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The Scientific Revolution What sparks the Scientific Revolution ? • A new way of thinking about the natural world • Based on observation and willingness to question accepted beliefs • Discoveries during the age of exploration led to belief there might be other new information, or they may be wrong about the world • Exploration also led to study of astronomy & mathematics Before the Scientific Revolution… Ptolemy (87-140 A.D.) • Until the mid 1500’s, European scholars accepted and believed the teachings of Ptolemy, an ancient Greek astronomer. • Ptolemy taught that the Earth was the center of the universe. •People felt this was common sense, and the geocentric theory was supported by the Church. • It was not until some startling discoveries caused Europeans to change the way they viewed the physical world. Nicolaus Copernicus • Copernicus was a Polish astronomer who studied in Italy. • In 1543 Copernicus published On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres. • In his book, Copernicus made two conclusions: 1. The universe is heliocentric, or sun-centered. 2. The Earth is merely one of several planets revolving around the sun. Nicolaus Copernicus • Copernicus came to these conclusions using mathematical formulas. • The Copernican conception of the universe marked the start of modern science and astronomy. The Copernican Heliocentric Model Reaction to Copernicus • Most scholars rejected his theory because it went against Ptolemy, the Church, and because it called for the Earth to rotate on its axis. • Many scientists of the time also felt that if Ptolemy’s reasoning about the planets was wrong, then the whole system of human knowledge could be wrong. Tycho Brahe • In late 1500s, the Danish astronomer Tycho Brahe provided evidence that supported Copernicus’ heliocentric theory. • Brahe set up an astronomical observatory. •Every night for years he carefully observed the sky, accumulating data about the movement of the stars and planets. Johannes Kepler • After Brahe’s death, his assistant, the German astronomer and mathematician Johannes Kepler, used Brahe’s data to calculate the orbits of the planets revolving around the sun. • Kepler’s calculations supported Copernicus’ heliocentric theory. • His calculations also showed that the planets moved in oval shaped orbits, and not perfect circles, as Ptolemy and Copernicus believed. Galileo Galilei • Galileo Galilei was an Italian astronomer who built upon the scientific foundations laid by Copernicus and Kepler. • Galileo assembled the first telescope which allowed him to see mountains on the moon and fiery spots on the sun. • He also observed four moons rotating around Jupiter – exactly the way Copernicus said the Earth rotated around the sun. • Galileo also discovered that objects fall at the same speed regardless of weight. Galileo Galilei • Galileo’s discoveries caused an uproar. Other scholars came against him because like Copernicus, Galileo was contradicting Ptolemy. • The Church came against Galileo because it claimed that the Earth was fixed and unmoving. • When threatened with death before the Inquisition in 1633, Galileo recanted his beliefs, even though he knew the Earth moved. • Galileo was put under house arrest, and was not allowed to publish his ideas. The Scientific Method • By the early 1600s, a new approach to science had emerged, known as the Scientific Method. • Scientific Method – systematic method used to confirm findings and to prove or disprove a hypothesis. • Scientists observed nature, made hypotheses, or educated guesses, and then tested these hypotheses through experiments. • Unlike earlier approaches, the scientific method did not rely on the classical thinkers or the Church, but depended upon a step-by-step process of observation and experimentation. • The scientific method set Europe on the road to rapid technological progress. The Scientific Method Newton • Sir Isaac Newton was an English scholar who built upon the work of Copernicus and Galileo. • Newton was the most influential scientist of the Scientific Revolution. • He used math to prove the existence of gravity - a force that kept planets in their orbits around the sun, and also caused objects to fall towards the earth. The Scientific Method Newton • Newton published his scientific ideas in his book Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy. • He discovered laws of light and color, and formulated the laws of motion: 1. A body at rest stays at rest 2. Acceleration is caused by force 3. For every action there is an equal opposite reaction • He invented calculus: a method of mathematical analysis. The Scientific Method • Francis Bacon was an English philosopher who wrote Advancement of Learning. • Bacon popularized the scientific method and used it with philosophy and knowledge. • Bacon argued that truth could not be known at the beginning of a question, but only at the end after a long process of investigation. Francis Bacon The Scientific Method • Descartes was a French scientist, mathematician, and philosopher. René Descartes • Descartes emphasized human reasoning as the best road to understanding. • Like Bacon, Descartes also believed that truth was only found after a long process of studying and investigation. “I think, therefore I am” Other Scientific Advances… Chemistry Robert Boyle • In the 1600s Robert Boyle distinguished between individual elements and chemical compounds. • Boyle also explained the effect of temperature and pressure on gases. Other Scientific Advances… Medicine Andreas Vesalius • In 1543 Andreas Vesalius published On the Structure of the Human Body. • Vesalius’ book was the first accurate and detailed book on human anatomy. Other Scientific Advances… Medicine William Harvey • An English scholar who described the circulation of blood for the first time. •He showed how the heart served as a pump to force blood through veins and arteries, and made a complete circuit. Other Scientific Advances… Medicine Ambroise Paré • French physician Ambroise Paré developed a new and more effective ointment for preventing infection. • Paré also developed a technique for closing wounds and stitches. Other Scientific Advances… Medicine Anton von Leeuwenhoek • A Dutch inventor who perfected the microscope and became the first human to see cells and microorganisms. Enlightenment in Europe A new intellectual movement that stressed reasoning, thinking, and the power of the individual to solve problems. “Age of Reason” Early 1700’s: If people used reason to find laws that governed the physical world, why not use reason to discover natural laws? Laws that govern human nature Reformers begin studying human nature and societal problems Enlightenment - Government Started by two English political thinkers during 1600s. Very different ideas on humans and governing. Thomas Hobbes War convinced him that humans are selfish, and without government people would be at war all the time, which would make life “solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short.” John Locke • Humans are naturally reasonable, moral and good • Humans have natural rights: life liberty and property • People form governments to protect natural rights • Best government was one with limited power • If a government violates people’s natural rights, people have the right to overthrow government Believed best government is an absolute ruler (power of a leviathan (sea monster) who can keep law & order This agreement is “social contract” Heavily influenced US Declaration of Independence French Philosophes French intellectuals during Enlightenment. Met mostly in Paris. Believe you can apply reason to all aspects of life Voltaire Montesquieu Rousseau 3 branches of individual freedom Believed in direct democracy – only good gov’t is one freely formed by general will of people People give up some of their freedom for the common good Social Contract – people form gov’t & society Greatest figure of Enlightenment. Believe d in Deism – universe is like a clock God made Freedom of thought & expression (speech) important Religious freedom gov’t Separation of powers Checks and balances Heavily influenced US Constitution Committed to Enlightenment and the Economy Physiocrats rejected mercantilism in favor of a policy called laissez faire Physiocrats were Enlightenment thinkers who focused on economic reforms Laissez-Faire: allowing business to operate with little or no government (state) interference Real wealth comes from productive land not gold and silver Supported free trade and opposed tariffs Adam Smith Enlightenment and Women Women: Women were not equal and were criticized for attempting to gain equality Salons: Men and women gather in living rooms to discuss Enlightenment ideas (chat rooms) – helped spread Enlightenment ideas Mary Wollstonecraft – considered founder of the women’s rights movement Said “power of men over women was wrong, just as the arbitrary power of monarchs was wrong” 1. Scientific Method Medieval Base knowledge on ancient intellectuals, philosophers, mathematicians & the Bible, church teachings Believe things that happen in the natural world due to God’s favor or lack thereof Scientific Method Standardized method Repeatable Can go back and look at how someone came to their conclusions Math is used more often to study how, why things happen Experimenting and analyzing enable them to keep searching for answers 2.Influence on Enlightenment Scientific revolution gave people idea that human reason can solve problems People apply the same processes of hypothesizing, experimenting, etc., to society, religion, economics, education, and governing People start questioning everything! 3.Influence on U.S. Constitution Know what’s in your study guide already 4.Enlightenment leads to secular view People see that what they thought were mysteries of God in nature, were now explainable through mathmatics People question Divine Right of monarchs Union of church and state – don’t like it Question unequal social classes Ideas eventually lead to American, French and other revolutions in 1800s 5.Spread of ideas Spread through Salons, pamphlets, Diderot’s encyclopedias, newspapers, songs, books Art and Music change - become lighter, more elegant (Neoclassical) Mozart, Beethoven become some of the greatest opera composers Authors write fiction novels 6. Influence on rulers Some rulers embrace enlightenment ideas, but still want absolute power – Fredrick the Great, Joseph II, Catherine the Great (Enlightened Despots) They still held all the power, but did make some reforms. There was resistance from nobles, and many reforms reverted after their deaths. 7.Don’t need to do this one