
spite of looking at her visa, she is asked for equip the proof of her marriage and asked so many related to
her marriage. She undergoes more jittery and anxious when she is taken to room alone "'with a woman
who makes no eye contact, for whom she is less than a human''(p. 107). After this pain sticking
experiences and harrowing reality, she conscious about the liability and prejudice she could be subjected
to on the basis of her skin colour. She realizes that the procedure of amendment entails him to disregards
such discriminations and ordeals and budges on to discover the anticipated utopia of the first world.
Forget, forget. Forget the injustices of her treatment, the slurs on her marriage, her
helplessness, forget all in the glitters of the shops, and in the lights of the Toronto
airport. Have some tea, hot, with a touch of sugar, redolent with the fragrance of the
Darjeeling hills (p.109).
At Ananda's clinic, Mrs. Hill and Linda tells Nina that everybody thinks that Ananda resembles Egyptian
actor, Omar Sharif. She is aghast by this assessment for it illustrates their incapability to differentiate an
Egyptian from and Indian. Ananda rejoins by saying, "Canada is truly international. They don't believe in
narrow national boundaries" (p. 141). Yet Nina on introspection realizes that it is the obsessive advice in
all cultures to regiment the other and annotation over the dissimilarities. She also reminds that when she
was a teacher in Miranda house she, herself, had commenced it complicated to discriminate betwixt her
northeast students. "May be it's like in college thinking all Chinese look the same. I swear that I could not
distinguish between my northeastern students. And I could never say their names" (p. 141). This
procedure of homogenization is critical to the edifice of the other. Ananda, nervous to be absorb in the
Canadian majority, continually qualms and appraises his social connections. He tells Nina, "Here I am
thought of a cultured man, as Canadian as everybody else. So I don't want the folks to get the wrong
impression" (p.149). His approval in the Canadian society shapes the base of the shape he has erect
around himself. Nina comprehends that "his jet black hair, the emphatically Indian eyes, the unmistakably
Indian features, the Indian accent that lurked behind the Western"(p.150) made him weak to ethnic
chauvinism and edifying pigeonholes. He tries to reimburse for his Indian appearance and enunciation,
which made him an outsider, by mounting an approach of appreciation to the host land Canada and
accommodating its prevailing cultural customs. Nina dislikes Ananda's belligerent alteration. When
Ananda asks Nina to call him Andy, she totally declines. She locates it 'Christian and Western' and
believes that to call her husband Andy "would be to carry alienation into the bedroom" (p.156). Nina and
Ananda having problem and issue of identity and both look at it on divergence vantage angle. Rushdie
rightly states about the dilemma of the immigrant person in host land as: "But human beings do not
perceive things whole. We are no gods but wounded creatures, cracked lenses, capable of fractured
perception" (Rushdie,1991, p. 12 ).
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Ananda shows his clinic to Nina and after that couple went to an Indian restaurant named Taj Mahal in
Halifaz which is run by an Indian couple. The interior and wall papers of the restaurant project the
glimpse panoramic images of Indian culture. As Kapur explains in the novel: "A pleated sari hung on the
wall, a miniature Taj Mahal glowed in the red lights under a glass case on the counter, photography of
exotic, touristy places in India decorated the dingy walls, as unfamiliar to Nina as to any other
client"(p.141). The aromatic smell of turmeric, sweet and sharp smells of onion and garlic, the crackling
voice of red chilies, the sharp aroma of cumin and coriander reminds the recollection of Indian in Nina
and she feels hungry. The restaurant's menu also having adornment of Mughal architecture ancient period
which reflects on "friezes from Mughal architecture"(p.142) and they ordered "Chicken do piyaza, palak
paneer, dal, raita and naan"(p.142). 'The last touch of the home was presented in the saunf and mishri that
cane with the bill' (p.143). When the food coming out from the kitchen of the restaurant, the food taste
different than it has in India, but these differentiations were inconsequential and didn't have impact. The
alien India depicted India as 'the other'. Ananda himself often visited this restaurant with his friends who
think that as like him they should eat Indian food to reconcile memory of native country India. The
restaurant is the symbol of imprecise cultural hybridity which altered in alien land. It is intermediate of
highlighting the Western impact of India as the alien other, and still it facilitate the immigrant couple
from India to experience and podium their Indianess. It is to be noted that Identity is not something that is
fixed for ever but continues to change as per context and relationship.
Though they seem to involve an origin in historical past with which they continue to
correspond, actually identities are about using the resources of history, language and
culture in the process of history rather than being: not 'who we are' or 'where we came
from', so much as what we might become how we have been represented and how that
bears on how we might represent ourselves. Identities…relate to invention of tradition
as much as to tradition itself: no the so called return to roots but a coming-to-termswith our routes (Hall ,1996, p. 4).
Nina is tackles with an alternative of espousing Western clothing to make easy amalgamation, expediency
and consistency. Nina seized few months to adopt Western culture and as she merged with in it she
forfeit of habit, chic and self- acuity. Correspondingly, on a college trip to Ottawa, she has sex with
Anton, a white American from New York. This experience leads her totally satisfying and experiences
akin to exercising her right in North America, where citizen "regarded sex as their inalienable right"
(p.263).She finds this experience moderately empowering and it composes her undergoes a globalized
citizen and facilitates her to exceed the obstacles to her independent selfhood:
For the first time she had a sense of her own self, entirely separated from other people,
autonomous, independent. So strange that the sex did not make her feel guilty, not
beyond the initial shock. Easy, she was amazed it was that easy. Her first love had taken
away her virginity and her hopes, her second lover had been her husband, and her third
had made her international (p.264).
Nina after having sex with Anton stumble on quit hard to picture her as a customary devoted Hindu.She
found it deceitful to dangle on to vegetarianism and modify into an omnivorous diet in a few quick steps.
Ananda on the other side sexually intimate relationship with Mandy discovers "her generous, white,
uninhibited body"(p.284). He is pleased with the sensations of that having sex with her gives him an
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"entrance to an unexplored country"(p.284). The relationship with Mandy had facilitated him to increase a
fusion perception by enabling him to comprehend his humorous and unconstrained plane of his character
as a substitute of being a obedient Indian who views himself only in legitimate relationships with other
women.
Mandy encouraged him to be wild, free uninhibited, playful. With Nina he was his
mother's son, his sister's brother, the good husband, playing out a role he had been
trained for since childhood. Nine years in Canada had not dimmed the need to this
person (p.242).
Nina heard the news about Kumbh Mela in radio which creates echo of excitement in her even if she was
not familiar with Kumbh Mela as anyone in Canada. "Educated, secular and westernized, she had never
had anything to do with ritual Hinduism. But now in Canada, she felt that the crowds, the pilgrims, the
piety, the cold river, the morning mist, the sadhus all called to her. She felt it a part of the cultural
memory that 'beat in her blood'" ( p. 175). When she is living in India, she never cared about Kumbh
Mela , but the way she respond is like, "she had reacted to it was proof that living in a different country
you became a different person" (p. 177). Nina now in Canada absorbs the hybrid subject perception of an
immigrant in Western country, she starts enjoying the act of eroticizing her native land India. Her hybrid
awareness constructs each precede of discernment an act of transformation:
If she saw a horse, it stood against the emaciated beast back home, if horse dropping
were cleared she was reminded of the way cow dung patties dried in the sun, if she
wandered around a fair, it was against the vast backdrops of Diwali meals. Compound
images shuttled to and fro in her mind, faster than the sped of lightning, covering
thousands of miles, there and back, there and back, there and back (p.160).
Bhabha remarks on this hybridity or liminality of migrant experience says:
This liminality of migrant's experience is no less a transitional phenomenon than a
translation one; there is no resolution to it because the two conditions are ambivalently
enjoined in the 'survival' of migrant's life (Bhabha, 1994, p. 224).
Nina in the end of novel facing the job interview at the University of New Burnswick, which is in the
successful result with letter of recommendations with her outstanding academic records and encouraging
responses. Nina is now finically self- independent woman who is socially acceptability of a single woman
in Canada and she looks ahead for her autonomy that she separated from her husband living alone with
freedom and liberty in her life. She is conscious about the danger, aloofness and difficulties of single
woman who is isolated without husband. She "heading towards fresh territories, a different set of
circumstance"(p.334) become in true sense global citizen who having globalized hybrid identity and the
person who aware that one is re-discovering oneself, for her any place could be home. "Cultural identities
have histories as they come from somewhere and undergo constant transformation with continuous 'play'
of history, culture and power. Identities are the names we give to the different ways we are positioned by
and position ourselves within, the narratives of the past"(Hall, 1996, p. 225). She realizes the real sense
of global immigrant identity in diverges manners in which belonging are only implies of lighting one's
aloofness in voyage of self discovery. Failure does not restrain in anyone's entire life. In conclusion,
Manju Kapur, through her protagonist, Nina portrays immigration experience of migrate person in host
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land as a voyage and cultural hybridity and multiple identity result from cross- cultural synthesis as the
vital component of the awareness of a globalizes citizen in the contemporary milieu.
References
Alterno, L.(2013). 'Shreds of Indianness': Identity and Representation in Manju Kapur's The Immigrant. Aysha
Iqbal Viswamohan (Ed.), Postliberalization Indian Novels in English: Politics of Global Reception and Award (pp
77-88). London and New York: Anthem Press.
American Psychological Association. (2012). Publication manual of the American Psychological Association (6th
ed.). London: American Psychological Association.
Bhabha, H. (1994). The Location of Culture. London and Newyork : Routledge.
Das, B., K.(2010). Post modern Indian English Literature. New Delhi: Atlantic Publishers.
Hall, S. (1996). Introduction: Who Needs Identity?. S. Hall & P. du Gay(Eds.), Questions of Cultural Identity.
London : Sage.
Kapur, M. (2009). The Immigrant. New Delhi : Random House.
Kumar, A. (2010). Novels of Manju Kapur: A Feminist Study. New Delhi: Sarup book publishers Pvt. Ltd.
Misra, S. (2006). Diaspora Criticism. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.
Rushdie, S. (1991). Imaginary Homelands. London: Granta Books.
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Feminine Identity in the Short Stories of Alice Munro and Shashi Deshpande
Mr. Tushar Jadhav
Research Scholar
School of Language
Devi Ahilya University
Indore, Madhya Pradesh, INDIA.
“The buckets are contained in the ocean is no wonder. The wonder is when the ocean is
contained in a bucket. The meaning of ‘story’ is that the ocean should be contained in
the bucket. A short story reveals such fundamental truth as cannot be explained in
thousands of pages.”( Dr. V.G. Sadh)
Women writers have started to raise the question of nature of women identity and the concept of self. This
research paper is about re-shaping of self-identity of women characters in the works of Alice Munro,
Canadian female author and Shashi Deshpande, Indian woman writer. Increasing chronicle, political
issues and its development have influenced the countries of Canada and India. The effects of colonization
have developed among the people of the two countries in a sense of identity. At the same time, Canadians
have dealt a feeling of displacement. The problem of identity is reflected throughout the works of
Canadian and Indian female authors.
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The portrayal and explanation of the writers and their short stories leads to the topic of the nature of
feminine identity. The clarification tries to comprehensively view the nature of women's consciousness,
and their concepts of self. It is perceived that their ability in understanding their selves is located in their
relationship with others. The section on feminine identity leads to the appraisal of the short story genre
and women writers. This is followed by a brief sketch of Postcolonial literary writing, relating to the
Canadian and Indian backgrounds.
Alice Munro was born, and brought up, in Wingham, Ontario. Her first collection of short stories, Dance
of the Happy Shades, published in 1968, and it got the Governor- General's award. Later her stories Lives
of Girls and Women (1971), Something I’ve Been Meaning To Tell You (1 974), Why DO You Think
You Are? (1978), The Moons of Jupiter (1982), The Progress of Love (1987), and Friend of My Youth
(1990). In the genre of short story writing, Munro has presented sensitive, honest and sympathetic view of
women.
Shashi Deshpande born, in Dharwad, Karnataka. She started writing with short stories which were
published in magazines from 1970. These short stories were collected and compiled by The Writers
Workshops in Calcutta that is The Legacy (1978). This workshop later published three volumes –The
Miracle, It was the Nightingale and It Was Dark in 1986. In 1993 Penguin books released the intrusion
and other stories.
It is not easy to understand the works of other countries by questioning the literary works based on
sociological background or the background of particular region or territory. It is hard to compare between
the works of Munro and Deshpande in order to understand the challenges and problems faced by women
characters. This research paper tries to learn “nature” of the victimizations of the society or subjugation of
the society. H. Kalpana has made two focal areas to compare the works of both writers. The first area is
about the intersection of middle class women and identity; and the second area is about the development
of self within the relationships that exist between women and others in society. Women’s role in society
and consciousness of women and her significance in society have made the women author Munro and
Deshpande to write about the concept of female identity throughout their short stories in Canadian and
Indian region. Stimpson’s argument illustrates that cultural history has revealed the genderised ways in
which people shows themselves as writers is mainly as a product of society. Many women writers try to
deny their social condition, and some of them have consciously rebelled against this conditioning in their
writings. The important outcome of this refusal has been that women writers have created characters who
are different and who try to overthrow the coded structure in a bid to establish themselves.
... feminist critics have recognised that every woman, as language user, has multiple
relationships with chosen audiences. Each will embody its own sense of language, of
her place in the world, and of the possibilities of change in that place. At times, women
may speak or write only for themselves. Their motives may be weariness, fear, or
insecurity. More cheerfully, they may be claiming a private space in which to
experiment with style, to test perceptions, to play with fantasies. Whatever the cause,
the effect is to reinforce an impression of the apparent solitude of language. (Stimpson,
119)
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Carol Shield agrees that amongst the post-colonial woman writers, the writings of Canadian women are
true and authentic. Alice Munro and Shashi Deshpande adopt subversive style in which men being a
superior should dominate women. This style reflects the strategies and planning to deal with oppression,
they shows characters who make compromises, or try to achieve the respect in the society.
Identity is motivated by the feeling of woman suppressing, woman under pressure of social taboos and
prejudices and discriminations. In Canada and in India, woman experiences can be judged on four stages
of their growth or nourishment:
The first stage of woman is maturing from a girl into a woman then, development of a sexual/intimate
relationship with men; the third stage is entering into matrimony, final stage conception and giving birth.
During this process of growth, woman feels herself alienated or lonely. This self revaluation motivates
her to react or act which may be negative in terms of society called self-consciousness. The characters in
these short stories of Munro and Deshpande move towards self-awareness and a re-identification of their
selves.
The research focuses at the term “society” which is only responsible for the identity of woman in society.
The process of domestication or socialization makes women helpless to become inferior to men. Woman
moulds herself as a weak, passive, obedient and sacrificing due to society which creates images and
situation for woman to make herself an object.
Another significant factor of this research is postcolonial feminism in the short stories of Munro and
Deshpande. Post colonialist feminist work has started with the " questioning of forms and modes, to
unmasking the assumptions upon which such canonical constructions are founded, moving first to make
their cryptic bases visible and then to destabilise them" (Ashcroft et al: 175-176). Feminism's agenda
opposes sexism it makes women think of their roles or their images. Postcolonial feminist writing, thus
discusses the position of the victim, Atwood has e at great length explained in her critical work Survival:
there is the position where you deny the fact that you are the victim or acknowledge that you are a victim
but explain your position as the will of God, fate or the dictates of biology. There is also the position
where you acknowledge the fact that you are a victim but refuse to accept that the role is inevitable (1972:
36-37).
The idea of survival and identity has encouraged the growth of a number of women writers in Canada.
These writers have made attempt to discuss in their works the condition and role of women within
society. English has been an alien language for women writers in Indian sub-continent, and therefore the
number of women writing in the English language are very few. From the past one decade has seen an
growing in literature produced in English by women writers. At present there is a body of creative writing
and a body of criticism spearheaded by academics and critics such as, Meenakshi Mukherjee, Arun
Prabha Mukherjee, Chandra Talpade Mohanty, K. Lalitha, Susie Tharu, Kumkum Sangari, Niranjana,
Kalpana Ram, Gayatri Chakravarthi Spivak and Rajeswari Sunder Rajan.
Feminism is perceived as political agenda that developed in the United States after 1960s. many
developing countries do not want to commit themselves to a political ideology which demands equal
rights for females. Throughout the political arena, Indian woman got all the political and legal rights
along with freedom. Indian constitution also not made any differentiation in gender. Hence, Indian
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women do not want to be participating in this political ideology of feminism as developing countries were
fighting.
Feminism cannot be connected to the establishment of equality between sexes. It has steadily gained a
number of connotations, and has invited a large number of critical theories variously labeled as Marxist
feminism, psychoanalytical feminism, socialist feminism, radical feminism, French feminism, etc.
Feminist concepts are concerned is to feel and to understand the predicament and dilemma of women
within the context of the society and culture to which they belong. This can be defined as feminism
because such an ideology creates a conscious awareness of women's problems. Mohanty points out that
feminist struggles can occur simultaneously at two interconnected levels: an ideological, discursive level
which addresses questions of representation (womanhood/feminist.), and a material, experiential, dailylife level which focuses on the micropolitics of work. home, family, sexuality, etc" (Mohanty:21).
Passing from feminist theories to postcolonial theory, it should be notice that there are many points of
intersection between the two concepts. Both post colonialists and feminists are faced with the question of
identity, the sense of loss problem of language and the theme of displacement. The problem of language
is intensified in feminist writing because women in society are always the other, the "second sex" and
they, like the post colonialists, are forced to use the language of their masters. The postcolonial countries
do not have a language, but as Ashcroft points out there is a pre-existing language in all societies, and it is
women who have no language at all. Women writers have to create a new language from the existing one.
The construction and perception of such a language, says; Whitlock, can be called "female naturalism" (a
term she borrows from Kay Ferres) which means women writing about sensual experiences such as touch,
taste. hearing, and smell, or referring to details like food. and clothing, or attempting to chronicle their
lives in terms of events like birth, death, and marriage (Whitlock, 31).
By showing the theme of displacement, postcolonial feminist writing deals with power relations, that
constraints woman. From the examples women's position changes and they may assume a powerful role.
This power transferences are witnessed in Indian households where women are socialized and
domesticated, within the family, by the dominating attitude of the mother-in-law, who becomes the
defender of a tradition which had earlier circumscribed her. The connections between the two concepts
can be noticed in terms of not just language and hegemony, but also in the political establishment of the
society, the experience of being silenced, and the attempt to gain a voice.
References
Ashcroft, Bill. The Empire Writes Back : Theoy and Practice in Post colonial Literature Routledge, London.1989.
Ashcroft, W.D. Intersecting Marginalities : Post-colonialism and Feminism. Kunapipi. 1989
H. Kalpana. Re-Shaping The Self: In The Short Stories Of Alice Munro And Shashi Deshpande. Department of
English. Pondicherry University. March. 1995.
Miller, Judith. ed. The Art of Alice Munro. Waterloo: U of Waterloo P. 1984.
Shields, Carol. How Stories Mean. Ed. Metcalf et al. Ontario :The Porcupine's Quill Inc. 1993.
Stimpson, Catharine. Where The Meanings Are: Feminism-and Cultural Spaces. New York: Methuen. 1988.
Whitlock, Gillian. Eight Voices of the Eighties. Australia: University of Queensland Press. Ed. 1989.
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The Dilemma of Living in Between:
A Study of Jhumpa Lahiri’s The Namesake
Mr. Shabir A. Parmar
Assistant Professor
Department of English
V.P.& R.P.T.P. Science College
Vallabh Vidyanagar
Gujarat, INDIA.
Abstract
JhumpaLahiri is regarded as one of the major contemporary literary figures and the Winner of Pulitzer Prize,
whose writing often addresses cultural and identity issues. This paper is an attempt to study Lahiri’s first published
novel The Namesake and examines the dilemma of living in between two cultures. The novel unfolds numerous
aspects like problems of adjustment, the quest for one’s own identity and a diasporic sensibility. It shares an
experience of an Indian Bengali family from Calcutta, the Ganguli who constantly try to merge and mingle into
American culture. The Ganguli family strives to live in two different worlds. The world of tradition and custom of
their homeland, and the life-style of America in which they try to integrate. Interestingly, Jhumpa Lahri brings a
picture of two generations and a sense of living in between through her novel The Namesake.
Keywords : Diaspora, Immigrant experience, Cultural dilemma, quest for identity
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Jhumpa Lahiri is a leading contemporary Indian English novelist who shares her immigrant experience
truthfully in her writing. Jhumpa Lahiri, born in London is a daughter of Bengali family who settled in
America. In 2000, she was awarded the prestigious Pulitzer Prize for fiction for her collection of stories
entitled Interpreter of Maladies (1999) and got critical attention and appreciation. In the tradition of V.S.
Naipaul, Salman Rushdie, Amitav Ghosh, Bharati Mukherjee, Anita Desai, Rohintan Mistry, M. G.
Vasanji, Bapsi Sidhva etc. JhumpaLahiri is labeled as writer of ‘Indian Diaspora’ and addresses issues
like belongingness, alienation, racial and cultural conflicts, quest for identity and problems of settlement
(Bhatt, 2008). Basically, the world ‘diaspora’ comes from Greek word Diaspeirein which means ‘to
scatter’ or ‘disperse’. However, the term ‘Diaspora’ literary means the dispersion of people from their
homeland. ‘Diaspora’, is the voluntary or forcible movement of peoples from their homelands into new
regions….(Ashcroft, Griffiths, &Tiffin, 1988).In this context, Jhumpa Lahiri’s The Namsakeis a heart
touching novel which portrays diasporic sensibility and the dilemma of choice in the strange country. The
Week observers, “The Namesake hits many familiar themes; the uneasy status of the immigrant, the
tension between India and the United States and between family tradition and individual freedom, a
coming of age novel”.
The novel tells a story of Indian Bengali family who settles in America and explores the dilemma of
living in between two cultures. The novel wonderfully captures the fragrance of traditional India culture
and the problems of living and adopting different culture of America. Ashoke and Ashima Ganguli, a
married couple from Calcutta moves to U.S. and settled in Cambridge and Massachusetts. Ashoke
Ganguli, an engineer working at Massachusetts Institute of Technology quickly learns to adjust life in
America. On the other hand, his wife Ashima Ganguli feels homesickness and finds difficulty to adopt
new life style and culture in America. At the beginning of the novel, Ashima is projected as a woman who
struggles to match with the alien culture. During her pregnancy days, she feels lonely and isolated without
the emotional support of her relatives. The novelist has beautifully presented her psychological condition
as following.
Ashima has been consuming this concoction throughout her pregnancy, a humble
approximation of the snack sold for pennies on Calcutta sidewalks and on railway
platforms throughout India, spilling from newspaper cones. Even now than there is
barely space inside her, it is the one thing she craves. Testing from a cupped palm, she
frowns; as usual, there’s something missing. (1)
In a way, it is not only taste but the absence of her family member that makes her to feel tasteless.The
living in between condition is very painful and creates dilemma for survive and adjustment. At the time of
her first child delivery in a US hospital, Ashima Ganguli’s emotional agony results in intolerable physical
pain. Gradually, she tries to fit herself in the cultural frame of foreign American society but the process of
living in-between is painful and challenging for a typical Indian woman.
The title of the novel is also suggestive and indicates the central theme of the novel directly. A name is
not only proof to identify the person but it also carries deep roots to the culture. The novel brings out the
entire tradition of nomenclature in social context and unfolds the custom of naming in a meaningful way.
The name is cultural label which reveals person’s existence to the society. The different tradition of
naming in Indian and America is nicely projected in the novel in which the title appropriately functions
and fetches the dilemma of living in between. In Indian tradition grandparents or elders of family give
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name to the child while in American custom the name is chosen at Baptism or after the name of family
predecessors. (Nayak. 2008) After the birth of their first child, Ashoke and Ashima wait for suitable
Indian name for the newly born baby. But due to lack of proper communication, they are not able to
receive the name of on time. The only medium to communicate with their family member is telegram.
The problem occurs when they are told that the baby must be given name before getting discharge from
the hospital. They tried to explain to the doctor that they cannot decide the name as it is always given by
elders of family members. The doctor Mr. Wilcox advise them to “name him after yourself, or one of
your ancestors… But this isn’t possible, Ashoke and Ashima think to themselves. This tradition doesn’t
exist for Bengali, naming son after father or grandfather, a daughter after mother or grandmother.” (28)
However, they do not have choice and compel to give name to the baby. Suddenly, Ashoke remember the
incident of train accident when he was travelling from Calcutta to Jamshedpur and was reading The Short
Stories of Nikolai Gogol. Fortunately, he saved his life and instead of thinking God he thanked Gogol for
his second birth. (Nayak. 2008) Finally, they decide to call the baby Gogol. At the novel progress, the
readers learn that this name becomes question for the Gogol. He did not find any reason for giving him
this name and is unable to identify either with American or with the Indian. The name leads to him
towards unhappiness when he tried to understand meaning of it. Gogol comes to know that Nikolai was a
failure as a writer and had a tragic life. In Mr. Lawson’s words
Nikolai Gogol was reputed to be a hypochondriac and a deeply paranoid, frustrated
man. He was, in addition, by all accounts, morbidly melancholic, given to fits of severe
depression. He had trouble making friends. He never married, father no children. It’s
commonly believed he died a virgin. (91)
Gogol’s quest for name similarly matches his quest for identity. His name may be his father’s favorite but
it is not suitable for his personality. He does not like his father’s whimsicality and sentimental fondness
for giving him such name which is meaningless and serve no purpose. (Nayak. 2008) throughout the
novel, Gogol is in dilemma of his name. Even, he finds difficulty to change the name because name is not
only word but cover the entire image of a person and easily it is not possible. Interestingly, Jhumpa
Lahiri’s birth name is Nilanjana Sudeshna. She herself has faced this dilemma of dual name. As in
Bengali tradition, there is one birth name and one pet name. In her interview she says:
I can’t speak for all Bengalis. But all the Bengalis I know personally, especially those
living in India, have two names, one public, one private, it’s always fascinated me. My
parents are called by different names depending on what country they happen to be in;
in India they’re known by their pet names, but in America they’re known by their good
name… I’m like Gogol in that my pet name inadvertently became my good name. (178)
The dilemma of dual name results in identity crisis. The novelist has carefully portrait a picture of
psychological and emotional separation of the people living in abroad. The Today Newspaper rightly
notes
The Namesake is more than book about a name; it is about finding an identity in a
country that will treat you as an alien even if you were born there. But more than that,
it’s about rediscovering your roots, and the accidents of the universe that caused you to
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be. And that’s something all of us can identify with” (qtd, in the Indian Subcontinent
Edn.2004).
Jhumpa Lahiri address the issue of name and divided identify broadly through the character of Gogol. The
children of immigrant parents cannot identify with their parents’ ambitions and at the same time they are
not accepted by the white people also. (Rajan. 2011) Gogol always seeks and imagines independent life
but his parents expect him to live according to the Indian value and tradition. It seems that his existence is
divided as Gogol and Nikhil. Even Gogol never considers India as his country and sees himself as
American. His mind is constantly confused with his hybrid identity and always lives in two different
worlds. Moreover, his wants to escape from his past and cultural roots to make stable his present life.
Gogol’s search of his real identity disturbs his public and personal life. Emotionally, he fails to lead his
love life with Moushumi, a girl of Bengali origin, as she loves Dimitri, a German man. The life of Gogol
Ganguli from childhood to the adulthood is a process of strange experiences in which he tries to mold his
personality.
The contradiction of mindsets between first and second generation immigrants is significantly and deeply
discussed in the novel. Interestingly, Jhumpa Lahiri, herself belongs to the second generation immigrant
who gives voice to her experience into her writing.In an interview she describes her own experience and
says “It's a classic case of divided identity, but depending on the degree to which the immigrants in
question are willing to assimilate, the conflict is more or less pronounced. My parents were fearful and
suspicious of America and American culture when I was growing up.”In The Namesake, the first
generation especially Ashima Ganguli faces cultural and social dilemma in the foreign land. She is
surrounded by strange and loneliness feelings. From the beginning of the novel, Ashima feels outsider
and finds difficulty to adjust and adopt new culture. She has a strong traditional belief and deep roots to
the homeland that disconnects her with the American social environment. She never wanted to raise a
child in alien and indifferent culture and without comfort and love of relative and family members.
Ashima’s agony and confused mental condition is artistically described by the novelist in following
words,
But nothing feels normal to Ashima. For the past eighteen months, ever since she’s
arrived in Cambridge, nothing has felt normal at all. It’s not so much the pain, which
she knows, somehow, she will survive. It’s the consequence: motherhood in foreign
land. For it was one thing to be pregnant, to suffer the queasy mornings in bed, the
sleepless visits to the bathroom. Throughout the experience, in spite of her growing
discomfort, she’d been astonished by her body’s ability to make life, exactly as her
mother and grandmother and all her great grandmothershad done. That it was happening
so far from home, unmonitored and unobserved by those she loved, had made it more
miraculous still. But she is terrified to raise a child in a country where she is related to
no one, where she knows so little, where life seems so tentative and spare. (5-6)
The first generation immigrants are lonely and alienated; they have a sense of exile and always seekingto
return their traditional roots. The condition of living ‘in-between’ is very painful and disconnecting for
them. There is the longing for “home”, to go back to “the lost origin”, and “imaginary homelands” are
created from the fragmentary and partial memories of their motherland. (Cordelia. 2011). On the other
hand, the second generation immigrants do no link up with their traditional roots that results in identity
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crisis and fail to develop the harmony with the self and place. Gogol and Sonia represent this point of
view powerfully when they go to Calcutta. It is seen that they do not match up with the Culture and
environment in Calcutta and could not mentally or emotionally attach with the place and people. After
returning from Calcutta, “Gogol and Sonia both get terribly ill. It is the air, the rice, the wind, their
relative casually remark; they were not made to survive in a poor country..”(86)
It is seen in the novel that Ashoke and Ashima are always feel proud about their homeland. They practice
traditional custom and participate happily in the celebration of Bengali festive with their neighbors. They
want to pass on their cultural heritage in their children so they remain connected with their tradition. It is
bserved when Ashoke and Ashima send Gogole to attend Bengali classes every Saturday. For Gogol and
Sonia all these celebrations and ceremonies are meaningless. They do not have strong and direct
experience of their parent’s homeland and so they feel completely strange and uncomfortable in such
environment. For them, America is their homeland and they feel comfort in living and practicing
American culture. As “… they celebrate, with progressively increasing fanfare, the birth of Christ, an
event the children look forward to far more than the worship of Durga and Saraswati.”(64) Therefore, the
dilemma of living in two worlds of two cultures creates existential struggle for Gogol and Sonia who
constantly and throughout their childhood wonders about their true identity.
Ultimately, The Namesake is Jhumpa Lahiri’s finest creation which uncovers the bonding of homeland
and dilemma of living in new land. Capturing the spirit of time, Lahiri masterfully interlinks the
experience of living in between. The novel is not only about living and adjusting in abroad but also
realistically portraits the perplexity and dilemma of two mindsets and two generationswithin the cultural
and social border. In a way, the process of immigration is painful and pitiable. In The Namesake through
her fictional characters, the novelist meticulously discloses the daily life and routine of immigrants.
Commenting Lahiri’s art of writing India Today rightly notes “Lahiri is good at capturing the world, in a
language that is a documentary of little lives, displaced and dour, floating in an anonymous island, far
away from home, and her empathy is as transparent as her words.” The divided points of view of
characters and their attachments to the roots of their culture invites the dilemma of living in between.
Moreover, the novelist effectively with her unique style of writing demolishes all the divisions and
transcends the experience of immigrants creatively in a form of art.
References
Ashcroft, B., Griffiths, G., & Tiffin, H. (1998). Key concepts in post-colonial studies: Psychology Press.
Bhatt, M. B. Struggle to Acculturate in the Namesake: A Comment on Jhumpa Lahiri's Work as Diaspora
Literature
Cordelia, E. (2011). The Treatment of Immigrant Experience in Jhumpa Lahiri’s The. The Criterion, 1-9.
Lahiri, J. (2008). The namesake. New Delhi: HarperCollins.
Mehrotra, R. (2008). Straddling Two Cultures: A Study of Biculturalism in Jhumpa Lahiri’s The Namesake. PostIndependence Indian Writing in English, 147-156.
Nayak, B. (2008). Contra- acculturation in Immigrant Sensibility: A Study of The Namesake. Jhumpa Lahiri:
Critical Perspectives, 131-148.
Rajan, A. (2011). The theme of Dual Identity in Jhumpa Lahiri's The Namesake. Concepts and Contexts of
Diasporic Literature of India.
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A Comic Hero in the Comedies of Shakespeare and Bhasa: A Comparative Study
Dr R.J.Raval
Lecturer in Englis,
Government Polytechnic College,
Rajkot, Gujarat, INDIA.
Ms Mansi M. Agravat
Research Scholar,
Rai University,
Gujarat, INDIA.
Abstract
Comparative literature aims at studying different literatures crossing the spheres of one particular country. In
particular context, it tries to establish the relationship between literature on one hand and other areas of
knowledge on the other hand. As branch of study, it is a discipline to juxtapose different literatures across cultures
and languages.
The present paper aims at making the comparative study of the comedies of Shakespeare and Bhasa regarding the
art of delineation of comic heroes. As we know, comedy is generally defined as a play with happy-ending. It
operates through laughter and represents life with a positive approach. It entertains and delights the spectators or
readers by producing a district aesthetic response. Gruber equates comedy with wildness.
According to him, “the essential dramatic form of the comic hero follows not from his familiarity, but from his
undifferentiated wildness- or, more precisely, his dramatic foam follows from human understanding of such
wilderness.” (Gruber, 1981)
The deeper study of comedies of Bhasa and Shakespeare reveal the fact that within their sphere, they encompass a
wide variety of levels and perspectives of comedy. The common trait shared by the dramatic milieu of both the
dramatists is the evocation of genuine humour through comic heroes, without indulging in witty showism.
The institution of the fool in the Western theatre and of the Vidhushaka in Sanskrit has close relevance because of
their affirmation of a subversive way of life. The present paper aims at finding out many aesthetic and cultural
nuances in the delineation of the comic protagonist of both the Avante Gardes.
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Comparative literature aims at studying different literatures crossing the spheres of one particular country.
In particular context, it tries to establish the relationship between literature on one hand and other areas of
knowledge on the other hand. As a branch of study, it is a discipline to juxtapose different literatures
across cultures and languages. It is understood mostly as binary studies, i.e. study of two authors, two
books, two languages, literatures of two nations etc. According to Franciose Jost,
Comparative literature represents a philosophy of letters, a new humanism. Its
fundamental principle consists of the belief in the wholeness of the literary
phenomenon, in the negation of national autarkies in cultural economics, and as a
consequence, in the necessity of a new axiology. ( Jost, 1974)
Hence, a comparative study between Western and Sanskrit theatre seems relevant in the present situation,
when writers and commentators in the field of aesthetics in general, and drama in particular, are
attempting to establish many points of correspondence between them.
It can be said that the Western art of comic drama began with ancient Greek ‘comos’ (a revel) and the
satyr plays which, in classical times, were performed as a kind of comic relief immediately following the
performance of tragic trilogy. Out of this, grew the comedies of Aristophanes, Plautus and Terence,
generally satirical in tone which resembles with what is called the Comedy of Manners of Seventeenth
century. But, the true origin of English comedy, however, is to be found in the mystery and miracle plays
of the middle ages. Then after, in the subsequent ages, we have Meander, Moliere, Shakespeare and Ben
Jonson as the writers of comedy. Up to the time of Shakespeare, much had been written on tragedy since
the time of Aristotle and comedy, as a form of drama, had been paid comparatively less attention to.
Speaking in comparison with Indian art of drama, Bharatamuni’s Naatyashastra does not do any
discrimination or division of drama into comedy and tragedy and the question of paying more or less
attention therefore does not arise. Western classification of drama into tragedy and comedy, as it becomes
evident from the following statement of Sarcy, is based on a dialectical view of nature. He states:
From the disposition of the public to express the most universal sentiments of human
nature, of joy and sorrow, by laughter and by tears, arises the great division of the
drama into plays that are cheerful and plays that are sad; into comedy with all its
subspecies, and into tragedy and drama with all their varieties. (Sarcy, 1957)
We know that in Indian holistic approach such discrimination, or at least distinction, is inconceivable. For
Bharatamuni, drama represents “human nature with its joys and sorrows” (Ghosh, 1950). Though he too
talks about ten kinds of plays, his classification is based on the differences in the styles (Vrttis) of
composition and not on naturalistic approach. According to Bharatamuni, both joy and sorrow, tears and
laughter play an indispensable and integral part in the conception of drama. As a corollary to the above
discussion, it can be said that if there is any resemblance point between Western and Indian dramatic art,
it is in the tragic-comedies of Shakespeare like As You Like It or The Merchant of Venice.
The present piece of writing aims at making the comparative study of the comedies of Shakespeare and
Bhasa regarding the art of delineation of comic heroes. As we know, comedy is generally defined as a
play with happy-ending. It operates through laughter and represents life with a positive approach. It
entertains and delights the spectators or readers by producing a distinct aesthetic response. Gruber equates
comedy with wildness. According to him, “the essential dramatic form of the comic hero follows not
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from his familiarity, but from his undifferentiated wildness- or, more precisely, his dramatic form follows
from human understanding of such wildness” (Gruber, 1981). However, beneath such irresponsible mirth,
a deep correlation with life can be seen, which, according to Torrance, is “the essence of comic heroism”
(Torrance, 1978). The deeper study of the comedies of Shakespeare and Bhasa reveal the fact within their
sphere, they encompass a wide variety of levels and perspectives of comedy. The common trait shared by
the dramatic milieu of both the dramatists is the evocation of genuine humour, through comic heroes,
without indulging in witty showism. Another obvious similarity between the plays of both seems to be
their approach- both do not limit themselves to any particular perspective on comedy. And hence, the
humour that arises out of their plays is spontaneous and without bitterness. Despite the difference of
cultural background, there are many similarities in both the dramatists pertaining to the handling of plot,
art of characterization, thematic concerns, the diction employed and other dramatic techniques.
So far as the spirit of the comedy is concerned, Sanskrit drama seems very much close to the Elizabethan.
Specifically, the three plays of Bhasa- Avimaaraka, Svapnavaasavadatta and Pratijyayaugandharaayana,
fit into the spirit of English romantic comedy and in this respect, they can be compared to the middle
comedies of Shakespeare- specifically Much Ado About Nothing, As You Like It and Twelfth Night.
They deal with romance and conclude with the happy union/reunion of the lovers. Each of these plays has
a Vidushaka employed in the service of his master, a stock figure who is responsible for much of the
humour of the plays. He is a constant companion to his master and his task is to provide fun and advise
him in different matters. These features of Vidushaka find parallel in the Shakespearean comedies as well.
Comedy represents men as worse than they are and tragedy as better than they are. In addition to this,
since comedy is commonly associated with ridicule, its characters are downplayed and considered inferior
to those of tragedy. But if we accept comedy as an affirmative approach towards life, the whole paradigm
will change. Resultantly, the comic protagonist, who generally adopts subversive way of life by his nonconformation to the established norms and mores, would emerge as a figure of admiration and not of butt.
He, actually, attains the stature of a hero, a comic hero. On this point, Torrance observes:
The concept of comedy as derision was largely Adopted by the culturally upper class of
society; But from this altered vantage point of the lower Classes, looking at the society
from the bottom-up, a radically different, if largely inarticulate, conception of comedy
begins to emerge. The comic opponent of the established authority, however knavish or
buffoonish his character, however ludicrous or indecorous his activities, is no longer
primarily a butt of mockery, but a vessel of sympathetic identification- when the
invincible underdog of fantasy enters a world we recognize as our own....he assumes
the dimensions of a comic hero. (Torrance, 1978)
Thus, his libertine attitude is perceived as a virtue rather than a vice, because the spectators endow him
with the license to utter truths that are otherwise concealed. In Sanskrit dramas of Bhasa and others,
Vidushaka is endowed with greater powers and liberties in that he can speak in both Sanskrit as well as
Prakrit and comment on anybody, be it the king or the beggar. Thus, unlike the hero and other major
characters in the play, he has access to all levels of spectators. Moreover, the comic protagonist is not
shackled by the social codes and norms; on the contrary, he is seen many a times disturbing and
disrupting the social order. Perhaps for this reason, Gruber calls him ‘an anarchist’ in the sense that “he
represents forces not within any plan; he is a wild man, the being who can never be absorbed even as a
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scapegoat in any system whatsoever.” (Gruber, 1981) The institution of the fool in the Western theatre
and of the Vidushaka in Sanskrit has close relevance from this perspective, because of their affirmation of
a subversive way of life. The figure of the fool became an indispensable element during the Renaissance.
In theatre, he was perceived as an expert and witty commentator on the follies of mankind. The status of
being a professional fool, even in the society, gave him a new dimension that was denied to the ordinary
man. The motley invested him with the freedom to speak wisely on what other men do foolishly.
The theory of origin of Vidushaka in Sanskrit is much controversial. But few of the
views seem to be plausible. According to Keith, his origin is in the Vedic ritual; that of
Mahaavrata ceremony in which a Brahmin and a courtesan are introduced as engaged in
coarse abuse of each other (Keith, 1924). G.K.Bhat discovers his origin from the
evidence in the Naatyashaastra of the conflict between the Devas and Asuras.
According to Bhat, the earliest comic character can be found in the bungling of the
Asura which became the matter of amusement (Bhat, 1959).
Bhasa’s Vidushaka plays significantly multiple roles. Not only that he ridicules the world around him but
at times he subjects himself also to the ridicule. Thus, through self-mockery and satire, much of the
humour is evoked by the Vidushakas of Bhasa. This double role of being a butt and a wit makes him a
favourable figure amongst the spectators and readers alike. Vasantaka in Pratijyayaugandharaayana and
Svapnavaasavadatta and Santushta in Avimaaraka must be given full credit for much of the laughter of
the plays. At times, this comic hero also works as a sort of trouble-shooter or soothsayer. In
Chaarudatta,the Vidushaka serves as a comic relief to balance the sorrowful condition of Chaarudatta’s
poverty. His fondness for quarrel is a significant trait. He is also in irresistible epicurean who prefers
food, drink and physical wellbeing to a pious life- similar to Falstaff of Shakespeare. But at the same
time, he is characterised by absolute loyalty to his master even during the times of distress. Thus, it can
fairly be said that he is both inside the drama as a character and outside it as a commentator. Regarding
the comic characters in the plays of Shakespeare, Barber observes, “Shakespeare used the resources of
sophisticated theatre to express, in his idyllic comedies and in his clown’s ironic misrule, the experience
of moving to a humorous understanding through saturnalian release” (Barber, 1959).
From the very first comedy, Shakespeare has included this comic figure of fool on whom the laughter and
humour of his plays largely hinge. William Willeford analyses the characteristics of this comic hero and
defines him as:
A silly or idiotic or mad person or one who is made, by circumstances (or the action of
the others) to appear fool in that sense...or a person who imitates, for non-fools, the
foolishness of being innately silly or made to look so. (Willeford, 1969)
In Shakespeare’s comedies, we find chiefly two kinds of comic characters- the fool or professional jester
who serves humour and the clown or simpleton who becomes the object of laughter. All the comic
characters of Shakespeare’s comedies are either of them or the combination of both i.e. quick-witted,
half-witted or both at times. Unlike the Vidushakas of Sanskrit dramas, the comic characters of
Shakespeare are not the indispensable part of the development of action. Largely, they play the role which
is incidental and outside the design of the main plot. For instance, Touchstone in As You Like It is not
directly connected with main plot but still his role is significant in the sense that much of the joyful
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atmosphere of the play depends on his ridicules. The dual role played by the Vidushakas in Bhasa is not
performed by Shakespearean clowns and jesters. Regarding the dramatic importance and employment of
Vidushaka by Bhasa, Keith remarks:
The Vidushaka, in his hands, attains the characteristics which mark him in the later
drama, and though much was doubtless traditional, it may safely be assumed that he
tended by his example to stereo-type this figure. (Keith, 1924)
The induction of this comic figure is of necessity in another sense also. The fools are generally the
constant companions of the heroes of the plays and that way, to supply the multiple understanding of
various phenomena, seems to be the object of the dramatists. In the same line, Ruth Nevo believes that the
essential purpose of providing fools is to create a detachment or participation” (Nevo, 1980). This is, thus,
a good way to share with the audience a fool’s observation of life different from that of the hero or the
heroine. Many of the fools in Shakespeare’s comedies mock at the man-made convention of marriage.
Thus, Speed in The Two Gentlemen of Verona, Touchstone in As You Like It and Feste in Twelfth Night
have the comic function of offering an alternate concept of the established idea of romance. In Sanskrit
drama, Vidushaka also serves as a foil to the hero. Vidushaka’s connotation of the phenomenon called
love in Svapanavaasavadatta is worth notice. When asked by Vidushaka- Vasantaka, who was dearer to
him Vaasavadatta or Padmaavati, Udayana replies that he admired the virtuous and beautiful Padmaavati
but still his heart longed for dead Vaasavadatta. After this, King Udayana asked Vasantaka who was his
favourite. The answer given by Vasantaka is a very befitting to the spirit of comedy. As a parody of
Udayana’s sentimental love, he replies that he likes Vaasavadatta more because she used to bring
delicious dishes for him. Similarly, Touchstone in As You Like It, deflates the romantic excesses of the
lovers by his account of the wooing of dairymaid called Jane Smile, and offers a burlesque on romantic
love by his courtship of Audrey. Thus, the comic protagonists of Shakespeare use their wit to entertain the
characters as well as the audience and their task in the respective place is to “shed the light of reality and
common sense” (Palmer, 1964) on the fanciful figures of the plays. But still, unlike the Shakespearean
drama, in which there is the categorization of the comic character into a wit and a butt, Vidushaka of
Indian drama is the combination of these two roles. For instance, Maitreya in Chaarudatta subjects to
severe ridicule the foibles of Vasantasena by saying “there is no oil in the lamp at Chaarudatta’s house, as
there is no affection in a courtesan” (Bhat, 1959) and at another instance in his sleep-talking he blurts out
about the golden casket containing Vasantasena’s jewels given to him for safe-keeping and thrusts the
casket on the burglar. On Bhasa’s employment of the characters of Vidushaka, A.S.P. Ayyar writes:
The object of having these jesters is to keep the kings human, instead of making them
degenerate into pompous and conceited fools, by supplying a kind of licensed criticism
from these boon-companions.” (Ayyar, 1957)
Regarding the importance of characterisation, Coleridge observes: “the plot interests us on account of the
characters, not vice versa; it is the canvas only” (Coleridge, 1960). The statement seems to be very
befitting in the cases of the art of characterisation of Shakespeare and Bhasa. Not only the protagonists
but also the comic heroes of their dramas leave an indelible impression on the minds of the spectators or
readers on account of their significant and pivotal roles in different situations. Significance of their role
lies in the fact that they not only provide genuine humour and laughter to the spectators or readers but
also serve as an example of practical wisdom at times. The unpredictability of the motley evokes a
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distinct kind of charm and brainstorming moments. And hence, at times, they seem to be highly
intellectual fools in their subversive ways of dealing with worldly affairs and established norms.
References
Jost, Franciose. (1974). A Philosophy of Letters: Introduction to Comparative Literature. New York. The
University of Illinios. P-29.
Sarcy, franciose. (Ed.). (1957) Papers on Playmaking: A Theory of the Theatre. Brander Matthews. p-125.
Ghosh, Manmohan. (Trans). (1950) The Natyashastra. Calcutta. The Royal Asiatic Society of Bengal Press. Chap1. p-121.
Gruber, William E. (1981). Transformations in the Comic Hero from Aristophanes to Pirandello: The Wild Men of
Comedy. London. Summer Publication. p-214.
Torrance, Robert M. (1978). The Comic Hero. London. Harward University Press. p-132.
Keith, A.B. (1998). Sanskrit Drama. Delhi. Motilal Banarsidas Publishers.
Bhat, G.K. (1959). The Vidushaka. Ahmedabad. The New Order Book Co.
Barber, CL. (1959). A Study of Dramatic Form and its Relation to Social Custom: Shakespeare’s Festive Comedy.
Princeton. Princeton University Press. pp-3-4.
Willeford, William. (1969). A Study in Clowns and Jesters and Their Audience: The Fool and His Sceptre. London.
Edward Arnold.p-10.
Nevo, Ruth. (1980). Comic Transformations in Shakespeare. London. Methuen. p-11.
Palmer, John. (1964). Political and Comic Characters of Shakespeare. London. Macmillan. p-384.
Ayyar, A.S.P. (1957) Bhasa. Madras. V.Ramaswamy Sastrulu Publishers.p-433.
Coleridge, S.T. (1960). Shakespearean Criticism. London. J.M.Dent Publishers. p-199.
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I was born in April
A Poem by
Chirag Dhandhukiya
Assistant Professor in English
C N Arts & B D Commerce College
Kadi, Gujarat, INDIA.
I am not worried about tomorrow.
Nobody can make me April fool.
I was made much earlier.
Things are now clear.
'Man may smile and smile and be a
villain'.
I needed to understand before I teach.
I was driven by obsession, which failed
to reach.
Everything teaches us.
But should I try everything?
Am I living or learning?
Don't know.
But lessons you taught, with some part
of my heart shot.
I am not dead.
But not living either.
Let's assume I am not such first fool,
But can't reconcile like a wisefool.
You could have waited till April!
But then I understood,
Born in April can't change my destiny.
I was destined to be fooled.
You were cruel to use all months
Or I was obsessed enough to be ruled.
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The Pre-Colonial and Colonial Legacy of Modern Indian Theatre
Mr. Haresh Kakde
Research Scholar
Central University of Gujarat
Gandhinagar, Gujarat, India.
Abstract
The present paper makes an attempt to identify different trends of theatrical activities that available in pre-colonial
and colonial times. The existence of theatrical activities during pre-colonial times lead to the indigenous
performance while the colonial time the theatrical performances derived partially from Indigenous performances.
The form and content of such theatre remained a debatable question to all for long. The influence of English and
Parsi theatre on regional theatre makes certain extent hybrid theatrical activities. The direction provided by
Sudipto Chatterjee in The Colonial Staged may useful to understand hybridity and such theatre may consider
modern Indian theatre in post independent (colonial) period.
Keywords : Indigenous performance, Form and Content of theatre, English and Parsi theatre, Hybridity, Modern
Indian Theatre
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Introduction
The theatre constructed in the colonial and post colonial period is loosely called ‘modern’ Indian Theatre
because such kind of theatre is in a way partially departure of indigenous performances at temple, festival
times and religious events. But the legacy of such theatre in the colonial and post-colonial (Independence)
periods is primarily derived from English theatre which came for entertainment purpose, Parsi theatre
which came for business purpose and indigenous performance practices at religious events and festival
times during the British colonial period in India. Such theatre has taken several routes over a period of
times to become modern Indian theatre and raised present socio-economic and political issues for
transformation in society.
Theatre in the British Colonial Period
One way of looking at the construction of modern Indian theatre leads our attention to form-structure
and, content- socio-economic and political conditions from the British colonial period to the present day.
It can be observed in regional theatre for instance, in Marathi Theatre. As, Bhatia comments, the
influence of Western and European models on local theatrical tradition can be considered an aspect that
leads to the construction of modern Indian theatre (xv). For instance, in regional context- in Marathi
theatre, Vinayak Janardan Kirtane wrote Thorle Madhavrao Peshwe (The Elder Madhavrao Peshwe) in
1857 (Gokhale 12). “It was the first dramatic work in Marathi to draw upon history, rather than
mythology, for its narrative material” (12). “For structure and use of dramatic conventions, the play drew
from both Sanskrit and Shakespearean drama” (13). Belgaum Samachar of 11 December 1865 noted,
“The Sanglikar players gave a very fine performance of Thorle Madhavrao Peshwe, but many people did
not like it because it was made up entirely of dialogues” (13) Further, “It depicted Madhavrao’s death on
stage. This led to a debate about whether the play could then be considered the first tragedy to be written
in Marathi” (13). So the influence of Western form-Tragedy can be observed at regional level. It provides
a model for modern drama (13). So here we can find the tradition of Musical mythological performances
which were popular during the initial stage of Marathi theatre and even popular in indigenous
performance is breaking down and the influence of Western plays in the form of Shakespeare is already
visible. Likewise, Michael Madhusudan Datta wrote Sarmistha (1858) and translated it into English (Das
184). His claim about the play was, “the first attempt in the Bengali language to produce a classical and
regular drama” (qtd. in Das 184). This claim of Datta unjustified the rules of Sanskrit dramaturgy and
complained against the ‘foreignness’ of the play (184). So the influence of Western model on regional
level was made in the middle of the nineteenth-century. Further, the first public theatre in Bengali was the
National Theatre, which came into existence in 1872, and inaugurated with Nildarpan (Das 192). During
nineteenth century, “national theatre meant a critique of colonialism that ultimately relied on colonial
models” (Bhatia xix). So in that sense colonial model is used for anti-British ideas. Moreover, the
popularity of Shakespeare especially of some of his plays like The Merchant of Venice and The Comedy
of Errors were translated in almost all Indian languages several times (187) for their exciting stories (qtd.
in Das 188), intriguing situations and characters (Das 188). Therefore, the influence of Western mode in
the form of construction as well in the form of translation and adaptation became popular in regional
levels. It becomes a source for the development of modern Indian theatre.
At regional level along with English performance, Parsi performance also makes impression. The plot
used in Parsi theatre derived mostly from mythology and legends (Das 183). The story centered round
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violent actions, the music was loud and the acting exaggerated and melodramatic (183). The Parsi theatre
is remembered for its emphasis on the “spectacle” and its influence on the style of acting (183). Modern
drama and theatre in Indian languages like Gujarati, Marathi and Hindi (qtd in Das 184) grew as a
reaction against its crudity and superficiality (184). “The Marathi educated urban individual from the
middle class did not find in it (Parsi theatre) anything that tied in with his cultural, social and political
concerns” (Gokhale 14). So here we can think of the development of Gujarati, Marathi and Hindi
language theatre as well future of regional theatre in contrast to Parsi theatre.
On the other side, there was strong protest at regional level against traditional mode of theatric manners.
As, a theatre group ‘Natyamanvantar’ was founded in 1942 by K. N. Kale, G.Y Chitnis, Anant Kanekar
and S. V. Vartak. K. N. Kale wrote about the group,
With the object of introducing the modern intellectual play of Europe to the Marathi Theatre there was an
organized active protest against conventional style of acting, against theatricality, against declamation
narrative soliloquies, against painted curtain cloths, exaggeration, indiscriminate usages of songs in the
midst of the dialogues, against star systems, against plays written for this actor or that, against the
atrocious practice of men playing women’s roles (Das 168).
So regional theatre such as Marathi theatre in that sense demanded newness and wanted to depart from a
long tradition. The newness was not only internal but external aspects of theatricality as well. It can be
observed during middle of the nineteenth century. As,
According to A.V. Kulkarni,
With the performances of ‘bookish’ plays, a change began to come over production
components like curtains, costumes and settings. The drop curtain in the old
mythological plays used to bear crudely drawn, gaudily coloured representations of
deities-Ganpati, Maruti or Shankar-Parvati. But when ‘bookish’ plays were performed,
an attempt was made to convey to the audience the exact locations of the scenes, such as
roads, temples, gardens, palaces, hills, jungles or rivers, by means of curtains depicting
them as faithfully as possible. Since some of these plays dealt with contemporary
subjects and since, meanwhile, education in the new English techniques of painting had
become available, skills in curtain painting had become available, skills in curtain
painting improved … The greatest change was visible in the settings. Earlier a garden
used to be represented by means of a few branches stuck on the stage; but now, in
addition to the gardens painted on curtains, real trees, potted shrubs and plants would be
placed on the stage to complete the illusion of the real (qtd. in Gokhale 16).
So theatre in the colonial period attempt to follow the model of Western or English theatre but the content
was chiefly rooted socio-economic and political issues and attempt to make faithful representation For
instance Ram Ganesh Gadkari’s Ekach Pyala in Marathi attempt to portrait the effect of alcohol on
family.
Theatre in the Postcolonial (Independence) Period
According to Dharwadkar, after Independence, the major new playwrights seem concerned principally
with establishing and debating the relation of the new nation’s present to its remote past through the
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narratives of both myth and history (166). For instance, Dharamvir Bharti’s Andha yug (Blind Epoch,
1954) in Hindi and Girish Karnad’s Tughlaq (1964). In the words of Bhatia,
(In Independence period) wide-ranging concerns have been addressed in a number of
creative ways including mythological dramas, folk forms and rituals, historical revivals,
transformed versions of Euro-American plays, notably of Shakespeare and Brecht, and
through avant-garde experimentation (Bhatia xiii).
So from the views which are expressed by Dharwadkar and Bhatia we conclude that forms have been
revived. But they are not as they were but they received newness that can be observed through Girish
Karnad’s Hayavadana and Ratan Thiyam’s Chakravyuha. Here the purpose seems in search of rootIndianness (in the form of Sanskrit) leaving Western influence aside. Here we need to understand Suresh
Awasthi who has started theatre of roots movement and one of his articles namely, “In Defence of the
‘Theatre of Roots’” is important for search of an identity. According to Richard Schechner, Suresh
Awasthi’s aim was to put modern artists in touch with their roots (Bhatia xxiii). Therefore, “the works of
B. V. Karanth, Ratan Thiyyam, Kavalam Pannikar, Mohan Agashe, and others ‘are not conceivable
without Awasthi’s vision’” (qtd. in Bhatia xxiii) so Awasthi’s claim for an identity of nation-Indianness
in the form with present socio-economic and political conditions become a tradition for above mention
playwrights.
Under the context of Suresh Awasthi’s view, we can observe the view expressed by Erin Mee, “the return
to roots did represent a decolonizing gesture” (qtd. in Bhatia xxiv) so in a sense we are leaving a long
tradition of theatrical activities which was nourished during the colonial time. In the words of Bhatia,
decolonizing “through the rejection of colonial models and offered a critique of the social and political
problems of the nation” (xxiv). It seems focus is moving from theatrical forms to socio-economic and
political issues of the nation. But playwrights attempt to redefine modern by synchronizing. As, according
to Bhatia, “ playwrights… redefining the modern in ways that recognized the modern and the traditional,
the urban and rural, and the classical and the folk as being mutually influencing and inseparable” (xxiv).
It can be observed in Marathi playwright, Mahesh Elkunchwar’s Old Stone Mansion (Wada Chirebandi,
1985). Therefore we have synthesis of form and issues related to the life of people.
In the opinion of Dharwadkar, “… after the early 1960s the field of Indian theatre diversifies considerably
with the arrival of realist, existentialist, absurdist, and left-wing political modes in urban literary
drama…” (166). So as we have discussed above the form could be in a sense found in theatre of roots but
the new generation of playwrights after independence seems unable to express effectively the present
condition as they are following views of Suresh Awasthi as mentioned above so they move towards
Western mode to represent the present socio-political conditions. Therefore, the plays of such playwrights
like Vijay Tendulkar, Satish Alekar, Mahesh Elkunchwar, and Mahasweta Devi wrote in the direction
noted by Aparna Bhargava Dharwadkar.
According to Dharwadkar,
The post-Independence theatre is not an extension of colonial or pre-colonial traditions
but a product of new theoretical, textual, material, institutional, and cultural condition
created by the experience of political independence, cultural autonomy, and new
nationhood (2).
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We can also need to understand view expressed by Nandi Bhatia and it seems relevant and add to the
view above expressed by Dharwadkar. As,
The thematic range of modern theatre includes the politics of the British Raj, conditions
prevalent on tea and indigo plantations, workers’ rights, famine, the 1947 Partition,
psychosocial fragmentation, familiar problems and urban angst, concerns with women’s
issues, dowry problems, and the rights of Dalits, among other issues (Bhatia xiii).
Here some of the issues of the colonial period carried forward into the Independence period. According to
K. R. Srinivasa Iyengar, in Drama in Modern India: “The social reform and anti-colonial movements of a
whole century and the two World Wars shaped the themes of modern drama in the various languages of
India” (xvii).
So theatre did not just discuss about past but the experience of modern nation and the problems faced by
government and the condition of all class and caste of people becomes subject of post-colonial theatre. In
relation to dramatic form, the key term for a future theatre is therefore “synthesis”-the middle ground
between mere revivalism and imitative Westernization, which would reconcile pre-colonial traditions
with the socio-cultural formations of a modern nation-state (Dharwadkar 43).
Conclusion
So we can say Indian theatre personalities were always oscillating between form and content and finally
they followed the model of Western and European playwrights that suit best to show social and political
evils whereas the revival of folk theatre traditions with certain modification in the form was to show
emerging identity of nation in the post-colonial period to the world. So modern Indian theatre was neither
Indian nor Western but interlinked in such a way that it could be considered hybrid theatre. Therefore we
need to understand the view expressed in The Colonial Staged by Sudipto Chatterjee. In his words, hybrid
is a complex process, “… it registers differences and sameness, mimesis and alterity at the same time. But
… responds to specificities of a geo-temporal location, which makes generalized theorizing about
hybridity and exacting project.” (11) This view leads to the construction of the post-colonial modern
Indian theatre.
References
Awasthi, Suresh. “In Defence of the ‘Theatre of Roots.’” Modern Indian Theatre. Ed. Nandi Bhatia. New Delhi:
Oxford UP, 2009. Print.
Bhatia, Nandi. Introduction. Modern Indian Theatre. Ed. Nandi Bhatia. New Delhi: Oxford UP, 2009. Print.
Chatterjee, Sudipto. Introduction. The Colonial Staged. United Kingdom: Seagull, 2007. Print.
Das, Sisir Kumar. A History of Indian Literature1800-1910 Western Impact: Indian Response. New Delhi: Sahitya
Akademy, 1991. Print.
Dharwadker, Aparna Bhargava. “Postcolonial Frames and the Subject of Modern Indian Theatre.” Theatre of
Independence: Drama, Theory and Urban Performance in India since 1947. By Aparna Bhargava Dharwadker.
India: Oxford UP, 2005. Print.
Gokhale, Shanta. Introduction: 1843-1943. Playwright at the Centre: Marathi Drama from 1843 to the Present. By
Shanta Gokhale. Calcutta: Seagull Books, 2000. Print.
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