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CHAPTER 10
Intelligence
DEFINING INTELLIGENCE
Exactly
what makes up
intelligence is a matter of debate
David Wechsler’s Definition
Act purposefully
 Think rationally
 Deal effectively with the environment

EARLY THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE
Ain’t
nuthin
but a G
thang.
Dude.
holy
ears!

Charles Spearman
Believed intelligence is general – “GFactor”
 People who are bright in one area are
usually bright in other areas as well


L. L. Thurstone
Believed that intelligence is made up
of seven distinct, independent
abilities: Spatial ability, perceptual
speed, numerical ability, verbal
meaning, memory, word fluency,
reasoning
 Thurstone did not believe in a GFactor, but researchers who scored
well in one of the seven areas tended
to score well on others.

7
Different
abilities!
EARLY THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE:
R. B. CATTELL

Identified two clusters of
mental abilities
Crystallized intelligence
includes abilities such as
reasoning and verbal skills
 Fluid intelligence includes
skills such as spatial and
visual imagery, rote memory,
and the ability to notice
visual details


While education can
increase crystallized
intelligence, it was not
thought to have any effect
on fluid intelligence
CONTEMPORARY THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE:
HOWARD GARDNER


Howard Gardner’s theory of
multiple intelligences
Example of savant syndrome
Logicalmathematical
 Linguistic
 Spatial
 Musical

Bodilykinesthetic
 Interpersonal
 Intrapersonal
 Naturalistic

CONTEMPORARY THEORIES OFINTELLIGENCE:
HOWARD GARDNER
CONTEMPORARY THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE:
ROBERT STERNBERG
 Triarchic
theory of intelligence
posits three types of
intelligence (prototype of 3
grad school applicants)
Analytical intelligence includes the
ability to learn how to do things,
solve problems, and acquire new
knowledge (Alice)
 Creative intelligence includes the
ability adjust to new tasks, generate
novel ideas, use new concepts, and
respond well in new situations
(Barbara)
 Practical intelligence includes the
ability to select contexts in which you
can excel and solve practical
problems (Celia)

CREATIVITY
 Defined
Convicted murderer Phil
Spector was seen as a
creative genius in his
heyday. Creativity and
evil, however, can go
hand in hand (as does
large hair).
as the ability to produce
novel and socially valued ideas or
objects
 Creativity and Intelligence – Early
studies suggested that there was
little relationship between the two,
however, later research indicates
otherwise: creative individuals tend
to have higher IQs AND creative
individuals are perceived as being
more intelligent as well.
 IQ of at least 120 required to be
creative, but it doesn’t mean you
will be!
CREATIVITY
 Creativity

Tests –
Open-ended questions; scoring is based upon the number
and originality of a person’s answers
Torrance Test – Individuals explain a picture, its origins, and
consequences
 Mednick’s Remote Association Test (RAT) – given three words – you
come up with a fourth word that the other three can be combined with
e.g. hand, lone, win (answer = some)

 Sternberg’s





Components of creativity
Expertise
Imaginative thinking skills
A venturesome personality
Intrinsic motivation
A creative environment
CONTEMPORARY THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE

Daniel Goleman


Proposed theory of emotional
Intelligence
Emotional intelligence has five
components
Knowing one’s own emotions
 Managing one’s own emotions
 Using emotions to motivate
oneself
 Recognizing the emotions of other
people
 Managing relationships


Does emotional intelligence
go too far?
COMPARING CONTEMPORARY THEORIES
Gardner’s Multiple
Intelligences
Sternberg’s Triarchic
Intelligences
Logical-Mathematical
Linguistic
Analytical
Spatial
Musical
Body-Kinesthetic
Creative
Interpersonal
Practical
Intrapersonal
Goleman’s Emotional
Intelligence
Recognizing emotions in
others and managing
relationships
Knowing, managing, and
motivating yourself with
emotions
CAN INTELLIGENCE BE
NEUROLOGICALLY MEASURED?
Brain size seems to be
modestly correlated with
intelligence, but this is not
always the case
 Specific brain areas such as
frontal and parietal lobes
seem to be important regions
 The varying sizes of brain
structure could result from
nature and/or nurture
 Perceptual speed tends to
indicate intelligence
 Neurological speed also tends
to indicate intelligence

Ubersexy Lord Byron was
not only emo, beautiful
and brilliant, but his brain
was massive to boot!
INTELLIGENCE TESTS:
BINET AND SIMON




First test of intelligence,
developed to identify children
who might have difficulty in
school
Binet developed the concept of
mental age in children
Mental Age = age at which you
perform intellectually - may or
may not correspond with
chronological age
Goal was to use intelligence tests
to improve children’s educational
experience – not limit their
opportunities with harmful labels
INTELLIGENCE TESTS:
STANFORD-BINET INTELLIGENCE SCALE



Lewis M. Terman’s adaptation of the BinetSimon scale
Terman’s goal was to measure “inherited
intelligence” for purpose of eugenics
The test was used on immigrants and army
recruits



Results interpreted as justifying superiority of AngloSaxon people
Used to justify limits set on immigrants from southern
and eastern Europe
Stanford-Binet measures four kinds of mental
abilities
Verbal reasoning
 Abstract/visual reasoning
 Quantitative reasoning
 Short-term memory

INTELLIGENCE TESTS:
STANFORD-BINET INTELLIGENCE SCALE
Terman’s work served as the basis for
William Stern of Germany to develop the
concept of IQ, or Intelligence Quotient
 IQ = Mental Age/Chronological Age x
100

Most common IQ score?
 Problem of IQ calculation beyond
adulthood solved through comparison with
norms for every age group
 Sample Problems:
 Mental Age = 8, Chronological age = 6,
IQ = ?
 IQ = 150, Chronological age = 4. Mental
age = ?

EUGENICS MOVEMENT:
POLITICIZED “SCIENCE”
INTELLIGENCE TESTS:
WESCHLER SCALES
The Wechsler Adult Intelligence
Scale (WAIS) is the most
commonly used test of intelligence
for adults
 WAIS is divided into to 11 parts
that focus on verbal abilities and
on performance skills
 Also a version for children,
Wechsler Intelligence Scale for
Children (WISC)

INTELLIGENCE TESTS: The Wechsler Test
WESCHLER SCALES
WOODCOCK-JOHNSON TEST OF COGNITIVE ABILITIES
Developed in 1977 by
Richard Woodcock and
Mary E. Bonner Johnson
 Several revisions – most
recent in 2014 (WJ-IV)
 Appropriate for people age
2-90
 Assesses several
cognitive abilities based on
20 different subtests

Yields a measure of general
intellectual ability (GIA)
 Areas of assessment:










Comprehension-Knowledge
Long-Term Retrieval
Visual-Spatial Thinking
Auditory Processing
Fluid Reasoning
Processing Speed
Short-Term Memory
Quantitative Knowledge
Reading-Writing
APTITUDE VS. ACHIEVEMENT?
Achievement tests measure what you have already
learned
 Aptitude tests measure your potential to learn.

There is a positive correlation between aptitude tests results
and intelligence tests.
 e.g. correlation between SAT and IQ?

PRINCIPLES OF TEST CONSTRUCTION

All good intelligence must be all three of the following:
Standardized
 Reliable
 Valid


Standardization - uniform rules for administering,
taking and scoring the test based on comparing
performance to that of a pretested group.
Norms – performance benchmarks established during test
development used to establish “average” performance.
 Representative Sample – group used to establish norms
that adequately reflects the demographics of those who will
be taking the test.
 Standardization Sample – the group that determined the
norms

PRINCIPLES OF TEST CONSTRUCTION



In a standardized intelligence test, scores should be distributed in a
bell-shaped curve, or normal curve.
Most individuals taking intelligence tests should score a 100, with the
majority falling between 85-115.
Due to the Flynn Effect, intelligence tests must be periodically
restandardized to keep norms valid.
PRINCIPLES OF TEST CONSTRUCTION

Reliability - Ability of a test to provide consistent
and stable scores
Test-retest reliability – a method of measuring
reliability where the same individual is given the test on
two different occasions and scores are compared.
Similarity in scores indicates good test-retest reliability
 Split-half reliability – method of measuring reliability
where the individual takes one test that is divided in
half. Performance on each half is compared for
similarity.
 Alternate-form reliability – two different but similar
forms of the test are given on separate occasions and
scores are compared for similarity.

PRINCIPLES OF TEST CONSTRUCTION
 Validity
- Ability of a test to measure what it
purports to measure


Content validity – tests ability to cover the
complete range of material (content) it is supposed
to measure
Predictive validity – how well a test score predicts
an individual’s performance in the future
Correlation between SAT scores and first-year grades
in college? +.5 – not great!
 Correlation between GRE and grad school grades?
+.4 – even worse!

SCORING THE IQ TEST
 Raw
Score - number of questions answered
correctly; doesn’t tell much about performance
 Standard Score - score that tells you how
you did compared to other test takers – a
much better read of performance
Percentile Score - what percentage of test
takers you scored better than
 What does it mean to score in the 85th
percentile?

INTELLIGENCE:
STABILITY OR CHANGE?
 Intellectual
ability does not seem to stabilize
until age 7, but by age 4 performance on
intelligence tests seems to predict future
performance
 Ian Deary study seems to establish that
intelligence does remain relatively stable
over time.
All 10.5-11.5 year-olds in Scotland tested in 1932
 Follow up on the survivors done as recently as 2004
indicates intelligence tests remained consistent

EXTREMES OF INTELLIGENCE:
GIFTEDNESS
 Definition





top 3% of IQ scores, typically over 132,
Superior IQ combined with ability in academics,
creativity, and leadership
Giftedness is often in specific areas
“Globally” gifted people are rare
Some gifted children feel isolated and lonely, but most
are well adjusted
 Specialized
Programs of Study?
EXTREMES OF INTELLIGENCE: MENTAL
RETARDATION (INTELLECTUAL DISABILITY)

Definition
IQ < 70; lowest 3% of IQ scores
 not a result of accident
 onset before age 18
 substantial limitations in functioning

Causes – drug abuse during pregnancy, genetic disorders such
as Down Syndrome, lack of fetal nutrition
 Levels

Mild - 90% of cases
 Moderate - 6% of cases
 Severe - 3% of cases
 Profound - 1% of cases


Some people with retardation show savant performance on
particular skills
EXTREMES OF INTELLIGENCE: MENTAL
RETARDATION (INTELLECTUAL DISBAILITY)
EDUCATION AND THE LAW
 All



children are entitled to an education that is…
FREE
PUBLIC
APPROPRIATE
 Mainstreaming

keeping special needs kids in regular ed classes for
whatever subject areas/activities they can handle
 Inclusion

rather than taking special needs kids out of regular ed
classes for support, bring support personnel into regular
ed classes so kids can stay with their peers.
 Leveling

separating children by ability into different classes
CRITICISMS OF IQ TESTS
 Halo
Effect
 Test content and scores
Critics argue that IQ test measure a narrow set of skills
 Some feel that the tests merely measure test taking
ability
 Tests may discriminate against minorities

 Use

Could result in permanent labeling
 IQ

of intelligence tests
and success
Relationship does exist, but may be the result of a
self-fulfilling prophecy
 Bias
and the cases of Alicia P. and Gladys Burr?
DETERMINANTS OF INTELLIGENCE:
NATURE
 Biological similarities in Adoption Studies

IQ scores of child more closely correlated with
biological mother than adoptive mother.
 Identical

Twins reared apart
after identical twins reared together, identical
twins reared apart have the highest correlation of
IQ scores.
 Tryon’s
Rats nature…AND NURTURE…
CORRELATION OF IQ SCORES OF
FAMILY MEMBERS
DETERMINANTS OF INTELLIGENCE:
NURTURE
 Isolated
or Deprived
Environments

individuals living in culturally or
physically impoverished environments
have lower IQ scores
 Adoption
Studies and Improved
Environment
children demonstrated elevated IQ
scores after being moved from crowded
orphanage to distributing them into less
crowded adult wards
 H.M. Skeels orphanange study
 Capron and Duyme’s adoption study
high vs. low SES

DETERMINANTS OF INTELLIGENCE:
FAMILY SIZE AND STRUCTURE

Belmont and Marolla (1973)



Family size and IQ scores?
The more the merrier? Perhaps…but not necessarily
smarter!
Zajonc and Markus (1975)

Intellectual Climate – numerical calculation of the level of
intellect in a household, based on the number of family
members and their ages. Example Calculation – adults =
30, teens = 15, children = 5, and newborns = 0:

2 adults:


30+30=60/2=intellectual climate of 30
2 adults and a newborn:
30+30+0=60/3=intellectual climate of 20
 Intellectual climate goes down most when there are many
children born in rapid succession.

HEREDITY VS. ENVIRONMENT:
WHICH IS MORE IMPORTANT?
There is general agreement that both heredity and
environment affect IQ scores
 Debate centers around the relative contribution of
nature (heredity) and nurture (environment) to the
development of intelligence

DETERMINANTS OF INTELLIGENCE: SEX
 Early

males excel at math/spatial skill while females excel at verbal
 Hyde

Research (1970s)
and Linn’s Meta-analysis (1988)
intellectual differences between males and females are so
small that they are not statistically significant.
 Today’s
Conclusions
Overall, men and women do not differ significantly in general
intelligence
 Women show slight advantage in verbal and mathematical
computation skills while men show an advantage in spatial
ability
 Men are more likely to fall in the extremes of intelligence
range
 There is no explanation for why these minimal differences
exist – are they cultural or inborn?

DETERMINANTS OF INTELLIGENCE:
CULTURE

Culture
Difference in academic
performance between American
and Asian students are found
from first grade through high
school in mathematics and
reading
 May be related to a difference in
cultural attitudes toward ability
and effort


Stability of Intelligence

IQ stays relatively steady over
course of life