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Chapter 9
Psychological Development
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ISBN: 0-131-73180-7
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Developmental Psychology
Developmental psychology –
The study of how organisms change over
time as the result of biological and
environmental influences
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How Do Psychologists
Explain Development?
Development is a process of
growth and change brought
about by an interaction of
heredity and the
environment
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The Nature-Nurture
Interaction
Nature-nurture issue –
Long-standing discussion over relative
importance of nature (heredity) and
nurture (environment) in their influence
on behavior and mental
processes…people usually ask, is it one
or the other…psychologists are more
interested in how they work together
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The Nature-Nurture
Interaction
Twin studies –
Developmental investigations in which twins,
(especially identical twins raised in different
environments…adoption), are compared in the
search for genetic and environmental effects.
Since twins separated at birth are difficult to
find, identical twins and fraternal twins are
compared (fraternal twins act as the control
group; they are about 50% genetically similar)
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The Nature-Nurture
Interaction
Identical twins–
A pair who started life as a single
fertilized egg which later split into two
distinct individuals (genes are 100% the
same)
Fraternal twins–
A pair who started life as two separate
fertilized eggs that happened to share the
same womb
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The Nature-Nurture
Interaction
Adoption studies –
Studies in which the adopted child’s
characteristics are compared to those of
the biological family and the adoptive
family
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Performance
Gradual versus Abrupt Change
Continuity view
Discontinuity view
Age
Continuity view vs. Discontinuity view
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Gradual versus Abrupt Change
Developmental stages –
Periods of life initiated by significant
transitions or changes in physical or
psychological functioning…people go
through the same stages in the same
order, but not necessarily at the same
rate
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Psychological Traits in Your Genes
While psychological traits are formed by interaction of heredity and
the environment, many traits have a strong genetic influence:
•
General intelligence
•
Sexual orientation
•
Thrill seeking
•
Basic temperament/personality
•
Depression
•
Schizophrenia
•
Fear/anxiety
•
Personality disorders
•
Tourette’s syndrome
•
Alzheimer’s disease
•
Environment=not only learning from experiences, but also
physical factors such as nutrition and stress
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What Capabilities Does the
Child Possess?
Newborns have innate
abilities for finding
nourishment, interacting with
others, and avoiding harmful
situations; the developing
abilities of infants and
children rely on learning
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Prenatal Development
Prenatal period –
The developmental period before birth
• Zygote…fertilized egg/cell divisions/implants
• Embryo…10 days after zygote/differentiation
• Fetus…8 weeks (half a foot long)
Placenta –
An organ that develops
between the embryo/fetus
and the mother…screens some
substances
Teratogens –
Toxic substances that can damage the
developing organism…drugs/viruses
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Neonatal Period
(from birth to one month)
Neonate means newborn…
Sensory abilities—can look for a
source of food automatically, can smile, nearsighted,
but can look at faces, make eye contact
Motor abilities
Postural reflex
Grasping reflex
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Infancy—refers to speech
(from one month to about 18 months)
Babies learn through classical conditioning
Brain shifts attention from new cells to more connections
between neurons…synaptic pruning
Attachment/imprinting in birds…
Humans apparently have an inborn need for attachment
• Secure attachment=feel safe, willing to explore
• Anxious-ambivalent attachment=fear and anger
• Avoidant attachment=unconcerned
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Contact Comfort
Harry and Margaret Harlow theorized that infants
seek more than just food
An experiment was conducted with orphaned
monkeys: two surrogate mothers were
presented…one was just for feeding, the other
with a cloth like fur.
The monkeys preferred the surrogate
with the fur; contact was important!
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Infancy
(from one month to about 18 months)
Maturation –
The unfolding of genetically programmed
processes of growth and development
over time
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Maturation Timetable for Motor Control
Birth
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Maturation Timetable for Motor Control
Birth 1 mo.
Responds to sound
Becomes quiet when picked up
Vocalizes occasionally
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Maturation Timetable for Motor Control
Birth 1 mo. 2 mo.
Smiles socially
Recognizes mother
Rolls from side to back
Lifts head and holds it straight and
steady
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Maturation Timetable for Motor Control
Birth 1 mo. 2 mo. 3 mo.
Vocalizes to the smiles and talk
of an adult
Searches for source of sound
Sits with support, head steady
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Maturation Timetable for Motor Control
Birth 1 mo. 2 mo. 3 mo. 4 mo.
Gaze follows dangling ring, vanishing
spoon, and ball moved across table
Sits with slight support
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Maturation Timetable for Motor Control
Birth 1 mo. 2 mo. 3 mo. 4 mo. 5 mo.
Discriminates strangers from familiar
persons
Turns from back to side
Makes distinctive vocalizations
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Maturation Timetable for Motor Control
Birth 1 mo. 2 mo. 3 mo. 4 mo. 5 mo. 6 mo.
Lifts cup and bangs it
Smiles at mirror image
Reaches for small object
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Maturation Timetable for Motor Control
Birth 1 mo. 2 mo. 3 mo. 4 mo. 5 mo. 6 mo.
7 mo.
Makes playful responses to
mirror
Sits alone steadily
Crawls
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Maturation Timetable for Motor Control
Birth 1 mo. 2 mo. 3 mo. 4 mo. 5 mo. 6 mo.
7 mo. 8 mo.
Vocalizes up to four different
syllables
Listens selectively to familiar
words
Pulls to standing position
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Maturation Timetable for Motor Control
Birth 1 mo. 2 mo. 3 mo. 4 mo. 5 mo. 6 mo.
7 mo. 8 mo. 9 mo.
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Maturation Timetable for Motor Control
Birth 1 mo. 2 mo. 3 mo. 4 mo. 5 mo. 6 mo.
7 mo. 8 mo. 9 mo. 10 mo.
Plays pat-a-cake
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Maturation Timetable for Motor Control
Birth 1 mo. 2 mo. 3 mo. 4 mo. 5 mo. 6 mo.
7 mo. 8 mo. 9 mo. 10 mo. 11 mo.
Stands alone
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Maturation Timetable for Motor Control
Birth 1 mo. 2 mo. 3 mo. 4 mo. 5 mo. 6 mo.
7 mo. 8 mo. 9 mo. 10 mo. 11 mo. 1 year
Walks alone
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What Are the
Developmental Tasks of
Infancy and Childhood?
Infants and children face
especially important
developmental tasks in the
areas of cognition and social
relationships – tasks that lay a
foundation for further growth in
adolescence and adulthood
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Cognitive Development
Cognitive development –
The process by which thinking changes
over time
Schemas –
Mental structures or
programs that guide a
developing child’s thoughts
Assimilation/accomodation…
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Cognitive Development
Assimilation –
Mental process that modifies new
information to fit it into existing
schemes
Accommodation –
Mental process that
restructures existing
schemes so that new
information is better understood
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Jean Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive
Development
Sensorimotor
Preoperational
Concrete
Operational
Formal
Operational
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Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive
Development
Sensorimotor
Preoperational
Concrete
Operational
Formal
Operational
• Birth to about age 2
• Child relies heavily on
innate motor
responses to stimuli
• Sensorimotor
intelligence
• Mental representations
• Object permanence
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Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive
Development
Sensorimotor
Preoperational
Concrete
Operational
Formal
Operational
• About age 2 to age 6
or 7
• Marked by welldeveloped mental
representation and the
use of language
• Egocentrism
• Animistic thinking
• Centration
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Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive
Development
Sensorimotor
Concrete
Operational
• About age 7 to about
age 11
• Child understands
conservation but is
incapable of abstract
thought
Formal
Operational
• Conservation
• Mental operations
Preoperational
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Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive
Development
Sensorimotor
Preoperational
Concrete
Operational
Formal
Operational
• From about age 12 on
• Abstract thought
appears
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Social and Emotional Development
Theory of Mind –
An awareness that other people’s
behavior may be influenced by beliefs,
desires, and emotions that differ from
one’s own
Temperament –
An individual’s characteristic manner of
behavior or reaction…strong genetic
influence (Jerome Kagan believes some
are “born bold” or “born shy”)
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Social and Emotional Development
Zone of proximal development –
The difference between what a child can
do with help and what the child can do
without any help or guidance
Socialization –
The lifelong process of shaping an
individual’s behavior patterns, values,
standards, skills, attitudes and motives to
conform to those regarded as desirable
in a particular society
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Social and Emotional Development
Parenting Styles…
1. Authoritarian parents—cold and rigid,
demanding and punishing, make most
decisions
2. Authoritative parents—warm and
attentive, reasonable with
explanations, listens to child’s
viewpoint
3. Permissive parents—warm but spoils,
little demands, allows decisions
4. Uninvolved parents—detached, little
demands or interest, indifferent
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Social and Emotional Development
Other factors influencing a child’s
development may include:
•
•
•
•
Effects of day care
School influences
Leisure influences
Gender differences in socialization
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Erik Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages
Age
Principal Challenge
0 to 1 1/2 years
Trust vs. mistrust
1 1/2 to 3 years
Autonomy vs. self doubt
3 to 6 years
Initiative vs. guilt
6 years to puberty
Competence vs. inferiority
Adolescence
Identity vs. role confusion
Early adulthood
Intimacy vs. isolation
Middle adulthood
Generativity vs. stagnation
Late adulthood
Ego-integrity vs. despair
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What Changes Mark the
Transition of Adolescence?
Adolescence offers new
developmental challenges
growing out of physical
changes, cognitive changes,
and socioemotional changes
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The Transitions of Adolescence
Adolescence –
Developmental period beginning at
puberty and ending at adulthood
Rites of passage –
Social rituals that mark the transition
between developmental stages,
especially between childhood and
adulthood
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Physical Maturation in Adolescence
Puberty –
Onset of sexual maturity
Around puberty, boys and girls become
more aware of their physical
attractiveness and others’ attractiveness
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Cognitive Development in
Adolescence
Formal operational stage –
Piaget’s final stage of cognitive growth
(abstract and complex thought)
Hormones rise to high levels
The frontal lobes undergo a “remodel”
This leads to sensation seeking and risk
taking, and preoccupation with body
image and sex
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Social Identity in Adolescence
Identity crisis
The increasing influence of peers
Delinquency…although there are no
experiments that are done regarding this
topic, correlational studies suggest there
is a link between a family being
fatherless and serious issues developing
in a small number of teenagers during
this stage in life
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Moral Dilemma Example
In Europe a woman was near death from a very special kind of
cancer. There was one drug that the doctors thought might
save her. It was a form of radium that a druggist in the same
town had recently discovered. The drug was expensive to
make, but the druggist was charging ten times what the drug
cost to make. He paid $200 for the radium and charged ten
times that much for a small dose. The sick woman’s husband
went to everyone he knew to borrow the money, but he could
only get together $1000, which is half of what it cost. He told
the druggist his wife was dying, and asked to pay what he
could and the rest later. The druggist said that he discovered
it and was going to make money from it. So the man got
desperate and broke into the store to steal the drug for his
wife. Should he have done this?
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Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral
Reasoning
I. Preconventional morality
Stage 1: Pleasure/pain orientation…there is
thinking only regarding consequences
Stage 2: Cost/benefit orientation;
reciprocity…you scratch my back, I scratch
yours
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Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral
Reasoning
II. Conventional morality
• Stage 3: “Good child” orientation…how
would everyone view the person?
• Stage 4: Law-and-order
orientation…following rules and
procedures because they maintain
social order
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Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral
Reasoning
III. Postconventional (principled) morality
• Stage 5: Social contract
orientation…laws can be edited by a
group of individuals, fairness should be
emphasized
• Stage 6: Ethical principle
orientation…broad thinking that touches
on human conscience protecting worth
and dignity
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What Developmental
Challenges Do Adults Face?
Nature and nurture continue
to produce changes
throughout life, but in
adulthood these changes
include both growth and
decline
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The Developmental Challenges of
Adulthood
Love and work
Intimacy versus isolation
Generativity versus stagnation
Generativity –
A process of making a commitment beyond
oneself to family, work, society, or future
generations
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The Last Developmental Problems
You Will Face
Ego-identity –
The ability to look back on life without
regrets and to enjoy a sense of
wholeness
According to Erikson, the final crisis
involves ego-identity vs. despair
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The Last Developmental Problems
You Will Face
Some of the most obvious changes that
occur with age affect physical abilities
such as
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Vision
Hearing
Thinking, learning, and problem solving
Memory
Sexual functioning
Social interaction
Emotions
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End of Chapter 9
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