Download The Government of Ancient Egypt

The Government of Ancient Egypt
The government of Ancient Egypt depended on two important factors: the pharaoh and agriculture. The Pharaoh
was a vital part of the Egyptian government and he appointed the other officials during most periods. The
highest officials took their orders directly from the king. Agriculture was the foundation of Egypt's economy
and government.
Before the Old Kingdom
Scholars have found few government records from before the Old Kingdom Period. Evidence shows that Egypt
was a united kingdom with a single ruler, which indicates that the first pharaohs must have set up a form of
central government and established an economic system. The Egyptian economy was a barter system and not
monetary. People paid taxes to the government in the form of crops, livestock, jewelry or precious stones. In
return, the government maintained peace in the land, saved food in case of famine and conducted public works.
The Old Kingdom
Ancient Egypt's government became more centralized during the Old Kingdom. Building large stone pyramids
meant the pharaoh had to make changes to the government, which included taking absolute power for
themselves. This strong government was able to summon large work forces and appoint high officials. These
officials were loyal to the pharaoh. The pharaoh could also gather and distribute enough food to support huge
numbers of workers, which allowed them to build large stone pyramids. By the end of the Old Kingdom,
appointed officials had become hereditary offices, and this led to the collapse of government stability.
The Middle Kingdom
The Old Kingdom's government served as a base for the Middle Kingdom's. The pharaoh made changes,
including the addition of more officials. Titles and duties were more specific which limited each official's
sphere of influence, with the hope that the government would remain more stable. The central government
became more involved in tax collection, rather than leaving this to local officials. The increase in government
officials led to the growth of the middle-class bureaucracy. Officials based taxes on an assessment of cultivable
land and the flooding of the Nile. During periods of low flooding, officials reduced taxes, while the government
levied a poll tax on each citizen, which they paid in produce or craft goods. The creation of a legal system based
on laws, with judges hearing evidence also arose during this time period.
The New Kingdom
The pharaohs of the New Kingdom continued to build their government on the foundations of earlier
governments. One change they made was to decrease the size of each local governor, and increase the number
of governorships. During this period, the pharaohs also created the first standing army, which created military
positions. Before this, the pharaohs formed armies using conscripted people. This era saw the break-up of the
legal system, as people began to see oracles to obtain a verdict about the guilt or innocence of people. This
represented a change in the political power of the priests, and was open to heavy corruption.
After the New Kingdom
During the Late Period, the pharaohs reunited Egypt and centralized the government. When Persia conquered
Egypt, the new rulers established a monetary economy. The Persian monarchs made Egypt a satrapy (or
province of Persia), and appointed a governor to rule. The regional administrative system used for centuries by
Egypt was kept in place. The Greek and Roman Empires later imposed their governmental systems on Egypt,
also keeping some aspects of Egypt's regional government.
http://www.ancient-egypt-online.com/ancient-egypt-government.html
Queen Hatshepsut
Born to Tuthmose I and Queen Ahmose, the princess Hatshepsut was one of two daughters. Hatshepsut
was married, as was custom, to her half-brother Tuthmose II, and she had two daughters, Neferu-Ra (who died
young) and Hatshepset, who married Tuthmose III (her half brother). Tuthmose III was the son of Tuthmose
II’s lesser Wife, and was several years younger than Hatshepset.
Tuthmose II died young, and Tuthmose III became king while he was still young. Hatshepsut ruled as
Regent for the young king for a period of time, but then had herself crowned and adopted the full titles of a
Pharaoh. This was almost unheard of in Egypt, despite the fact that women in Egypt enjoyed a higher status of
living than in other ancient civilizations. Egyptian women could own land, inherit from family members and go
to court to defend their rights. Before Hatshepsut, their were women who had ruled Egypt as Queen, but no
female Pharaohs. To support her right to the throne, Hatshepsut claimed to a divine child, the daughter of
Ahmose and the god Amun. Her success was no doubt helped by the support of the priests in her court based on
this claim.
Over a period of time, Hatshepsut assumed not only the titles of the Pharaoh, but also adopted the style
of dress suited to a male. She wore the ceremonial clothing of a male Pharaoh and the false beard, symbolizing
the Pharaoh as a god. She dropped her titles relating to those only a woman could hold, and dropped the female
ending from her name (t), and became His Majesty, Hatshepsu. It is also known that, at least on one occasion,
she also led the army into battle against Nubia; this step took her to the full success of a Pharaoh and she
became the god’s warrior chief.
The temple of Deir el Bahri had been started during the lifetime of Tuthmose II as a mortuary of the
King and his wife. When Hatshepsut became Pharaoh, it became a temple to Hatshepsut and the decorations
recorded her life and achievements. It has been described as “the finest building in Egypt” and “one of the great
buildings of the world”.
Hatshepsut reigned for over 20 years, continuing the prosperity of her country. Under her direction, the
architects and masons erected huge numbers of buildings, and few wars were fought under her superb
statesmandhsip. Hatshepsut was succeeded by Tuthmose III on the throne, and many of her words were
removed by her step-son.
Egyptian Pyramids
The long history of ancient Egypt is usually divided into three periods: the Old Kingdom, the Middle Kingdom,
and the New Kingdom. The pyramids were build during the Old Kingdom, which lasted from about 2700BC to
2200BC.
The pyramids are truly immense. The Great Pyramid of Khufu is 756 feet along each side of its base and
481 feet high. This about the height of the Washington Monument. The pyramids are not “buildings” in the
usual sense. They are not structures with floors and rooms inside, intended human occupants. Instead, these
massive structures are solid masses of limestone blocks, which originally were covered with an additional layer
of smooth white limestone. The Great Pyramids contain several passages, two large chambers, one chamber
below ground, and two small air chambers for ventilation. There is no front door.
Unlike the prehistoric cave paintings – where historians know ho the wart was made but not why –
historians think they know why the Egyptians built the pyramids. However, they don’t know how the Egyptians
did it.
Egyptian religion placed great importance on the soul’s eternal life after death. According to Egyptian
religious belief, a person’s soul, or ka left he body at death. But it would return to the body in time for the
journey to the afterlife and immortality. Because of this, it was important that the body not be lost or destroyed
before the ka returned. Therefore, to protect and preserve the body, the Egyptians embalmed it, wrapped it in
strips of cloth, and put it in a safe place.
The most important person in Egypt was the pharaoh, or kind, who was, in the eyes of his subjects, also
a god. Because his soul would continue to guide the kingdom after death, he needed the most majestic and most
secure resting place – the pyramid. He was buried with food, clothing, weapons, furniture, jewels, and
everything he would need in the afterlife. He was placed in the central burial chamber, with dead ends and false
chambers nearby to confuse grave robbers. The pyramid was then sealed.
Each pyramid contains thousands of stones. Each stone had to be carved by hand and transported to the
site. Once there, the stones were placed one on top of the other, in such a precise manner that no cement or
mortar had to be used. The work of carving, transporting, and placing the stones was accomplished by paid
workers and farmers, or perhaps by slaves. Thousands of people toiled hundreds of years to complete the
pyramids, historians think. Some experts believe that it took 10,000 workers and 25 years to lay 5 million tons
of rock.
How did they do it? Did they use levers or pulleys? Did they have sophisticated machinery? Some
engineers hypothesize that workers placed tree trunks on the ground, put a platform full of stones on top, and
then pulled. But where did all those trees come from? Other engineers suggest that the stones were dragged up
ramps of earth and sand that were raised with each level of the pyramid. Or perhaps workers used only muscles
and determination. We may never know how the pyramids were made. But we do know that they were
completed without the benefit of the technology that we have today.
The Legend of Osiris
Osiris played a very important role in ancient Egypt and this carried over into the rituals and beliefs of
Egyptians much later, as well. It was because of the legend of Osiris that Egyptians believed they had the right
to be transformed and to live in the afterlife. The myth of Osiris is like every other Egyptian myth: the story has
changed with every political change of power.
Osiris was the son of Geb and Nut, and was born in Thebes in Upper Egypt. Upon his birth, his
grandfather, Ra, pronounced him heir to the throne, and when Geb retired, Osiris assumed this role. He took his
sister, Isis, as queen. His first deed was to abolish cannibalism and to teach the arts of agriculture to humanity.
He build the first temples and laid down fair laws for his people. He was given another name at this point,
Onnophris, meaning the “good one”. He left Isis to rule Egypt when he decided to spread his rule around the
world. He returned only after civilizing the entire earth. He found that Isis ruled wisely and his kingdom was
still in perfect order. However, it was at this point that his brother, Set, began plotting against him. There are
many stories of how Osiris was killed. The most common is that Set held an extravagant banquet and invited
Osiris. After the festivities were over, Set produced a magnificent coffin and offered it as a gift to whomever it
fitted best. Of course, it had been built for Osiris’s form and when Osiris got in it, Set shut the lid and threw it
into the Nile River.
Set took Osiris’s place as king while the grieving Isis searched for Osiris’s remains. She found the body
in a far away place called Byblos, brought it back to Egypt, and hid it in the marsh. Set found it, unfortunately,
and tore the body in pieces, throwing them again into the river. Isis collected al of the pieces, except the
genitals, which had been eaten by fish. She bandaged the body together again. This was the first mummy. This
mummy then transformed an ankh, and this form of Osiris traveled to the underworld to become king over the
dead and judge souls as they died.
Religious Beliefs
Religion guided every aspect of Egyptian life. Egyptian religion was based on polytheism, or the
worship of many deities, except for during the reign of Akenaton. The Egyptians had as many as 2000 gods and
goddesses. Some, such as Amun, were worshipped throughout the whole country, while others had only a local
following. Often gods and goddesses were represented as part human and part animal.
For example, Horus, the sky god, had the head of a hawk, and body of a human. They considered
animals such as the bull, the cat, and the crocodile to be holy. Their two chief gods were Amon-Ra and Osiris.
Amon-Ra was believed to be the sun god and the lord of the universe. Osiris was the god of the underworld.
Stories about him revolved around the idea of immortality. Osiris was the god that made a peaceful afterlife
possible. The Egyptian "Book of the Dead" contains the major ideas and beliefs in the ancient Egyptian religion.
Because their religion stressed an afterlife, Egyptians devoted much time and wealth to preparing for survival in
the next world.
The Egyptians had many tales about how the world began. According to one legend, it started with an
ocean in darkness. Then a mound of dry land rose up and the sun god Re appeared. He created light and all
things. Another version has the sun God emerging from a sacred blue lotus that grew out of the mud, while a
third version has him appearing as a scarab beetle on the eastern horizon.
Temples were considered dwelling places for the gods. They were everywhere. Each city had a temple
built for the god of that city. The purpose of the temple was to be a cosmic center by which men had
communication with the gods. As the priests became more powerful, tombs became a part of great temples.
Shown below is a typical temple flood plan with the purposes of each section given.
The priests duty was to care for the gods and attend to their needs. The priests had many duties such as
funeral rites, teaching school, supervising the artists and works, and advising people on problems.
http://www2.sptimes.com/Egypt/EgyptCredit.4.3.html
Marriage and the Family
The Egyptians appear to have reversed the ordinary practices of mankind. Women attend markets and are
employed in trade, while men stay at home and do the weaving! Men in Egypt carry loads on their head, women
on their shoulder. Women pass water standing up, men sitting down. To ease themselves, they go indoors, but
eat outside on the streets, on the theory that what is unseemly, but necessary, should be done in private, and
what is not unseemly should be done openly.
(Herodotus II: 33-37
The nuclear family was the core of Egyptian society and many of the gods were even arranged into such
groupings. There was tremendous pride in one's family, and lineage was traced through both the mother's and
father's lines. Respect for one's parents was a cornerstone of morality, and the most fundamental duty of the
eldest son (or occasionally daughter) was to care for his parents in their last days and to ensure that they
received a proper burial.
http://fathom.lib.uchicago.edu/2/21701778/
by Douglas J. Brewer, Emily Teeter
Dress and Fashion
Ancient Egyptians were extremely interested in fashion and its changes. This seems evident from trends seen in
tomb scenes where the costumes and styles of the upper classes were soon copied by the lower classes. The
most common fabric for clothing (both women's and men's) was linen. Because linen is very hard to dye, most
clothes were off-white, so color was added with heavy beaded collars and other jewelry.
The standard apparel of women from the Old Kingdom into the New Kingdom was the sheath dress, which
could be worn strapless or with two broad shoulder straps. Most examples of these dresses reach the ankles.
Most sources depict women wearing impossibly tight and impractical dresses, suggesting that the
representations are idealized to emphasize the sensuality of the female body.
The most ancient garment worn by men was a kilt that was made of a rectangular piece of linen cloth wrapped
rather loosely around the hips, leaving the knees uncovered. As a rule, it was wrapped around the body from
right to left so that the edge of the skirt would be in the front. The upper edge was tucked behind the tie, or
girdle, that held the kilt together. This garment was the standard male attire for all classes from peasants to
royalty, though the quality of the linen and the exact style varied according to one's purchasing power.
…Though styles changed over time, the simple kilt remained the standard garb for scribes, servants, and
peasants.
In the winter, the middle and upper classes wore a heavy cloak extending from neck to ankle, which could be
wrapped around and folded or clasped in front. … Although sandals of rush and reeds are known, regardless of
the occasion or social class, Egyptians apparently often went barefoot.
During the New Kingdom, when Egypt extended its political influence east into Asia, Egyptian fashion changed
radically. With the influx of trade and ideas from the east, fashions became more varied, changed more quickly,
and often took on an eastern flavor. Men and women of the upper classes, for example, wore layers of fine,
nearly transparent kilts and long- or short sleeved shirts that tied at the neck, or draped themselves in billowing
robes of fine linen that extended from neck to ankle and were drawn in at the waist by a sash. The better
examples of these garments were heavily pleated, and some were ornamented with colored ball fringe.
For most of the Pharaonic Period, women wore their hair (or wigs) long and straight… For all periods men wore
their hair short, but they also wore wigs, the style befitting the occasion. These wigs were made of human hair
or plant fiber. Both genders wore copious amounts of perfumes and cosmetics made of ground minerals and
earth pigments. Fashion statements were made with accessories such as jewelry and ribbons. Men also carried
staffs that marked status and social class.
http://fathom.lib.uchicago.edu/2/21701778/
by Douglas J. Brewer, Emily Teeter
Entertainment
There is much evidence for the leisure activities of the ancient Egyptians. Men engaged in physical sports, such
as hunting, fishing, archery, wrestling, boxing, and stick fencing. Long-distance races were organized to
demonstrate physical prowess, and both men and women enjoyed swimming. Board games were popular, and
games boards were constructed of a number of materials: wood, stone, clay, or simple drawings scratched on
the ground. Moves on board games were determined by throw sticks, astragali (animal anklebones), or after the
late New Kingdom, cubic dice that were usually marked in the same pattern used today. One of the most
common games was senet, which was played on a board of thirty squares divided into three rows of ten squares.
Like so many other aspects of Egyptian culture, senet had a religious significance, and the game was likened to
passing through the underworld.
Tomb paintings indicate that banquets were a popular form of relaxation, at least for the upper class. At such
events food, alcoholic beverages, music, and dancing were common forms of entertainment. The organization
of the tomb scenes may be misleading, it seems that proprieties of the times kept male and female guests seated
in separate areas although men and women performed together.
http://fathom.lib.uchicago.edu/2/21701778/
by Douglas J. Brewer, Emily Teeter
Social Structure
Egyptian society was structured like a pyramid. At the top were the gods, such as Ra, Osiris, and Isis.
Egyptians believed that the gods controlled the universe. Therefore, it was important to keep them happy. They
could make the Nile overflow, cause famine, or even bring death. In the social pyramid of ancient Egypt the
pharaoh and those associated with divinity were at the top, and servants and slaves made up the bottom.
Because the people of Egypt believed that their pharaohs were gods, they entrusted their rulers with
many responsibilities. Protection was at the top of the list. The pharaoh directed the army in case of a foreign
threat or an internal conflict. All laws were enacted at the discretion of the pharaoh. Each farmer paid taxes in
the form of grain, which were stored in the pharaoh's warehouses. This grain was used to feed the people in the
event of a famine.
The Chain of Command
Ancient Egyptian royalty, nobility, and clergy enjoyed lives of wealth and comfort while farmers and
slaves struggled to subsist. No single person could manage all these duties without assistance. The pharaoh
appointed a chief minister called a vizier as a supervisor. The vizier ensured that taxes were collected. Working
with the vizier were scribes who kept government records. These high-level employees had mastered a rare skill
in ancient Egypt — they could read and write.
Noble Aims
Right below the pharaoh in status were powerful nobles and priests. Only nobles could hold government
posts; in these positions they profited from tributes paid to the pharaoh. Priests were responsible for pleasing the
gods. Religion was a central theme in ancient Egyptian culture and each town had its own deity. Initially, these
deities were animals; later, they took on human appearances and behaviors. Seated here is Thoth, the god of
learning and wisdom, carrying a scepter symbolizing magical power.
Nobles enjoyed great status and also grew wealthy from donations to the gods. All Egyptians — from
pharaohs to farmers — gave gifts to the gods.
Soldier On
Soldiers fought in wars or quelled domestic uprisings. During long periods of peace, soldiers also
supervised the peasants, farmers, and slaves who were involved in building such structures as pyramids and
palaces. Skilled workers such as physicians and craftspersons made up the middle class. Craftspersons made
and sold jewelry, pottery, papyrus products, tools, and other useful things.
Naturally, there were people who needed to buy goods from artisans and traders. These were the
merchants and storekeepers who sold these goods to the public. The average Egyptian merchant living in
Ancient times owned a mud brick house, but would often travel to other nearby countries in order to trade
native products like gold, papyrus, linen cloth, and jewelry for cedar, ebony wood, and panther skins. Farmers
and fisherman could double as a merchants and sell their fish and other produce at the local market.
The Bottom of the Heap
At the bottom of the social structure were slaves and farmers. Slavery became the fate of those captured
as prisoners of war. In addition to being forced to work on building projects, slaves toiled at the discretion of the
pharaoh or nobles. Farmers tended the fields, raised animals, kept canals and reservoirs in good order, worked
in the stone quarries, and built the royal monuments. Farmers paid taxes that could be as much as 60 percent of
their yearly harvest — that's a lot of hay!
Social mobility was not impossible. A small number of peasants and farmers moved up the economic
ladder. Families saved money to send their sons to village schools to learn trades. These schools were run by
priests or by artisans. Boys who learned to read and write could become scribes, then go on to gain employment
in the government. It was possible for a boy born on a farm to work his way up into the higher ranks of the
government. Bureaucracy proved lucrative.
http://www.ushistory.org/civ/3b.asp
The Rosetta Stone
The Rosetta Stone is a stone with writing on it in two languages (Egyptian and Greek), using three
scripts (hieroglyphic, demotic and Greek). When it was written, there were three scripts being used in Egypt.
The first was hieroglyphic which was the script used for important or religious documents. The second was
demotic which was the common script of Egypt. The third was Greek which was the language of the rulers of
Egypt at that time. The Rosetta Stone was written in all three scripts so that the priests, government officials and
rulers of Egypt could read what it said. The Rosetta Stone was carved in 196 B.C, but it wasn’t found until
1799.
The Rosetta Stone was found by French soldiers who were rebuilding a fort in Egypt. The Rosetta Stone
was found in a small village in the Delta called Rosetta (Rashid). It is called the Rosetta Stone because it was
discovered in a town called Rosetta (Rashid). The Rosetta Stone lists all of the things that the pharaoh has done
that are good for the priests and the people of Egypt. Many people worked on deciphering hieroglyphs over
several hundred years. However, the structure of the script was very difficult to work out. After many years of
studying the Rosetta Stone and other examples of ancient Egyptian writing, Jean-François Champollion
deciphered hieroglyphs in 1822. Champollion could read both Greek and coptic. He was able to figure out what
the seven demotic signs in coptic were. By looking at how these signs were used in coptic he was able to work
out what they stood for. Then he began tracing these demotic signs back to hieroglyphic signs. By working out
what some hieroglyphs stood for, he could make educated guesses about what the other hieroglyphs stood for.
Snake (Mehen) game.
Old Kingdom, Dynasties 3-6, ca. 2750-2250 B.C.
A game board in the form of a coiled snake was among the earliest Egyptian games. Using a set of lion-shaped
and round markers, play started at the snake's tail, which was in the form of a bird's head. The two or four
opponents raced each other to the goal located in the snake's head. Mehen was the name of the serpent deity
whose coils protected the sun god
http://fathom.lib.uchicago.edu/2/21701778/
by Douglas J. Brewer, Emily Teeter
Oriental Institute, 20 Square Game, 1570-1069 BCE
The game of 20 square was played by 2 opponents, each of whom had 5 playing pieces. Play began with the
pieces placed on the undecorated areas on each side of the board. The players moved down the side squares and
up the middle of the board. Lays were determined with throw sticks, dice, or knucklebones. Religious texts
indicate that playing the game was likened to passing through the underworld in the quest for eternal rebirth
http://fathom.lib.uchicago.edu/2/21701778/
by Douglas J. Brewer, Emily Teeter
http://www.ushistory.org/civ/3b.asp
Oriental Institute, Nykauinpu and his wife, Hemetradjet
Oriental Institute, Rush Shoe from 2nd century BCE
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by Douglas J. Brewer, Emily Teeter
Pharaoh attended by wives and Gods
http://archaeologyatup.co.za/?p=476
Working in the fields
https://owlworldhistory.wikispaces.com/Artifacts
Musicians and dancers at a party
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egypt
Pyramids and mastabas at Giza
http://www.aemes.co.uk/
Mummy
http://www.dailykos.com/story/2010/12/26/931688/-Ancient-Egypt-Mummies
Hunting along the Nile River
http://www.ancient-egypt-online.com/ancient-egypt-government.html
Abu Simbel, built by Ramses II, in Nubia (temple)
https://sites.google.com/site/dfrostman/process