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Pre-AP World History
The Maya and Central America
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Mexico and Central America
Advanced civilizations began to appear in the Americas after 1200 BCE. The oldest and most
sophisticated were in Mexico and Central America, where a succession of cultures, each influencing the
ones that followed it, emerged. The first major society was the Olmec (ca.1200-400 BCE). Located in
east-central Mexico, on the coast of the Gulf of Mexico, the Olmec created what is considered to be the
“mother civilization” of Central America. The Olmec were clever mathematicians and astronomers who
made accurate calendars. They also were excellent farmers, and had a well-developed irrigation system
located in the empire. Although their written language remains a mystery to modern scholars, it is clear
that the art (consisting mainly of large heads carved from stone), architecture, and religion of the Olmec
had an impact on the peoples that came after them.
1. Why were the Olmec the Mother of Central American civilization?
The Maya: Religion, Lifestyle and Achievements
The next major society in the region was the vast city of Teotihuacán, founded between 150-100
BCE, near modern-day Mexico City. With a population around 200,000, Teotihuacán was one the
world’s largest cities at the time and were soon eclipsed by the Maya. The Maya flourished from 250900 CE. The Mayan civilization was located in the Yucatan Peninsula. There was no single nation,
instead independent city-states ruled over the Mayan lands.
The elaborate religion of the Maya, which included large scale human sacrifice and the worship
of serpent gods and jaguar deities, seems to have derived from the Olmec and Teotihuacán cultures. Like
the Teotihuacán, the Maya built huge terraced pyramids, such as Chichen Itza, primarily for religious
reasons. The Maya were able to perform complex mathematical and astronomical calculations because
of their understanding of the concept of zero. They had an unusual calendar system that was surprisingly
accurate. They developed the most advanced system of writing in the Americas, using glyphs or
symbols to represent words. They were also gifted architects, as their pyramids and other buildings
show. A combination of disease and environmental factors brought about the decline of the Maya and
their civilization. Agriculture formed the basis of Mayan life, with maize, beans, and squash as the main
crops. The various independent city-states were connected by trade, especially in jade, salt, flint, honey,
feathers, and shells. Sometimes cacao beans were used as currency.
The Mayan version of the story of creation can be found in the Popol Vuh, one of their books.
Like many of the societies of Mesoamerica, the Maya believed in the legend of Quetzalcoatl, a god who
would one day return to rule his people in peace. The Mayan people were polytheistic, sometimes
practices human sacrifice to appease their gods. The Maya also played a ballgame that was believed to
satisfy the gods so that the natural order would be maintained.
Mayan Families were patriarchal, although the wealthier and more prominent families traced
their lineage through parallel descent. Women of the elite classes retained some rights and were
considered important to the society. The majority of women however, performed the traditional roles of
homemaker and child bearer. By the 800s, many of the Mayan cities were suddenly abandoned. This
may have been the result of warfare, or perhaps soil depletion from improper land usage. Whatever
reasons the Maya fell, by the 900s the once glorious civilization of the Maya had been reduced to a
number of small city-states.
1. Describe the Mayan religion.
2. Describe the Mayan social lifestyle.
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Pre-AP World History
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3. What were some major achievements of the Maya?
The Toltec
After the fall of many Central American civilizations, a new one appeared in Central Mexico in
900 CE, the Toltec. They lasted from 968-1156 CE. The Toltec rose to power and established a capital
at Tula. Like others before them, the Toltec adopted many of the cultural practices and beliefs of the
earlier Mesoamerican people. They constructed temples and pyramids; they also spread the legend of
Quetzalcoatl.
The Toltec Empire was the first of the extreme militaristic cultures in the region that used their
might to dominate their neighbors, a trend associated with the later cultures. They also sacrificed people
to their gods to appease them. Toltec influence spread beyond central Mexico, reaching the former
Mayan city of Chichen Itza. Some historians believe that the Toltec may have traded obsidian from
northern Mexico for turquoise from the Anasazi in North America. Around 1200 the Toltec Empire
collapsed, but not before it passed some of its culture to the Aztecs.
1. What did the Toltec adopt from other cultures?
2. How did they gain control of their land?
Andean Societies and North American Cultures
In the northwest portion of South America, several civilizations rose up in the peaks and valleys
of the Andes. The first civilization was in central Peru around 2600 BCE. Most Andean cultures were
skilled at weaving, pottery and metalworking. Their most important domesticated animal was the llama.
The oldest of these societies was the Chavin (900-250 BCE). Also prominent were the Moche 200-700
CE, the Tiahuanaco and Huari both 500-1000 CE, and the Chimu 800-1465 CE. The South American
plains gave rise to nomadic herders. The rain forests of the Amazon basin were home to many tribes.
To North America, advanced social structures came very late. A number of tribes began to form
together in river valleys and forests on the eastern part of the continent. The first society was the Adena
500-100 BCE, which was followed by the Hopewell 100-400 CE, and Mississippian 700-1500 CE. All
three spread out along the Ohio and Mississippi River valleys. They were loose confederations rather
than actual nations, and they built few large urban centers. The most significant find about these ancient
civilizations were the giant earth mounds, built for ceremonies and religious reasons.
Around 700 BCE, a civilization in North America’s desert Southwest began to reach its peak.
This was the Anasazi. Small settlements date back to 450 CE, but the Anasazi may have appeared in the
area many years before that. The Anasazi and the people who followed are famous for their elaborate
cliff dwellings, made of clay and rock, perched hundreds of feet above the canyons and deserts below.
1. What were some characteristics of the Andean Societies and North American cultures?
The Aztecs
Arrival of the Aztecs
The South Central region of present-day Mexico was once the home of the Aztec. The Aztecs
came from the remote north, around the early 13th century. They were migratory at first, wandering
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around the Mexican Valley struggling to survive. In the year 1325, however, they stopped their
migratory pattern on the southwest border of Lake Texcoco as they beheld an eagle sitting on the stem
of a prickly cactus. He was holding a serpent in his talons and his wings were open to the sun. They saw
this as an omen, announcing the location of their future city and capital, Tenochtitlán. In order to build
their city, the swamps and standing water around them had to be drained and artificial islands were
constructed to form gardens.
The Aztec maintained their subsistence by utilizing fishing, hunting, gathering and gardening
techniques. The Valley Rivers were rich in fish, insects, shrimp, and tadpoles. Those near the ocean ate
crabs, oysters, fish and turtles. Thus, the water was a major source of food for the Aztec who wished to
utilize them. Among the wild animals are rabbits, snakes, armadillos, deer, pumas and coyotes. Along
with the hunting of some of these, the ancient Aztecs also hunted the wild turkey.
To supplement the lack of agricultural land, the Aztecs created plots of land called Chinampas.
These floating plots were constructed of intertwining reeds and vines upon which the Aztecs deposited
fertile soil dredged from the bottom of the lake. Like other Mesoamerican societies, the staple crops of
the Aztecs were maize, beans and squash.
Aztec Society
The economy of Tenochtitlán was built off of one overwhelming fact: the urban population on
the island required high levels of economic support from surrounding areas. Tenochtitlán was selfsupporting; the village was small and agriculture was managed through the chinampa method of
architecture, practiced widely throughout Mesoamerica. In this way, the Aztecs reclaimed much of the
lake for agriculture. A large part of the city’s population was farmers; at its height (100,000-300,000), at
least half the population would leave the city in the morning to go farm and return in the evening.
The city itself consisted of a large number of priests and craftspeople; the bulk of the economy
rested on extensive trade of both necessary and luxury items. Another key to their wealth was the tribute
they received from other neighboring peoples. They received exotic items like jade, emeralds, animal
skins, and cacao and vanilla beans, which helped their trade with other areas.
Tenochtitlán was a true urban center. It had a permanent population, it had a large market, and it
had the beginnings of economic class. For the kinship groups of the city were divided up into Calpulli,
many of which practiced a specific craft or trade, such as rope-making or pot-making. In addition, the
Calpulli seemed to be arranged in ranks. The Aztecs did have two clearly differentiated social classes.
At the bottom were the commoners, and at the top the pilli, or nobility. These were not clearly
differentiated by birth, for one could rise into the pilli by virtue of great skill and bravery in war.
All male children went to school. At the age of 15, each male child went to learn the history and
religion of the Aztecs, the art of war and fighting, the trade or craft specific to his Calpulli, and the
religious and civic duties of everyday citizenship. The children of nobility also attended another school.
This public education was only limited to boys.
In Aztec society, women were regarded as the subordinate of men. Above everything else, they
were required to behave with chastity and high moral standards. For the most part, all government and
religious functions were closed off to women. In fact, one of the most important religious offices, the
Snake Woman, was always filled by men. There were some temples and gods that had priestesses, these
priestesses had their own schools and training, but their exact position in the hierarchy is unknown.
Aztec laws were simple and harsh. Almost every crime, from adultery to stealing, was punished
by death and other offenses usually involved severe corporal punishment or mutilation (the penalty for
slander, for instance, was the loss of one's lips). This was not a totalitarian state, however; there was a
strong sense of community among the Aztecs and these laws, harsh as they seem, were supported by the
community.
Aztec Religion
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Pre-AP World History
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The Aztecs had many beliefs. They believed the sun fought darkness every night and rose to save
mankind. They believed the earth was flat. They believed that if they fed the sun blood, it would rise.
The Aztecs respected their gods and put great efforts into making beautiful temples to please their gods.
They drew pictures that told about their gods. They recorded religious events with hieroglyphics and
even number symbols. The Aztecs worshipped about 1,000 gods. But they worshipped the sun god the
most. Religious ceremonies took place in a temple that had sacred pools for ceremonial cleansing,
gardens, living quarters for a priest, and racks to hold the skulls of victims.
Sacrifice was one of the main events in the Aztec religion. Priests made human sacrifices to
make the sun god happy. Aztecs fought in wars to capture men to sacrifice. On God's Feast Day, they
killed their slaves for the gods. Human sacrifices were offerings to the sun and earth so that food would
grow. One practice was on a special night, when the evening star reached the top of the sky, the priests
would stretch the captive over an altar, or a special stone. Then the high priest would light a fire on the
victim's heart and tear it out. After the heart is cut, the priest would hold the heart to the sun, and then
put it in a sacred dish. Finally, the bodies were rolled down the temple stairs to lie in a heap. Even after
that, most victims were happy to die because they thought they would go straight to heaven.
The Aztecs strongly believed in the afterlife. It was the way the Aztecs died rather than the way
they lived that determined whether they would go to the sun god or go to the dark and dismal
underworld. If a person died a normal death, his or her soul would have to pass through the nine lives of
the underworld before reaching the realm of the dead. A warrior who died in battle or a woman that died
in childbirth would go straight to the sun god in the sky. The head of the gods was Huitzilopochtli, god
of war and god of sun. This god had told the Aztecs to wander until they found an eagle with a serpent
in its mouth perched on a cactus growing from a rock. When they found this, they claimed the area
around it, which is now known as Tenochtitlán. The Aztecs worshipped Tlaloc, the rain god, in the main
temple. This god was very important to farmers because drought was a threat in the area. Quetzalcoatl
was a feathered snake who represented arts, crafts, and self-sacrifice.
Priests and priestesses were very important people. They acted as doctors, and taught science,
art, writing, music, dance, history, and counting. They also had to know astronomy and astrology. They
had to perform difficult ceremonies. Religion played an important part in Aztecs' lives, and human
sacrifice was used to pay homage to their gods.
Spanish Conquests: The Decline of the Aztecs
In 1519 Spanish explorer Hernán Cortés and more than 500 Spaniards landed in eastern Mexico
in search of land and gold. Advised by Malinche, his Native American mistress, Cortés formed an
alliance with one of the rivals of the Aztec and set out for Tenochtitlán. The Aztec ruler Montezuma II
allowed Cortés to enter the city in order to learn more about him and his intentions.
Finding large amounts of gold and other treasure, and fearful that the Aztec would attack his
Spanish force, Cortés seized Montezuma as a hostage and demanded a ransom of treasure. The
Spaniards melted down the intricate gold ornaments of the Aztec for shipment to Spain and forced
Montezuma to swear allegiance to the king of Spain. The Spaniards remained in the city without
opposition until about six months later, when, in Cortés’ absence, the Aztecs revolted. The Aztec
warriors tore up the city’s bridges and chased the Spaniards into the canals, where three-fourths of them,
weighted down with stolen gold, quickly drowned. Montezuma was killed during the revolt.
Cortés retreated and gathered more Native American allies for a siege of Tenochtitlán. The
Aztecs’ crude weapons were no match for the iron, steel, and gunpowder of the Spaniards, who also had
the advantage of a large number of indigenous allies. After three months of desperate and bloody
fighting, the Aztecs surrendered in August 1521. The Spaniards conquered the remaining Aztec peoples,
whose population was decimated by about a third due to a smallpox epidemic triggered by one of the
Spanish soldiers, and took over their lands, forcing them to work in gold mines and on Spanish estates.
The fall of Tenochtitlán marked the end of the Native American civilizations that had existed in
Mesoamerica since the first human settlement of the region. On the ruins of Tenochtitlán, the Spaniards
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Pre-AP World History
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built Mexico City. The city’s present-day cathedral rises over the ruins of an Aztec temple, and the
palace of the Mexican president stands on the site of the palace of Montezuma.
Directions: In the chart below, discuss the most important facts about the Aztecs.
1. Arrival of the Aztecs
2. Aztec Society
3. Aztec Religion
4. The Decline of the
Aztecs
The Inca
The Origins of the Inca
Between 1200 and 1535 AD, the Inca population lived in the part of South America extending
from the Equator to the Pacific coast of Chile. The Inca were warriors with a strong and powerful army.
Because of the fierceness of their army and their hierarchical organization, they became the largest
society in Central America.
Their cities and fortresses were mostly built on highlands and on the steep slopes of the Andes
Mountains. The architecture of the Inca cities still amazes and puzzles most scientists. Stone steps lead
up to the top of the cities, which consist of stone houses and religious buildings. The blocks of stones
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weigh several tons and they are fit together so tightly that not even a razor blade can fit through them.
The central city was mainly used for government purposes, while the citizens occupied surrounding
areas. Their homes were made from the same stone material and had grass rooftops. They built
enormous fortresses on top of steep mountains that enabled them to see their enemies and defend
themselves. Even though the Inca never had access to the wheel, they built a sophisticated road system
to connect the villages. The roads were paved with flat stones and barriers to protect the messengers
from falling down the cliff.
The Inca society was arranged by a strict hierarchical structure. There were many different levels
with the Sapa, high priest or ruler, and the army commander at the top. Family members were councilors
to the Sapa and even women had authority in the Inca hierarchy. The temple priests, architects and
regional army commanders were next. The two lowest classes consisted of artisans, army captains,
farmers, and herders. Farmers provided most of the subsistence for the rest of the population.
They developed drainage systems and canals to expand their crop resources and create irrigation.
Potatoes, tomatoes, cotton, peanuts and coca were among the many crops grown by the Inca. Llamas
were used for meat and transportation. Increased food levels led to a growth in the Inca population.
The highest point in an Inca village was reserved for religious purposes. This point was the
closest to the sun, which represented their major god, Inti, the Sun God. The Sun Temple, located in
Machu Picchu, Peru, was a religious calendar that marked the winter and summer solstices.
The Inca were not only fierce conquerors but they also had a violent punishment system. If
someone stole, murdered, or had sex with a Sapa wife or a Sun Virgin, they were thrown off a cliff,
hands cut off or eyes cut out, or hung up to starve to death. Prisons were of no use because punishment
usually consisted of death.
1. Describe the Incan social hierarchy.
2. Describe Incan architecture. Why did the Inca’s build roads?
Incan Government and Society
The Incas had a highly organized government based in Cuzco. The emperor lived there and was
regarded to as the main supreme the ruler and was deemed a descendant of the Sun. He was married to
his sister, who was referred to as the moon. Underneath him were the nobles. They were talented and
gifted and their skills provided for all of the Inca civilization. Under the nobles there were the warriors,
merchants, traders and farmers.
The tax requirements were high. Women were expected to weave a certain amount of cloth,
while men had to mine or serve in the army. Taxes were expected to be paid by commoners. If the
commoners didn't have money, they'd pay with service on state projects or make items to sell. People
could also pay the government by giving a portion of their yearly crop to the collectors instead.
Cuzco was the center of Inca life, and the home of its leaders. The riches that were gathered in
the city of Cuzco alone, as capital and court of the Empire were incredible. Inca kings and nobles
amassed stupendous riches which accompanied them, in death, in their tombs.
Law in the Incan society was also different than most early civilizations. Because everyone had
everything they needed, people rarely stole things. As a result, there were no prisons. The worst crimes
in the Inca Empire were murder, insulting the Sapa Inca and saying bad things about gods. The
punishment for the crimes was being thrown off of a cliff. The punishment for adultery was also harsh.
The couple was tied up by their hands and feet to a wall and left to starve to death. Smaller crimes were
punished by the chopping off of the hands and feet or the gouging of the eyes.
The Incas required communities to participate in public building projects, and in mining or
working the land. These shifts of required workers were called mita. Within Incan communities, small
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groups of ayllu were formed. These are clans of families who lived and worked together on projects in
order to keep the community self-sufficient. While most men were herders, women occupied themselves
by weaving cloth, caring for the household, and working in the fields. Although labor was divided by
gender lines, the roles of both male and female were equally respected. Inheritance progressed through
parallel descent, the daughters inheriting from the mothers and sons from the fathers.
This cooperation required of the Incan society helped to ensure the food supply in times of
scarcity. They expanded irrigation systems in case of drought, and developed a way to freeze-dry
potatoes to store them for future use.
1. How did the Incan government punish most crimes?
2. Describe roles of men and women.
3. Define ayllu and mita.
Incan Achievement
The Incas controlled a vast territory that encompassed extremely rugged terrain and different
climates, inhabited by perhaps over six million people. Those lands were home to people of dozens of
different ethnic groups, representing numerous different languages. The Incas used two main methods to
subjugate the people of these lands. The first was military conquest, facilitated by their huge wellequipped army. The second was diplomacy, in which the Incas offered the elites of the region the choice
of submitting peacefully and gaining favor, backed by the threat of armed conquest.
The Incas are perhaps best known for their engineering works and architecture. They constructed
an extensive system of well-built and constantly maintained roads, covering at least 23,000 km. The
road network facilitated communications and the movement of people (especially the armies) and goods.
To cross the many steep ravines found in the Andes, they built impressive suspension bridges. On the
mountainsides in many regions, they built elaborate terraces to increase food production.
Inca architecture is well-known for its finely worked stones which, as the cliché goes, are fitted
together so well, without the use of mortar, that you cannot fit a knife blade between the stones. In
reality, the fine Inca stone work was reserved for the more important buildings erected by the state, and
the Incas actually created more buildings of less exacting methods. The highest concentration of high
quality Inca stonework is, of course, found in Cuzco and the surrounding region, in sites such as Machu
Picchu. Other examples of fine Inca masonry are found scattered throughout the realm, but mostly in the
highlands.
The Incas had no formal writing system, but relied instead on quipus, which were record-keeping
devices based on a complicated system of knots. They had no wheeled vehicles, and transported all
goods manually or with the use of llamas. The impressive engineering and architectural works were not
produced using elaborate technology or secret techniques, but through the deployment of huge amounts
of labor. Ultimately, the Inca achievement was the product of the highly developed organizational skills
of the Inca elite, which enabled them to direct the people and resources.
1. How did the Inca suppress its neighboring peoples?
2. Describe Incan architecture.
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3. What are quipus?
Pre-AP World History
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Inca’s Decline
There are a few reasons the Incan Empire declined. Before the Spanish conquered the Inca’s,
they went through a massive civil war that weakened their military. This made it easy for Pizarro and the
Spanish to destroy them. Another reason they were doomed was because of their great wealth. The
Spaniards, upon reaching the New World, learned of the abundance of gold in Inca society and soon set
out to conquer it at all costs.
Pizarro had taken Atahualpa, the Incan leader, captive. The Incas bribed Pizarro with a room
filled with gold for Atahualpa, however once Pizarro received it he still ordered that Atahualpa to be
killed. The Inca had an army which consisted of 40,000 people. The Spanish army in the Americas,
which was commanded by Francisco Pizarro, had only 180 people.
There are three main reasons the Incan army lost to the Spanish.
1) Much of the Incan army died as a result of smallpox, which was carried to them via the Spanish
Conquistadors.
2) The Spanish Conquistadors were able to convince other tribes, already under Incan rule, to side with
them and over throw the Incan Empire.
3) The weapons used by Incan warriors, though effective in tribal warfare, were no match for the
Spanish arms.
By 1535, the Inca society was completely overthrown, and Pizzaro moved the capital from
Cuzco to Lima. It took Pizarro approximately 40 more years until the last Inca was killed, his name was
Tupac Amaru, Pizarro ordered that his body be dismembered to stop any further Inca resistance. The
plundering of Inca riches continues today with the pillaging of sacred sites and blasting of burial tombs
by grave robbers in search of precious Inca gold.
1. What weakened the Incan military?
2. Why did Pizzaro want to destroy the Inca?
3. What are the reasons the Inca lost to the Spanish?