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17 The West on the Eve of a New World Order The Scientific Revolution Toward a New Heaven: A Revolution in Astronomy Geocentric/Ptolmaic theory of the universemotionless earth in the center of the universe Nicholas Copernicus (1473 – 1543)-Polish mathematician introduced heliocentric (sun centered) theory Johannes Kepler (1571 – 1630)- German mathematician and astronomer supported Copernicus, but introduced the idea of planets revolving around the sun in an elliptical motion Galileo Galilei (1564 – 1642)-Italian mathematician, invented telescope, discovered mountains on moon, four moons of Jupiter, and sunspots Isaac Newton (1642 – 1727)- Wrote Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy a.k.a Principia; explained that every object in the universe is attracted to every other object by a force called gravity introduced “world-machine” concept of universe-time and space are absolute and don’t change and universe is operated by natural laws Toward a New Earth: Descartes and Rationalism Descartes (1596 – 1650): French Philosopher, introduced doubt (“I think, therefore I am”) Also Introduced Cartesian dualism (separation of mind and mater) and is considered the father of rationalism Scientific Revolution occurred in Europe, but not in China *China lacks competitive spirit, lives in harmony with nature, “best and brightest” drawn into government service Rene ©2004 Wadsworth, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc. Thomson Learning™ is a trademark used herein under license. Centers of Enlightenment circa 1700 The Enlightenment Background to the Enlightenment *To apply scientific method to the understanding of all life, society as well as nature *Reason, natural law, hope, and progress were the inspirations of all philosophers Isaac Newton’s “world machine” concept was used as the foundation of inspiration John Locke (1632-1704) • Wrote an Essay Concerning Human Understanding • Every person born with a blank mind and not innate ideas The Philosophers and Their Ideas Who were the philosophes? Were literary people, professors, economists, political scientists, and social reformers Paris: the capital of the Enlightenment Role of philosophy: not just to discuss the world but to change it Montesquieu, Voltaire, and Diderot Charles de Secondat, Baron de Montesquieu (1689-1755) Most famous work, The Spirit of the Laws (1748); in it he discussed Natural laws, Three kinds of government (republic, monarchy, despotism), and Checks and Balances/Separation of powers François-Marie Arouet, Voltaire (1694-1778) Criticism of traditional religion Favored religious toleration Deism; belief in existence of God Denis Diderot (1713-1784) Introduced the Encyclopedia, 28 volumes Spread the ideas of the Enlightenment Toward a New “Science of Man” Belief in natural laws for all areas of human life Called “Science of Man”, or social sciences Physiocrats Natural economic laws Adam Smith (1723-1790) • State should not interfere with economic matters • Idea became known as laissez-faire • Three functions of government: protect society against invasion; defend citizens against injustice; and keep up certain public works The Later Enlightenment Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) Discourse on the Origins of the Inequality of Mankind; people had adopted laws and governors in order to preserve entire property The Social Contract • Entire society agrees to be governed by its general will • General will is not only political but also ethical, representing what the entire community ought to do Novel Émile • Education should foster, rather than restrict, children’s natural instincts Mary Wollstonecraft (1759-1797) Founder of European feminism Wrote Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1792) -in book argued Subjection of women by men wrong and argued that Philosophical idea of innate reason means women have to be equal Culture in an Enlightened Age Rococo Art Emphasized grace, charm, and gentle action Highly secular Antoine Watteau (1684-1721) World of upper-class joy and pleasure; underneath the fragility and transitory nature of pleasure, love, and life High Culture- is the Literary and artistic culture Expansion in the 18th century of reading public and publishing Popular Culture-is the written and unwritten culture of the masses Group activity was common in the festival- covered a variety of celebrations ©2004 Wadsworth, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc. Thomson Learning™ is a trademark used herein under license. Global Trade Patterns of the European States in the Eighteenth Century Economic Changes and the Social Order New Economic Patterns Population Growth-Growth begins in Europe about 1750 • Agricultural revolution- improvements in agricultural practices; cultivated crops brought in from the New World, corn and potato Increase in cottage industry , or the “putting-out”/”domestic” system in textile manufacturing Global economy Gold and silver from Spanish America made its way to Britain, France, and the Netherlands for manufactured goods In turn, the profits used to buy tea, spices, silk, and cotton goods from China and India Plantations of the Western Hemisphere- worked by African slaves to produce tobacco, cotton, coffee, and sugar European Society in the Eighteenth Century Society still divided into traditional orders or estates determined by heredity Governments helped maintain the divisions Free peasant and serf 85 percent of Europe’s population Eastern Germany, eastern Europe, and Russia peasants remained tied to the land as serfs Peasants in Britain, northern Italy, the Low Countries, Spain, most of France, and some areas of western Germany were largely free 2-3 percent of European society were nobles Urban population Townspeople were still a minority; London was Europe’s largest city with a million population ©2004 Wadsworth, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc. Thomson Learning™ is a trademark used herein under license. Latin America in the Eighteenth Century Colonial Empires and Revolution in the Western Hemisphere Society in Latin America Multiracial • Mestizos-mix of Native American and European • Mulattoes-mix of African and white The Economic Foundations • Precious metals-gold and silver • Agriculture- more profitable, worked by peons,-native peasants dependent on landowners • Trade-colonies became sources of raw materials for Spain and Portugal Spanish America The State and the Church in Colonial Latin America Brazil had Viceroy- a governor-general who was responsible for governing the districts divided by Portugal Spain established viceroys in its American Empire as well. All governmental positions held by Spaniards Missionaries- Missions were to control the lives of Indians and keep them docile They built hospitals, orphanages, and schools Introduced nunneries for women Sor Juan Inés de la Cruz (1651-1695); wrote poetry and prose to urge the education of women British North America The United Kingdom of Great Britain came into existence in 1707, when England and Scotland were united. Shared political power between monarch and Parliament Parliament gradually gained the upper hand Crown chose ministers responsible to the crown Parliament made laws, levied taxes, passed budgets, and influenced the king’s ministers Growing middle class William Pitt, the Elder, prime minister in 1757 Gained Canada and India in The Seven Year’s War ©2004 Wadsworth, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc. Thomson Learning™ is a trademark used herein under license. North America, 1700-1803 The American Revolution by 1763 Great Britain was the world’s greatest colonial power; had control of Canada and lands east if the Mississippi After Seven Years’ War, Britain needed money to pay for expenses in defending the colonists Attempted to levy Stamp Act of 1765, this led to riots, and the law was repealed Conflict between central rule and local self-government No taxation without representation Second Continental Congress met on July, 4th, 1776 and wrote Declaration of Independence written by Thomas Jefferson The War Foreign support- French officers and soldiers served under George Washington who was commander in chief of Continental Army Yorktown, 1781; British forced to surrender to a American and French army and French fleet Treaty of Paris, 1783, recognized the independence of American colonies Birth of a New Nation/America Articles of Confederation, 1781 was a failure Constitution ratified on 1789, with the promise to add the Ten Amendments/ Bill of Rights Three branches of government established “Checks and balances” major accomplishment of the Constitution ©2004 Wadsworth, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc. Thomson Learning™ is a trademark used herein under license. Expansion of Prussia, 1640-1795 Toward A New Political Order and Political Conflict Enlightenment impacts political development Philosopher’s ideas of natural rights influenced governments as well Enlightened absolutism- using enlightened ideas to rule Prussia: The Army and the Bureaucracy Frederick William II, the Great, of Prussia (1740-1786) • Well educated, and cultured • Believed the king was the “first servant of the state” • Reforms- abolished use of torture, granted limited free speech/press, granted religious freedom The Austrian Empire of the Habsburgs Joseph II of Austria (1780-1790)-true Enlightened Despot • Reforms- abolished serfdom, abrogated death penalty, established principal of all of all before law • Problems-alienated nobility and Church ©2004 Wadsworth, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc. Thomson Learning™ is a trademark used herein under license. From Muscovy to Russia, 15841796 Russia Under Catherine the Great Catherine II, the Great, of Russia (1762-1796) Favored enlightened reforms Charter of the Nobility, 1785; exempted them from taxes Expanded Russia to Poland and southward to the Black Sea Emelyan Pugachev Rebellion, 1773-1774; led a peasant revolt against her, but failed-was captured and executed Joseph II - true radical change Catherine II and Frederick II attempted some reforms Enlightened rulers were limited in what they could do ©2004 Wadsworth, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc. Thomson Learning™ is a trademark used herein under license. The Seven Years’ War Changing Patterns of War: Global Confrontation International rivalry Maria Theresa of Austria (1740-1748); was given the Austrian throne by her father Charles VI Frederick II of Prussia seized Austrian province of Silesia and offered Maria Theresa an alliance She turned it down, and the War of Austrian Succession broke out. Spain, France, and two German states entered the war on Prussia’s side. Maria Theresa asked for peace in 1748, and Prussia got to keep Silesia. France occupied the Austrian Netherlands France took Madras in India from the British Britain took Louisbourg in North America All exhausted by 1748 Seven Years’ War: A Global War, 1756-1763 The Seven Years’ War became a global conflict fought in Europe, India, and North America In Europe, the British and Prussians fought Austrians, Russians, and the French; European conflict ended in 1763, when a stalemate ensued In India, local rulers allied with the British and fought against the French troops; The Treaty of Paris in 1763, ended war-French withdrew In North America the conflict became known as the French and Indian War – The French lost lands and by 1763, Great Britain had become the world’s greatest colonial power. The French Revolution Background to the French Revolution Social Structure of the Old Regime First Estate (Clergy) • 130,000 who own about 10 percent of the land • Exempt from the taille • Were divided from within as well • 350,000 owning about 25 to 30 percent of the land The French Revolution (cont.’d) Second Estate (Nobility) • About 350,000 people • Owned about 25 – 30 percent of the land • Looking to expand their power • Were exempt from the taille Third Estate (Commoners, skilled workers, bourgeoisie) • Peasants were 75 to 80 percent of the population owning 35 to 40 percent of the land • No serfdom but obligations • Skilled craftsmen, shopkeepers, and wage earners • Bourgeoisie (middle class) make up about 8 percent (about 2.3 million) of population who own about 20 to 25 percent of the land Other Problems Facing the French Monarchy Bad harvests in 1787 and 1788 Collapse of government finances Louis XIV (1774-1792) Estates General, last called in 1614 First Estate and Second Estate 300 delegates Third Estates 600 delegates From Estates-General to National Assembly Estates General opens May 5, 1789, at the Palace of Versailles Organization Demands of the Third Estate Third Estate constitutes itself as the National Assembly, June 17, 1789 Bastille, July 14, 1789 The Great Fear, July-August, 1789 Destruction of the Old Regime Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen, August 26, 1789 Olympe de Gouges Parisian women march to Versailles and force Louis XVI and his family to return to Paris Civil Constitution of the Clergy, July 12, 1790 National Assembly creates a constitution, 1791 Declaration of the Rights of Woman and the Female Citizen Set up a limited constitutional monarchy Legislative Assembly to make the laws Uses an indirect voting method to elect representatives Opposition to the new government King attempts to flee France in June 1791 Legislative Assembly declares war on Austria, April 20, 1792 The Radical Revolution National Convention, September 1792 Abolition of the monarchy, September 21, 1792, creation of a republic Execution of Louis XIV, January 21, 1793 Paris Commune Informal European coalition against France -- Austria, Prussia, Spain, Portugal, Britain, the Dutch Republic, and Russia A Nation in Arms Committee of Public Safety, 1793-1794 • Universal mobilization of the nation, August 23, 1793 • Army grew from 650,000 to 1,169,000 in September 1794 Reign of Terror Protect the Republic from internal enemies Executions Lyons De-Christianization New calendar Temple of Reason Reaction and the Directory Robespierre guillotined on July 28, 1794, thus ending the Reign of Terror Directory, August 1795-1799 Stagnation and corruption Coup d’état in 1799 ©2004 Wadsworth, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc. Thomson Learning™ is a trademark used herein under license. The French Republic, Its Satellites, and Hostile States in 1799 The Age of Napoleon Born on the island of Corsica in 1769 Brigadier general, 1794 Disastrous expedition to Egypt, 1797 Consulate created following the coup d’état of 1799 Napoleon the First Consul Consul for life, 1802 Crowned Emperor Napoleon I, 1804 Domestic Policies • Concordat of 1801 with the Catholic Church • Napoleonic Civil Code • Bureaucratic reform • Effects of Napoleon’s domestic policies Napoleon’s Empire and the European Response Peace 1802; war renewed in 1803 Britain, Austria, Russia, Russia, and Prussia in the Third Coalition Victories of 1805 to 1807 The Grand Empire Napoleon master of Europe, 1807-1812 • The French Empire • Dependent states • Allied states Napoleon sought acceptance for revolutionary ideas Napoleon sought to destroy the old order Why does Napoleon fail? ©2004 Wadsworth, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc. Thomson Learning™ is a trademark used herein under license. The Napoleonic Empire, 18101813 Fall of Napoleon Invasion of Russia, 1812 Russia refused to remain in the Continental System Russian tactics Only 40,000 of 600,000 invaders returned to Poland in January, 1813 Defeat , April, 1814 Paris captured in March, 1814 Exile to Elba, 1814 Louis XVIII took the throne Napoleon returns to France Battle of Waterloo, June 18, 1815 Napoleon defeated by the Duke of Wellington Exile to St. Helena, 1815-1821 Discussion Questions How did the Scientific Revolution of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries contribute to the Enlightenment of the eighteenth century? How did changing economic patterns in the eighteenth century affect European social development? Compare and contrast British and Spanish rule in the Americas. What were the most important causes of the French Revolution? Is it accurate to describe Napoleon as an advocate of the ideals of the French Revolution?
