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2 Theories of Development This multimedia product and its contents are protected under copyright law. The following are prohibited by law: • any public performance or display, including transmission of any image over a network; • preparation of any derivative work, including the extraction, in whole or part, of any images; • any rental, lease, or lending of the program. © 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Psychoanalytic Theories Sigmund Freud • Psychosexual theory • Used memories of his patients as primary source material • Id • Ego • Superego • Defense mechanisms © 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Freud’s Psychosexual Stages © 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Psychosocial Theory Erik Erikson (neo-Freudian) • Development influenced by common cultural demands and internal drives • Each psychosocial stage of development requires solution of a crisis • Healthy development requires a favorable ratio of positive to negative experiences © 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory © 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Learning Theories Classical Conditioning: Ivan Pavlov • Reflex – Stimulus – Response connection • Unlearned – Unconditioned Stimulus elicits Unconditioned Response • Food automatically elicits Salivation • Learned – Conditioned Stimulus elicits Conditioned Response • Smell of food (bacon) elicits Salivation © 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Learning Theories Operant Conditioning: B.F. Skinner. • Behaviors dependent on reinforcement – Positive reinforcement – Negative reinforcement • Punishment • Shaping • Extinction © 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Learning Theories Social Cognitive Theory: Albert Bandura • Observational Learning or modeling – Learning resulting from seeing a model reinforced or punished for a behavior – Dependent on four factors: • • • • Attention Memory Physical capabilities Motivation – Self - Efficacy © 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Cognitive Theories Jean Piaget • Scheme – internal cognitive structure. • Assimilation – process of using schemes to make sense of experiences • Accommodation – changing a scheme to incorporate new information • Equilibration – – balancing assimilation and accommodation © 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Cognitive Theories Jean Piaget • Stages of Cognitive Development 1.Sensorimotor Stage 2.Preoperational Stage 3.Concrete Operational Stage 4.Formal Operational Stage © 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Cognitive Theories Vygotsky’s Socio-Cultural Theory • Complex forms of thinking have their origin in social interactions • Children’s learning new cognitive skills guided by a more skilled partner – Zone of Proximal Development – Scaffolding • Importance of Assisted Discovery © 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Cognitive Theories Information Processing Theory • Thinking about and studying memory processes • Three Stage Theory of Memory – Sensory Memory – Short-Term or Working Memory – Long-Term Memory © 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Figure 2.2 The Information Processing System © 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Biological Theories Behavioral Genetics • How heredity affects individual differences – Shyness, intelligence, aggressiveness • Related people such as children and parents have similar traits influenced by genes • Child’s pattern of inherited quality can influence how she behaves with others © 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Figure 2.3 IQs of Fraternal and Identical Twins © 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Biological Theories • Ethology – Genetically determined mechanisms that promote survival • Sociobiology – The study of society using methods and concepts of biological science © 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Bioecological Theory Urie Bronfenbrenner • Explains development in terms of relationships between people and their environments • Contexts – – – – – Macrosystem Exosystem Microsystem Mesosystem Biological Context © 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Figure 2.4 Bronfenbrenner’s Contexts of Development © 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Comparing Theories • Evaluation of Usefulness of each theory – Generate predictions that can be tested – Heuristic value – the degree to which it stimulates research – Practical value – Explain the basic facts of development © 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Comparing Theories © 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Eclecticism Multiple Theoretical Approaches • Build on ideas from several sources • Avoids rigid adherence to a single theory • Allows deeper probing of specific behaviors © 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers
