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Collecting Data Sensibly
How to Avoid Bias
through
Random Sampling
The Process of Analyzing Data
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Planning and Conducting a Study
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Understand the Nature of the Problem
Decide What to Measure and How to Measure It
Collect the Data Sensibly (use SRS)
Summarize the Data & Perform a Preliminary
Analysis
Do the Formal Data Analysis
Interpret the Results
Bias
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Bias results when the tendency of the
data collected differs from the actual
population in some systematic way.
Bias is introduced by the way in which a
sample is selected so that increasing
the size of the sample does nothing to
reduce the bias.
Types of Bias
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Selection Bias
Measurement Bias
Nonresponsive Bias
Selection Bias
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Selection Bias is the tendency for samples to differ
from the corresponding population as a result of
systematic exclusion of some part of the population.
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Example: Taking a sample of opinion in a community by
selecting participants from phone numbers in the local
phone book would systematically exclude people who
choose to have unlisted numbers, people who do not have
phones, and people who have moved into the community
since the telephone directory was published.
ie: The Literary Digest Poll of 1948
Measurement Bias
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Measurement Bias is the tendency for samples
to differ from the corresponding population because
the method of observation tends to produce values
that differ from the true value.
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Example: Taking a sample of weights of a type of
apple when the scale consistently gives a weigh
that is 0.2 ounces high.
Nonresponsive Bias
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Nonresponse Bias is the tendency for samples to
differ from the corresponding population because
data is not obtained from all individuals selected for
inclusion in the sample..
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Example: In a study that ask questions of a personal nature,
many individuals that are selected might refuse to answer
the survey questions. This occurs quite often when the
questions are of a highly personal nature or when the
individual feels that certain response might prove personally
damaging.
Sampling Methods
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Simple Random Sample (SRS)
Stratified Samples
Systematic Samples
Cluster Samples
Convenience Samples
Sampling Frame
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A common method of
selecting a random sample
is to first create a list,
called a sampling frame
of the individuals in the
population. Each item on
the list can then be
identified by a number,
and a table random digits
or a random number
generator can be used to
select the sample.
01 Alabama 26 Mont
02 Alaska
27 Nebr
03 Arizona
28 Neva
04 Arkansas 29 New H
SRS – Simple Random Sampling
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A Simple Random Sample of size n is a
sample that is selected in a way that ensures
that every different possible sample of the
desired size has the same chance of being
selected.
This Method Uses:
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Random Number Table
Computer Generator (Random #’s)
Stratified Sampling
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A entire population is divided into
subpopulations called strata.
Stratified sampling entails selecting a
separate simple random sample from each of
the strata.
Example: Teachers in a large urban school district
are given tenure by subject. The sample is taken by
choosing random samples from each of the tenure
areas.
Systematic Sampling
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Systematic sampling is a procedure
that can be used when it is possible to
think of the population of interest as
consisting of a list or some other
sequential arrangement.
Select every 15th item…
Cluster Sampling
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A entire population is divided into nonoverlapping subgroups called clusters.
Cluster sampling entails selecting
clusters at random and all individuals in
the selected clusters are included in the
sample.
Example of Clusters
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Example: In a large university, a professor
wanting to find out about student attitudes
randomly selects a number of classes to
survey and he includes all the students in
those classes.
Note: The ideal situation occurs when it is reasonable to assume that
each cluster reflects the general population. If that is not the case or
when clusters are small, a large number of clusters must be selected to
get a sample that reflects the population.
Systematic Example
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Example: In a large university, a professor
wanting to select a sample of students to
determine the student’s age, might take
the student directory (an alphabetical list)
and randomly choose one of the first 20
students) and then take every 20th student
from that point on.
Convenience Sampling
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Convenience sampling is using and
easily available or convenient group to
form a sample.
Example:
A “voluntary response sample” is
often taken by television news programs.
Viewers are encouraged to go to a website and
“vote” yes or no on some issue. The
commentator then would announce the results
of the survey.
Convenience Sampling
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Bottom Line!
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DON’T GO THERE , this is a recipe for
disaster!